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Survey of the Causes of Brake Failure in Commercial Mini-buses in Kumasi

Article in Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology · June 2014
DOI: 10.19026/rjaset.7.878

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Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology 7(23): 4877-4882, 2014
DOI:10.19026/rjaset.7.878
ISSN: 2040-7459; e-ISSN: 2040-7467
© 2014 Maxwell Scientific Publication Corp.
Submitted: November 20, 2013 Accepted: November 30, 2013 Published: June 20, 2014

Research Article
Survey of the Causes of Brake Failure in Commercial Mini-buses in Kumasi
1
Prince Owusu-Ansah, 1Timothy Alhassan, 1Alex Frimpong and 2A. Agyei Agyemang
1
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kumasi Polytechnic, P.O. Box 854, Kumasi, Ghana
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology
(KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana

Abstract: This paper studies the causes of brake failure in commercial mini-buses in Kumasi, Ghana. A structured
questionnaire was administered at (20) bus terminals, (65) automotive workshops and (25) government institutions.
The researcher met the personnel in charge of these institutions and explained the objectives of the research. The
questionnaire was left with the authorities overseeing these institutions and the response was collected at a later date.
In all a total of (485) people were surveyed. The results and responses suggested that the main causes of brake
failure in mini-buses are: Overheating of the brake assembly due to prolong application of the brakes, low brake
fluid level as a result of defective rubber seals in the master cylinder and air trapped in the braking system resulting
in spongy brakes and reducing braking efficiency. The survey results showed that brake failure in commercial mini-
buses is caused mainly by Overheating of the brake assembly due to prolong application of the brakes. The survey
responses suggest that the braking system should be inspected and serviced periodically in order to minimize the rate
of brake failure in mini-buses.

Keywords: Brake failure, brakes, braking efficiency, master cylinder

INTRODUCTION energy is absorbed, the vehicle is slowed down; in other

words, its motion is retarded. The brakes must also pull
When a vehicle is accelerated, energy supplied by up the vehicle smoothly and in a straight line. The road
the engine causes the vehicle’s speed to increase. Part wheels of the vehicle may be retarded or braked by
of this energy is instantly used up in overcoming means of drum or disc friction brakes, or by a friction
frictional and tractive resistance but a large amount of it brake which is applied to some part of the transmission
remains stored in the vehicle. This energy of motion is system.
called the kinetic energy (Hillier, 1991). The existence
of kinetic energy is observed when a vehicle is moving Types of braking systems: There are two main types
and neutral gear is selected. The vehicle does not of braking systems used in motor vehicles. These are:
immediately come to rest, instead it travels for a • The Drum brake assembly
considerable distance before it becomes stationary. In • The Disc brake assembly
this case the stored energy is used to drive the vehicle
Drum brake assembly: The drum brake is an
against the resistances that oppose the vehicle’s motion.
internally expanding type of brake that uses two shoes
Relying on these resistances to slow down a
vehicle could cause many problems, so an additional attached to a back-plate, which is fixed to a stub axle or
resistance called a brake is needed to convert the kinetic axle tube. Each shoe has a ‘T’ section and a friction
energy to heat energy at a faster rate in order to reduce lining riveted or bonded to its outer face. At one end of
the speed of the vehicle. This reduces the speed of the the shoe is fitted a device for expanding the shoe when
vehicle at a faster rate and brings the vehicle to rest the brake pedal is depressed. In a simple brake, such as
within the shortest possible time when the brakes are that shown in Fig. 1, a cam is used as a shoe expander,
applied. but modern layouts fitted to cars are hydraulically
To bring a vehicle to a stop, the brakes have to operated pistons for this purpose.
absorb all the energy given to the vehicle by the engine All shoe-type brakes must have some arrangement
and that due to the momentum of the vehicle. This to prevent the shoes rotating with the drum. The shoe
energy must then be dissipated. In most vehicle brakes, anchor, which must be rigidly attached to the back-
the energy is absorbed by friction, converted into heat plate, takes the form of a large pin that passes through
and the heat dissipated to the surrounding air. As the the shoes, or a housing, against which the shoes butt.

