Variation and Natural

Selection
Evolution Basics
• Changes that occur in living organisms over many
generations (time).
• Evolution only happens to populations of living
organisms.
• It can only happen with characteristics that are inherited
(genes, DNA)
Variation
• When organisms reproduce, their offspring are of
the same species and they are all similar to one
another and their parents.
 Sources of variation
• Mutation – the original source of variation. New alleles are
produced by gene mutation, which enlarges the gene pool of a
population.
• The gene pool is the sum total of all the genes and combinations
of genes that occur in a population
• Meiosis – produces new and different combinations of alleles
• Sexual reproduction – involves the fusion of male and female
gametes. The gametes come from different parents, so the
offspring has a combination of alleles from two individuals.

• In species that do not carry out sexual production, the only

source of variation is mutation and will not evolve quickly.
Variation is the differences between individuals of the same species.
- refers to observable differences within a species.
- Variation is beneficial to a species as it allows natural selection to occur and
reduces the risk of extinction from disease. There are two types of variation:
genetic variation and phenotypic variation.

1. Genetic variation - each organism in a species has a different set of DNA, which
is due to genetic variation. Genetic variation is increased during meiosis, which
produces gametes. Each gamete has a different set of alleles, which means that
when the two gametes fuse an entirely new set of genes are produced.

Example: Domestic dogs, for example, can interbreed.

- There are many variations of size, coat color, eye color, fur length, etc. Those
variations that can be inherited are determined by genes.

2. Phenotypic variation - The phenotype of an organism refers to its observable

characteristics, such as height or hair color. Phenotypical variation can be caused
by both genetic and environmental factors.
- may be brought about by genes, but can also be caused by the
environment, or a combination of both genes and the environment.
 INHERITED / HEREDITARY CHARACTERISTICS and
ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS

Inherited / hereditary characteristics are characteristics that are passed

from one generation to another.

Acquired characteristics are characteristics that are temporary and

cannot be inherited.
- there are variations that are not heritable, but determined by factors in the
environment.
Example: A kitten that gets insufficient food will not grow to the same size as its
litter mates. A cat with a skin disease may have bald patches in its coat. These
conditions are not heritable.
They are caused by environmental effects. Similarly, a fair-skinned person may
be able to change the color of his or her skin by exposing it to the Sun, so getting a
tan. The tan is an acquired characteristic.
Many features in plants and animals are a mixture of acquired and inherited
characteristics
Acquired characteristics. These apples have all been picked from different parts
of the same tree. All the apples have similar genotypes, so the differences in size
must have been caused by environmental effects.
Variation can be continuous and discontinuous.

Continuous variation results in a range of phenotypes between two extremes,

for example height or weight (with intermediates).
- continuous variation is where the different types of variations are
distributed on a continuum (continuing, sequence)
Discontinuous variation, however, is limited to a discrete number of categories,
such as blood group, which is limited to A, B, AB, or O in humans. Discontinuous
variation is mainly caused by genes alone.
- In discontinuous variation, the variations take the form of distinct,
alternative phenotypes with no intermediates.

Discontinuous variation cannot

usually be altered by the
environment.
• You cannot change your eye color
by altering your diet.
• A genetic dwarf cannot grow
taller by eating more food.
• You cannot learn how to roll your
tongue.
Discontinuous Variation
Sometimes the characteristic has just a few discrete
categories (like blood group). The frequency histogram has
separate bars (or sometimes peaks).

.
DISCONTINUOUS VARIATION
The characteristics:
❑ have distinct categories into which individuals can be placed
❑ tend to be qualitative, with no overlap between categories
❑ are controlled by one gene, or a small number of genes
❑ are largely unaffected by the environment

Discontinuous characteristics are rare in humans and other

animals, but are more common in plants.
Discontinuous variation is caused
by genes alone and results in a
limited number of distinct
phenotypes with no intermediates.
Tongue
rolling
Hitchhiker’s
thumb
Attached or
unattached earlobes
 Continuous variation is influenced
by genes and environment, resulting
in a range of phenotypes between two
extremes.
❑This variation is usually controlled by several genes,
each if which has an effect.

