CP1 REVISION LECTURE 1

INTRODUCTION TO
CLASSICAL MECHANICS
Prof. N. Harnew
University of Oxford
TT 2017

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 OUTLINE : CP1 REVISION LECTURE 1 :
INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL MECHANICS
1. Force and work
1.1 Newton’s Laws of motion
1.2 Work done and conservative forces
2. Projectile motion
2.1 Constant acceleration
2.2 Resistive force FR ∝ v
2.3 Resistive force FR ∝ v 2
3. Rocket motion
3.1 The rocket : vertical launch
4. Two-body collisions
4.1 The Centre of Mass frame
4.2 Two-body elastic collision in 1D : Lab to CM system
4.3 Solving collision problems in the CM frame
4.4 Inelastic collisions
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 Outline of revision lectures

Three revision lectures:

I Today:
I Force and work
I Projectile motion
I Rocket motion
I Two-body collisions

I Tomorrow:
I Central forces
I Effective potential
I Circular motion and orbits

I Tuesday Week 2:
I Rotational motion
I Lagrangian mechanics

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 1. Force and work
1.1 Newton’s Laws of motion
I NI: Every body continues in a state of rest or in uniform
motion (constant velocity in straight line) unless acted upon
by an external force.
I NII: The rate of change of momentum is equal to the
applied force: F = ma
I NIII: Action and reaction forces are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction.

Problems of particle motion involve

solving the equation of motion in 3D:

F = m dv
dt

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 1.2 Work and conservative forces
Rb
Work done from A→ B Wab = a F dx = 21 mvb2 − 21 mva2
For any conservative force: Wab = U(a) − U(b)
For a conservative field of force, the work done depends only
on the initial and final positions of the particle independent of
the path. Equivalent definitions:
I The force is derived from a (scalar) potential function:
F(r) = −∇U → F (x) = − dU dx etc.
I There is zero net work by the force
H when moving a particle
around any closed path: W = c Fdx = 0
I In equivalent vector notation ∇ × F = 0

For any force: Wab = 12 mvb2 − 21 mva2

For a conservative force: Wab = U(a) − U(b)
If these are different, energy is dissipated to the environment
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 2. Projectile motion
2.1 Constant acceleration in 2D, no resistive force
I a = dv
dt = constant
Rv Rt
v0 dv = 0 adt
I

→ v = v0 + at
Rr Rt
0 dr = 0 (v0 + at)dt
I

→ r = v0 t + 21 at 2

Under gravity: a = −g ŷ → ax = 0; ay = −g

I vx = v0 cos θ I x = (v0 cos θ)t

I vy = v0 sin θ − gt I y = (v0 sin θ)t − 12 gt 2

g
Trajectory: y = (tan θ)x − 2v02
(sec2 θ)x 2

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 2.2 Resistive force FR ∝ v
I Example of body falling vertically downwards
under gravity with air resistance ∝ velocity.
v = 0 at x = 0 and t = 0
I Equation of motion:
m dv
dt = mg − βv
R v dv Rt β
0 g−αv = 0 dt where α =
I
m
 1 v
I − α loge (g − αv ) 0 = t
g−αv
→ g = exp (−αt)
g
v= α (1 − exp(−αt))
I Calculate distance travelled g
I As t → ∞, v → α
Rt
x = 0 αg (1 − exp(−αt)) dt I Terminal velocity

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 2.3 Resistive force FR ∝ v 2
I Body falls vertically downwards under gravity with
air resistance ∝ [velocity]2 , v = 0, x = 0 at t = 0
I Equation of motion: m dv
dt = mg − βv
2

q
dv mg
I Terminal velocity when dt = 0 : vT = β

Equation of motion becomes dv 2 2

dt = g 1 − v /vT
I

Rv dv
Rt
I Integrate 0 g (1−v 2 /v 2 )
= 0 dt
T
R 1  
I Standard integral : 1−z 2
dz = 12 loge 1−z1+z

h  iv
vT 1+v /vT 1+v /vT vT
I
2g loge 1−v /vT = t → 1−v /vT = exp(t/τ ) , where τ = 2g
0
v v
→ (1 − vT ) = (1 + vT ) exp(− τt )
Velocity as a function of time:
h i
1−exp(−t/τ )
v = vT 1+exp(−t/τ )
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 Velocity as a function of distance FR ∝ v 2

dv
= g 1 − v 2 /vT2


I Equation of motion: dt

dv dv dx
I Write dt = dx dt = v dv
dx

Rv v dv
Rx
I
0 g (1−v 2 /v 2 ) = 0 dx
T

h 2
v
iv
I − 2gT loge 1 − v 2 /vT2 =x
0

vT2
1 − v 2 /vT2 = exp (−x/xT )