Corresponding Author: Prince Owusu-Ansah, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Kumasi Polytechnic, P.O. Box 854,
Kumasi, Ghana
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (URL: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Advantages and disadvantages: The main advantages

of the drum brake are:

• The same braking power is available in reverse as

well as when moving forward.
• Drum brakes give a greater stopping force for a
given size of brake drum.
• Drum brakes have self servo action which gives
effective braking.

The main disadvantages of the drum brake are:

Fig. 1: The drum brake assembly

• Loss of braking power is more evident during

prolong braking which results in overheating of the
system.
• The system is more complicated in design.
• Uneven wearing of the braking lining results in
vehicle pulling to one side during braking period.
• One problem with drum brakes is fade (This is a
condition where the brake performance falls
drastically when a brake, especially the friction
linings, reaches a given temperature).

Disc brakes assembly: The disc brake consists of an

exposed disc which is attached to the hub flange; the
Fig. 2: Disc brake two friction pads are pressed on to this disc to give a
braking action. Figure 2 shows a disc brake assembly.
Springs pull the brake shoes on to the back-plate
The pads are moved by hydraulic pistons working in
and also return the shoes to the ‘off’ position after the
brake has been applied. In some cases separate springs cylinders formed in a caliper that is secured to a fixed
are used to perform the retention and return functions. part of the axle. When the hydraulic pressure is applied
The inner cylindrical surface of the cast iron drum is to the two cylinders held in the fixed caliper, the pistons
ground to give a smooth surface on to which the brake move; this action forces the friction pads into contact
linings can rub. The drum is generally attached to the with the rotating cast iron disc. The sandwiching action
hub flange by small counter-sunk screws and retained of the pads on the disc gives a retarding action and heat
securely by the wheel nuts. If possible, the drums generated from the energy of motion is conducted to the
should be exposed so that a good flow of air over the disc.
drum is achieved to dissipate the heat and prevent loss Greater part of the disc is exposed to the air,
of brake efficiency that occurs when the unit gets very therefore heat is easily radiated, with the result that the
hot. Some form of adjuster is provided for each brake to brake can be used continuously for long periods before
take up excessive clearance due to wear of the friction serious fade occurs. Since the friction pads move at a
facing. Since a large leverage is needed between the right angle to the disc, any drop in the friction value
brake pedal and shoe, a large movement of the shoe does not affect the force applied to the pad. As a result
would mean that the brake is fully applied. This this type of brake is not very sensitive to heat (Mudd,
dangerous condition is avoided by either manually 1972a, b). The disc brake was developed to minimize
adjusting the brakes periodically, or having an the fade problems. When fading occurs, the driver has
automatic adjuster that continually sets the shoes so that to apply a much larger effort and in extreme cases it
they are always positioned very close to the drum becomes impossible to bring the vehicle to rest. The
(Heisler, 1989).
problem arises when a drum brake is continually
The drum brake assembly consists of the following
operated for long periods, as when a vehicle descends a
components:
long mountain road. The friction between the lining and
drum and the effect of this friction on the application of
• Wheel cylinder the shoes, govern the maximum braking torque that a
• Master cylinder drum brake can produce. Although friction materials
• Back plate having good anti-fade qualities are produced, there is
• Brake shoes still the chance of fade with a drum brake.
• Brake drum No assistance is obtained from the rotating disc to
• Springs aid the driver in the application of a disc brake to
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achieve a given retardation. A disc brake requires a according to Nunney et al. (1998). However, most
greater pedal pressure than that needed for a drum Ghanaian drivers use other fluid such as dirty brake
brake. Adjustment to take up pad wear is automatic on fluid, less dirty fluid and even soapy water as substitute
a disc brake, therefore minimum attention is required. A to the original brake fluid.
merit of this type is the ease with which the pads can be
inspected. If corrosion is not present, the pads can be Fluid contamination: It is even more important that
easily renewed. engine oil, shock absorber oil, petrol and paraffin never
The disc brake assembly consists of the following be introduced into a fluid brake system-nor should they
components: ever be used to clean brake parts. The use of these
mineral-based oils results in the rapid weakening or
• Master cylinder destruction of all the rubber components and possibly in
• Brake pads the injury or death of the vehicle users as a result of
• Brake discs brake failure. Cleaning should always be done with
• Rotor industrial methylated spirit, followed by washing in
clean brake fluid and/or application of the correct
Advantages of the disc brakes: Disc brakes have the rubber grease. A system contaminated by mineral oils
following advantages over drum brakes. or wrong fluids must be thoroughly flushed out with
methylated spirit, have the contaminated fluid
Greater heat dissipation: This is because only small destroyed at once and all rubber parts replaced.
part of the disc is heated by contact with the pads, the Flushing is similar to normal bleeding except that
greater part always being in contact with the stream of the fluid is replaced by methylated spirit and at least a
cooling air. Brake fade is therefore greatly reduced and litre of spirit passed through each bleed valve. Flushing
pedal travel remains fairly constant. should be carried out once every 3 years of normal
service and whenever the fluid appears thick and dirty
Cleaner braking surfaces: Centrifugal force throws (Reed and Reid, 2000).
water, dirt and oil off the discs, which therefore retain
their efficiency and are worn less. The discs are more Anti-lock Braking System (ABS): There is an
substantial and so less liable to distortion than drums. increasing need for systems that provide better safety,
as the number of vehicles that use the road. A braking
system that incorporates an arrangement that prevents
Lighter in weight: The disc brake assembly is about
the road wheels from locking up and skidding should
20% less in weight than the equivalent drum type. contribute to this extra safety required if used correctly.
A driver finds it difficult to assess the force that
Simpler construction: Pads are visible and wear is should be applied to the brake pedal to make an
easy to observe or see. emergency stop and bring the vehicle to rest in the