❑It is difficult to measure the individual contribution of

each gene, especially as the environment has an
influence on this type of variation.

❑There are no separate values but a continuous

distribution of values.

❑Characteristics are usually quantitative, they can be

measured.
 Inheritance and environment
10

7
Discontinuous variation shows that:
6

• a single gene gives the characteristic

5

• and the gene is operating with no

1

1 2

environmental effects.
discontinuous
variation
6

5.5

4.5
Continuous variation shows that:
4

3.5

3
• either many genes give the characteristic
2.5

1.5
5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9
• or the gene or genes are operating with
environmental effects.
continuous
variation
 Characteristics can be both
discontinuous and continuous
• Hair color: range of black to brown (continuous)
• Red hair color (discontinuous)
• Eye color: brown or not brown (discontinuous)
Mutations
• Mutations are genetic changes which result in a change in the sequence of DNA
bases. These changes can occur due to a variety of factors, including exposure to
some chemicals and ionizing radiation (radiation from X-rays and gamma ray
exposure).
• If the mutation occurs at a particular allele, this allele may be altered,
changing how it functions. This is how new alleles are formed.
• A mutation is a spontaneous (natural) genetic change. Mutation is the way new
alleles are formed.
• A mutation is any change in a sequence of DNA. Mutations occur because of
mistakes in DNA replication or as a result of radiation or chemicals in the
environment.

• Mutagens - an agent, such as radiation or a chemical substance, which causes

genetic mutation.
• Exposure to mutagens, namely certain chemicals and radiation, is known to
increase the rate of mutation. Some of the substances in tobacco smoke, such
as tar, are mutagens, which can cause cancer.
• Ionizing radiation from X-rays and radioactive compounds, and ultraviolet
radiation from sunlight, can both increase the mutation rate.
Mutations in bacteria

Mutations in bacteria often produce resistance to drugs.

• Bacterial cells reproduce very rapidly, perhaps as often as once

every 20 minutes.
• Thus, a mutation, even if it occurs only rarely, is likely to appear in
a large population of bacteria.
• If a population of bacteria containing one or two drug-resistant
mutants is subjected to that particular drug, the non-resistant
bacteria will be killed but the drug resistant mutants survive.
• Mutant genes are inherited in the same way as normal genes, so
when the surviving mutant bacteria reproduce, all their offspring
will be resistant to the drug.
Antibiotic resistance in bacteria
 This does, in fact, happen quite frequently. This is one reason why there are so
many different antibiotics available - if some bacteria become resistant to one,
they may be treated with another.
 The more we use an antibiotic, the more we are exerting a selection pressure
which favours the resistant forms. If antibiotics are used too often, we may end
up with resistant strains of bacteria that are very difficult to control. A form of
the bacterium Staphyloccus aureus has become resistant to several different
antibiotics, and is known as MRSA. This can cause infections that are very
difficult to treat.

Bacterium
Bacterium resistant to Bacterium resistant to resistant to
antibiotic antibiotic antibiotic

Bacterium not
resistant to antibiotic

In a population of bacteria, not every one Antibiotic is added, which kills The resistant one multiplies and
is alike. By chance, one may have a gene the bacteria that are not forms a population of resistant
that makes it antibiotic resistant. resistant bacteria just like itself.
▲ How resistance to antibiotics increases in a Superbug Resistance

population of bacteria. Superbug Resistance

Evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria
Evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria
Evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacteria
Development of Antibiotic Resistance
Mutations in bacteria
Adaptation:
- is the process, resulting from natural selection, by which
populations become more suited to their environment over
many generations.

- a change or the process of change by which an organism or

species becomes better suited to its environment.