→ , where xT = 2g

v 2 = vT2 [1 − exp (−x/xT )]

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 3. Rocket motion
I A body of mass m + δm has
velocity v . In time δt it ejects
mass δm, which is moving with
velocity u along the line of v
I The change in mass is
m + δm → m, the change in
velocity is v → v + δv
I Case 1: No external force
Change of momentum:
δp = m(v + δv ) + uδm − (m + δm)v = 0
| {z } | {z }
After Before
I δp = mv + mδv + uδm − mv − v δm
= mδv − (v − u) δm = 0
I δp = m δv − (v − u) δm = 0
| {z }
Relative velocity=w
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 δp
I Divide by δt : δt
= m δv
δt
− w δm
δt
= 0 : Let δt → 0
d
Total mass conserved dt
(m + δm) = 0 : δm
δt
→ − dm
dt

No external force m dv
dt
+ w dm
dt
=0
I Now apply an external force F
Change of momentum = δp = F δt = mδv − w δm
Divide by δt, let δt → 0 and δm
δt
→ − dm
dt

m dv
dt
+ w dm
dt
=F [Rocket equation]
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 3.1 The rocket : vertical launch
I Rocket equation:
m dv dm
dt + w dt = F
I Rocket rises against gravity
F = −mg
I Eject mass with constant relative
velocity to the rocket w
I Rocket ejects mass uniformly:
m = m0 − αt
dm
→ dt = −α

I Now consider upward motion:

Rv Rt  wα

I mdv = (−mg + wα)dt → vi f dv = ti f −g + m0 −αt dt
h i
(m0 −αtf )
I vf − vi = −g(tf − ti ) − w loge (m0 −αti )

= [−g(tf − ti ) − w loge (mf /mi )]

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 Rocket vertical launch, continued
The rocket starts from rest at t = 0; half the mass is fuel. What is the
velocity and height reached by the rocket at burn-out at time t = T ?
h i h  i
(m0 −αt)
I v = −gt − w log
e (m0 ) = −gt − w loge 1 − α
m0 t = dx
dt
dv
I What is the condition for the rocket to rise ? → dt >0
dm m0 g
At t = 0, m = m0 , dt = −α : αw − m0 g > 0 → w > α

m0 m0
I m = m0 − αt ; at burnout t = T , m = 2 →α= 2T
I Maximum velocity is at the burn-out of the fuel:
At t = T : vmax = −gT + w loge 2
Rx RT h 
α
i
Height : 0 dx = 0 −gt − w loge 1 − m0 t dt
R
I Standard integral : loge z dz = z loge z − z
2
h     iT
I x = − gT2 + w αmo 1 − mα0 t loge 1 − mα0 t − 1− α
m0 t
0
2
I After simplification : x= − gT2 + wT (1 − loge 2)
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 4. Two-body collisions

Conservation of momentum: m1 u1 + m2 u2 = m1 v1 + m2 v2
Conservation of energy:
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
2 m1 u1 + 2 m2 u2 = 2 m1 v1 + 2 m2 v2 + ∆E (= 0 if elastic)

We deal with 2 inertial frames:

I The Laboratory frame: this is the frame where measurements
are actually made
I The centre of mass frame: this is the frame where the centre of
mass of the system is at rest and where the total momentum of
the system is zero
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 Elastic collisions in 1D in the Lab frame, m2 at rest

Solve the conservation of energy & momentum equations in 1D

m1 −m2 2m1
v1 = m1 +m2 u1 and v2 = m1 +m2 u1

Special cases:
I m1 = m2 : → v1 = 0, v2 = u1
(complete transfer of momentum)
I m1 >> m2 : Gives the limits v1 → u1 , v2 → 2u1
(m2 has double u1 velocity)
I m1 << m2 : Gives the limits v1 → −u1 , v2 → 0
(“brick wall” collision)
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Elastic collisions in 2D in the Lab frame: equal masses,
target at rest
m1 = m2 = m , u2 = 0