shortest possible distance. This is because it is an
Easier maintenance: Brake pads can be changed much impossible task to take into account the many varying
quicker than brake shoes. factors such as type and roughness of the road and tyre
and the condition of the surfaces; e.g., wet, dry, greasy
Disadvantages of disc brakes: or icy. This generally means that the driver applies
either too much or too little pressure on the pedal. The
• The disc brake has no self servo action, therefore effects of such actions are:
higher operating forces and pressures are required.
In-spite of this feature the disc brake, particularly • Pedal pressure too high: One or more of the
when used with a hydraulic servo unit, provides a wheels may skid over the surface with the result
braking effort which is directly proportional to the that:
o Stopping distance is increased because the
applied pedal force.
adhesion between a skidding wheel and the road is
• The higher operating forces required complicate less than that given by a wheel that is held on the
the design of the hand-brake mechanism. For this verge of skidding.
reason many cars are fitted with disc brakes at the o Directional control is jeopardized: In the case of
front wheels only. a rear-wheel skid, the vehicle turns from front to
rear.
Brake fluid: The fluid used in the hydraulic brake • Pedal pressure too low: Stopping distance is
systems is a vegetable oil with certain additives. The increased, which can result in impact with an
main requirements of a good brake fluid include low object.
viscosity, high boiling point, compatibility with rubber
components, lubricating properties, resistance to The adhesion between the road wheel and road
chemical ageing and compatibility with other fluids surface is governed by the coefficient of friction. This
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varies considerably when the condition of the road causes of brake failure, whiles results obtained from the
surface is changed. For example, the friction value of a experiment showed that when the brakes were operated
dry asphalt road falls by about 0.8 to 0.15 when it is under hot condition even with the use of the servo, the
covered with black ice. braking force was much lower than when higher pedal
On a dry surface the adhesion varies as the force was applied, which meant that the braking
percentage of wheel slip changes from 0 to 100%. efficiency was very low. The viscosity temperature
Retention of steer ability in maximum braking graph indicates that the brake fluid became less viscous
situations and avoidance of skid danger under all road as a result of the temperature effect which affected the
conditions are the basic requirements of a good anti- braking efficiency.
locking system. The system should be fail-safe, low in From the survey it was observed that most cases
weight and the initial cost should be reasonable. having dirty brake fluid, had low brake fluid levels.
The systems in use differ in the method that is used This may be because the brake rubber seals were
to sense wheel slip. The systems of ABS available are: attacked which created a leakage and resulted in the
brake fluid leaking out from the master cylinder and
• Mechanic resulting in low brake fluid level. This could also have
• Electronic resulted in air being trapped into the system. The effect
was that, the pedal force which was meant to transmit
The layout of the main components of a four-wheel fluid in order to achieve a high braking force was rather
regulated system is similar to that produced by used to compress the air which was trapped in the
Association of Technical Engineers (‘ATE’). The pipelines.
system may be divided into two sub-systems: Hydraulic
and Electronic. Responses to questionnaire: It was observed that out
of the total number of (485), (132) representing 27.2%
MATERIALS AND METHODS
did indicate that low brake fluid level in the master
Survey: A structured questionnaire was administered at cylinder did cause brake failure. One hundred and nine
(20) bus terminals, (65) automotive workshops and (25) representing 22.5% attributed the cause of brake failure
government institutions. The researcher met the to overheating of the brake assembly, while (65),
personnel in charge of these institutions and explained representing 13.4% said the cause of brake failure was
the objectives of the research. The questionnaire was air being trapped in the pipeline.
left with the authorities overseeing these institutions The results from the survey show that out of the
and the response was collected at a later date. various causes that are attributed to brake failure, low
Bus terminals, automotive workshops and brake fluid, overheating of the brake assembly and air
government institutions fall into several categories. Due trapped in the pipeline which amounted to 63.1%
to the different categories, random sampling was used indicates that they are the most often causes of brake
to select the sampling units. Stratified random sampling failure in mini-commercial buses.
was used to select samples in situation where The rest of the results were: twenty nine
population is heterogeneous but has definite strata or representing 5.9%, stating that grease or brake fluid on
classes which are homogeneous (Kalton and Moses, lining was the cause, (17) representing 3.5% said
1989). Kejetia bus terminal and Suame magazine were incorrect shoe adjustment, while (10) people
investigated and the sample units taken. representing 2.1% attributed uneven tyre pressure and
brake shoe adjustment as the cause of brake failure.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Automatic shoe adjuster not functioning, poor or wrong
lining fitted into the brake assembly and master
Survey responses: Out of a total number of four cylinder or wheel cap being soft and sticky had (16),
hundred and (485) people interviewed, (132) (20) and (26) representing 3.3, 4.1 and 5.4%,
representing 27.2% indicated that the brake failure they respectively in commercial mini buses, while (28)
experienced was as a result of low brake fluid level in people representing 5.7% attributed brake failure to
the master cylinder. One hundred and nine representing causes different from what was stated in the
22.4% indicated that overheating was the main cause of questionnaire.
the brake failure they experienced in commercial mini Table 1 gives the causes of brake failure in
buses whiles (65) people representing 13.4% indicated commercial mini-buses. Figure 3 shows a bar chart of
that air trapped in the system caused the brake failure. the results in Table 1.
The results from the survey indicated that (306)
representing 63% indicated that low brake fluid level in Servicing periods: The servicing period gives the
the master cylinder, overheating of the brake assembly number of times the people who answered the
and air trapped in the braking system was the main questionnaire service their brakes. With reference to the
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 Res. J. App. Sci. Eng. Technol., 7(23): 4877-4882, 2014