- any alteration (change) in the structure or function of an

organism or any of its parts that results from natural
selection and by which the organism becomes better fitted
to survive and multiply in its environment. a form or
structure modified to fit a changed environment.
Adaptation
• All living are adapted to their habitat
•Adaptations – are characteristics plants and
animal have to help them be suited to their
environment
Adaptation
•Adaptations are the characteristics/ features that helps a
plant and animals do the following:
• Obtain food
• Avoid being eaten
• Reproduction
• conserve water
• Survive
• Animals and Plants are
fit into their habitat
through their
adaptations, just like a
puzzle piece fits into a
puzzle through its
shape
An adaptive feature is an inherited functional feature (or
characteristics) that helps an organism increasing its fitness, to
survive and reproduce in its environment.

Fitness - the probability of an organism surviving and reproducing

in the environment in which it is found
Adaptive features of organisms
1. The camel
• Camels are adapted to survive in a hot, dry and
sandy environment. Adaptive physical features
are closable nostrils and long eyelashes, which
help keep out wind-blown sand. Their feet are
broad and splay out under pressure, so reducing
the tendency to sink into the sand. Thick fur
insulates the body against heat gain in the
intense sunlight.
• Physiologically, a camel is able to survive
without water for 6–8 days. Its stomach has a
large water-holding capacity, though it drinks to
replace water lost by evaporation rather than in
anticipation of water deprivation.
• The nasal passages are lined with mucus. During
exhalation, the dry mucus absorbs water vapor.
During inhalation the now moist mucus adds
water vapor to the inhaled air. In this way, water
is conserved.
• The humps contain fat and are therefore an
important reserve of energy giving food.
Adaptive features of organisms
2. The polar bear
• Polar bears live in the Arctic, spending much of their time on snow and ice. Several
physical features contribute to their adaptation to this cold environment.
• It has a thick coat with long, loosely packed coarse hairs (guard hairs) and a denser
layer of shorter woolly hairs forming an insulating layer. The long hairs are oily and
water-repellent and enable the bear to shake off water when it emerges from a spell
of swimming.
• The principal thermal insulation comes from a 10 cm layer of fat (blubber) beneath
the skin. The thermal conductivity of fat is little different from any other tissue but it
has a limited blood supply. This means that very little warm blood circulates close to
the skin surface.
• The hollow hairs of the white fur are thought to transmit the Sun’s heat to the black
skin below. Black is an efficient color for absorbing heat. The white color is also
probably an effective camouflage when hunting its prey, mainly seals.
• Polar bears breed in winter when temperatures fall well below zero. However, the
pregnant female excavates a den in the snow in which to give birth and rear her two
cubs. In this way the cubs are protected from the extreme cold.
• The female remains in the den for about 140 days, suckling her young on the rich milk,
which is formed from her fat reserves.
Adaptive features of organisms
3. Venus flytrap
• Insectivorous plants such as the Venus
flytrap live in habitats where there is
often a shortage of nitrates for growth.
• They have developed pairs of leaves
with tooth-like edges. The leaves have
sensitive hairs on their surface. When an
insect walks inside the leaves, the hairs
are triggered, causing the leaves to close
very rapidly – trapping the animal.
• The leaves then secrete protease
enzymes, which digest the insect’s
protein and produce soluble amino
acids.
• These are absorbed by the leaf and used
to build new proteins. It is unusual for a
photosynthetic plant to show such rapid
movement or to gain nourishment other
than by photosynthesis.
Adaptive features of organisms
Adaptations to arid conditions (dry, little or no rain)

In both hot and cold climates, plants may suffer from water shortage.
High temperatures accelerate evaporation from leaves. At very low
temperatures the soil water becomes frozen and therefore unavailable
to the roots of plants. Plants modified to cope with lack of water are
called xerophytes.

Plants that are adapted to live in places where water

is in short supply are called xerophytes.