I Momentum: mu1 = mv1 + mv2 → u1 = v1 + v2

Squaring → u21 = v21 + v22 + 2v1 .v2
1
I Energy: 2
2 mu1 = 21 mv21 + 21 mv22 → u21 = v21 + v22
I Hence 2v1 .v2 = 0
π
→ EITHER v1 = 0, v2 = u1 OR θ1 + θ2 = 2
I Either a head-on collision or opening angle is 90◦
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 4.1 The Centre of Mass frame
I The position of the centre of
mass is given
P by:
rcm = M1 ni=1 mi ri
where M = ni=1 mi
P

Pn Pn
m ṙ m v
I Velocity of the CM: vcm = ṙcm = P i i
i=1
= P i i
i=1
i mi i mi

I Velocity of a body in the CM w.r.t. the Lab v0i = vi − vcm

I The total momentum in the CM:

p0i = mi v0i =
P P P
i i i mi (vi − vcm ) = 0

The total momentum of a system of particles in the CM

frame is equal to zero
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4.2 Two-body elastic collision in 1D : Lab to CM system

(m1 u1 +m2 u2 )
I vcm = (m1 +m2 )
I Before in CM :
m1 u10 + m2 u20 = 0
I After in CM :
m1 v10 + m2 v20 = 0
I If elastic:
u10 − u20 = v20 − v10
I Solving:
v10 = −u10
In CM, total momentum = 0, incoming
and outgoing velocities are equal v20 = −u20
magnitudes and opposite direction.
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 Collisions in the CM frame in 2D
I Conservation of momentum in CM:
m1 u0 1 + m2 u0 2 = 0 ; m1 v0 1 + m2 v0 2 = 0
I Conservation of energy in CM:
1 02 1 02 1 02 1 02
2 m1 u 1 + 2 m2 u 2 = 2 m1 v 1 + 2 m2 v 2

Solve the above equations :

|v10 | = |u10 | ; |v20 | = |u20 | → In CM, speeds before = speeds after
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 4.3 Solving collision problems in the CM frame

1) Find centre of mass velocity vCM

I (u1 − vCM )m1 + (u2 − vCM )m2 = 0
m1 u1 +m2 u2
I → vCM = m1 +m2

2) Transform initial Lab velocities to CM

I u01 = u1 − vCM , u02 = u2 − vCM
3) Get final CM velocities
I |v01 | = |u01 | ; |v02 | = |u02 |
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4) Transform vectors back to the Lab frame
I v1 = v01 + vCM ; v2 = v2 0 + vCM

5) Can then use trigonometry to solve

Also note: TLab = T 0 + 12 Mvcm

2

The kinetic energy in the Lab frame is equal the kinetic

energy in CM + the kinetic energy of CM
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 Example: Elastic collision, m2 = 2m1 , θ1 = 30◦
Find the velocities v1 and v2 and the angle θ2

Magnitude of velocities:
m1 u1 +m2 u2 u0
I vCM = m1 +m2 = 3
2u0
I u10 = u0 − vCM = 3
I u20 = −vCM = − u30
2u0
I |v10 | = |u10 | = 3
u0
I |v20 | = |u20 | = 3
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 Relationships between angles and speeds

I Sine rule:
(sin 30/ 2u30 ) = (sin α/ u30 )
1
→ sin α = 4 → α = 14.5◦
I β = 30 + α = 44.5◦
I sin 30/ 2u30 = sin(180 − 44.5)/v1
→ v1 = 0.93u0
I Cosine rule:
v22 = ( u30 )2 + ( u30 )2 − 2( u30 )2 cos β
→ v2 = 0.25u0
I Sine rule:
(sin 44.5/v2 ) = (sin θ2 / u30 )
→ θ2 = 68.0◦
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 4.4 Inelastic collisions
An inelastic collision is where
energy is lost (or there is
internal excitation).

Coefficient of restitution

|v2 −v1 | Speed of relative separation

Defined as e= |u1 −u2 |
= Speed of relative approach

q
∆E
We can show e= 1− T0 (was derived in lectures)
m1 m2
where T 0 = 12 µu12 with µ = m1 +m2 (the reduced mass)
I T 0 is the initial energy in the centre of mass frame, hence e is
related to the fractional energy loss in this frame
I e = 1 completely elastic; e = 0 completely inelastic,
in general 0 < e < 1
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 Completely inelastic collision in the CM vs. Lab
Before collision:

After collision:

I KE in CM: T 0 = TLAB − 12 (m1 + m2 )vCM

2

I Differentiate: Loss in KE ∆T 0 = ∆TLAB (obvious)

I Max. energy that can be lost in the CM : ∆T 0 = T 0
I Max. energy can be lost in Lab = 12 m1 u 2 − 21 (m1 + m2 )vCM
2
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