Examples are the cactus and pine trees. They have a number
of adaptive features that help to increase survival by
reducing water loss
Adaptive features of xerophytes that help to increase
survival by reducing water loss:
• Fewer stomata - water vapor diffuses out of the plant via the stomata, thus less
water is lost if there are fewer stomata. Stomata are also sunken in pits in the leaf,
which allows bubbles of moist air to be trapped around them. This lowers the
water potential gradient, so less water is lost from the leaf.
• Small, rolled leaves or spines - this reduces the surface area of the leaf and traps
moisture to lower the water potential gradient, reducing water loss.
• Hairy leaves - some plants have hairs on their leaves. These hairs trap the layer of
moist air next to the leaf.
• Stomata on underside of leaves - in most leaves, there are more stomata on the
lower surface than on the upper surface. The lower surface is usually cooler than
the upper one, so less water will evaporate. In desert plants, there may be fewer
stomata than usual, and they may be sunk into deep pits in the leaf.
• Deep roots - this allows plants to absorb water from the soil. Roots are also
adapted to absorb lots of water when it rains for storage, e.g. in monsoon
seasons.
• Thick waxy cuticle - this provides a waterproof barrier around the leaf to prevent
water loss.
Pine tree
• The pine tree (Pinus) is an evergreen tree that survives in cold climates.
• It has small, compact, needle-like leaves. The small surface area of such leaves offers little
resistance to high winds. This helps to resist wind damage and can reduce the amount of
water lost in transpiration.
• However, photosynthesis can continue whenever water is available. Sunken stomata create
high humidity and reduce transpiration.
• Sunken stomata – are found in plants below the surface of the leaves or epidermis
• A thick waxy cuticle is present on the epidermis to prevent evaporation from the surface of
the leaf.
Cacti
• Cacti are adapted to hot, dry conditions in several ways.
• Often they have no leaves, or the leaves are reduced to spines.
• This reduces the surface area for transpiration and also acts as a defense
against herbivores.
• Photosynthesis is carried out by a thick green stem, which offers only a small
surface area for evaporation.
• Cacti are succulent, i.e. they store water in their fleshy tissues and draw on this
store for photosynthesis.
• The stomata of many cacti are closed during the day when temperatures are high,
and open at night when evaporation is at a minimum.
• This strategy requires a slightly different form of photosynthesis.
• At night, carbon dioxide diffuses in through the open stomata and is ‘fixed’
(i.e. incorporated) into an organic acid.
• Little water vapour is lost at night.
• In the daytime the stomata are closed but the organic acid breaks down to
yield carbon dioxide, which is then built into sugars by photosynthesis.
• Closure of the stomata in the daytime greatly reduces water loss.
Adaptations to living in water

Plants adapted to living in water are called hydrophytes.

Hydrophytes are plants which are adapted to live in very wet conditions and
includes species such as the water lily and the lotus.

These plants are adapted differently to xerophytes as they do not need to minimize
water loss :
• Leaf shape - leaves are usually large and flat to have a large surface area which
promotes water loss.
• Stomata - positioned on the top of the leaf where the sun hits. There is also a
large number of stomata, which are usually open to allow water vapour to diffuse
out of the leaf.
• Thin/no waxy cuticle - water loss does not need to be restricted by this layer in
hydrophytes.
• Small root system - as there is a large amount of water reliably available, root
systems can be shallow, and water can diffuse directly into the stem.
Water lily (Nymphaea)

• The leaves contain large air spaces to make them buoyant, so they float on or near the
surface.
• This enables them to gain light for photosynthesis.
• The lower epidermis lacks stomata to prevent water entering the air spaces, while stomata
are present on the upper epidermis for gas exchange.
• With land plants, most stomata are usually on the lower epidermis.
Natural Selection
Natural selection is where organisms with favorable alleles and
advantageous characteristics have a higher probability of surviving and
reproducing. This is due to competition within a population for resources
and mates.

Natural selection is the process where organisms with favorable traits are
more likely to reproduce. In doing so, they pass on these traits to the next
generation. Over time this process allows organisms to adapt to their
environment.

Natural selection is defined as the greater chance of passing on genes by

best-adapted organisms.

Process of Adaptation - the process resulting from natural selection, by

which populations become more suited to their environment over many
generations
In groups, research and report about
5 different organisms and their
adaptive features that allow them to
survive in certain environments
Natural Selection
• As there is variation in the alleles of each species, each organism
within a species has different traits, some positive and some
negative.
• Those with more positive traits can adapt to the environment more
effectively and are thus is more likely to survive and produce many
offspring, which inherit these alleles.
• Over time, negative characteristics are lost from the species as
organisms with those characteristics are not able reproduce to pass
on their alleles. This is known as evolution.
• Evolution allows a population to become more adapted to its
environment over time, as a result of natural selection.
Natural Selection
Theories of evolution have been put forward in various forms for hundreds of years. In 1858,
Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace published a theory of evolution by natural
selection, which is still an acceptable theory today.
The theory of evolution by natural selection is as follows:
• Individuals within a species are all slightly different from each other. These differences
are called variations.
• If the climate or food supply changes, individuals possessing some of these variations
may be better able to survive than others.
• For example, a variety of animal that could eat the leaves of shrubs as well as
grass would be more likely to survive a drought than one that fed only on grass.
• If one variety lives longer than others, it is also likely to leave behind more offspring.
• A mouse that lives for 12 months may have ten litters of five babies (50 in all). A
mouse that lives for 6 months may have only five litters of five babies (25 in all).
• If some of the offspring inherit alleles responsible for the variation that helped the
parent survive better, they too will live longer and have more offspring.
• In time, this particular variety will outnumber and finally replace the original variety.
Competition and Selection
Example situation:
• There will be competition between members of the rabbit population for food, burrows
and mates. If food is scarce, space is short and the number of potential mates limited, then
only the healthiest, most vigorous, most fertile and otherwise well-adapted rabbits will
survive and breed.
• The competition does not necessarily involve direct conflict. The best adapted rabbits may
be able to run faster from predators, digest their food more efficiently, have larger litters
or grow coats that camouflage them better or more effectively reduce heat losses.
• These rabbits will survive longer and leave more offspring. If the offspring inherit the
advantageous characteristics of their parents, they may give rise to a new race of
faster, different colored, thicker furred and more fertile rabbits, which gradually
replace the original, less well-adapted varieties. The new variations are said to have
survival value.
• This is natural selection; the better adapted varieties are ‘selected’ by the pressures of the
environment (selection pressures).

Selection pressures - any phenomena which alters the behavior and fitness of living
organisms within a given environment. It is the driving force of evolution and
natural selection, and it can be divided into two types of pressure: biotic or abiotic
Formula for Natural Selection
Differences in
Variation + Reproductive + Heredity
Success
Real Life Example of Natural Selection
In England the pepper moth is both white and black
moth.
• Before the industrial revolution there were more white
moths than black moths.
• Then after the industrial revolution the black allele
frequency was higher
 The Case of the Peppered Moth (Biston
betularia)
Before 1848:
• Trees where they rested were
covered with off-white lichen.
• Moths were white, therefore
camouflaged from the predation of
birds-best adapted
• Occasionally a black moth would
appear and thus would have a very
high chance of being eaten by a bird
before reproducing.
 The Case of the Peppered Moth (Biston
betularia)
After 1848:
• Coal-based industry
covered trees with soot.
• White moths were easily
spotted and eaten.
• The black moth now had
the advantage and
became predominant-
best adapted. (95%)
 The Case of the Peppered Moth (Biston
betularia)
Now:
• Reduced use of coal has
made trees green
(covered in algae).
• Both forms of moth are
common
Selective breeding
Selective breeding is where humans select animals or plants with
desirable features and breed these together to make more offspring with
these desirable features. This process is repeated over many generations.
As this breeding is controlled by humans, it is known as artificial
selection.
- Human communities practice this form of selection when they breed plants
and animals for specific characteristics.

1. An example of selective breeding of animals is the German Shepherd.

• These dogs were originally bred as working dogs to herd sheep as they are
known for their intelligence and agility.
• Humans selectively breed these dogs to exaggerate desirable qualities, such
as their sloping backs and large ears. This involves crossing dogs which show
these traits so that the alleles are passed on to their offspring.
2. Farmers also selectively breed crops.
• For example, bananas are selectively bred for their size, shape and easiness to
peel. This means that plants which express these characteristics are bred to
produce more offspring with desirable characteristics.