Fig. 3: Causes of brake failure in commercial mini-buses

Table 1: Causes of brake failure in commercial mini-buses

Causes of brake failure Total (%)
Air in system 65 13.4
Low fluid level in the master cylinder 132 27.2
Cracked brake drum 11 2.3
Grease or brake fluid on lining 29 5.9
Incorrect shoe adjustment 17 3.5
Uneven tyre pressure 10 2.1
Overheating of the brakes 109 22.5
Brake shoe distortion 10 2.1
Automatic shoe adjuster not functioning 16 3.3
Poor or wrong lining 20 4.1
Master cylinder or wheel caps being soft and 26 5.4
sticky
Others 28 5.7 Fig. 4: Brake servicing periods
1 and 2 12 2.5
and 41 people representing 6 and 8%, respectively
Table 2: Servicing periods
service their brakes every month and every three
Periods Total (%)
One month 29 6 months, respectively. A critical analysis shows that few
Three months 41 8 people could afford to have their brakes checked on
Six months 104 22 monthly bases. This may be the cause of the numerous
One year 310 64 brake failures in commercial mini buses.
Table 2 gives the results of the survey as far as
graph, it clearly reveals that (310) people repair their servicing periods was concerned. Figure 4 shows the
brakes yearly, which could be attributed to the various periods within which the respondents service their
causes of brake failure. If out of (485), 310 representing brakes.
64% people service their brakes yearly, then the
conclusion can be drawn that people do not service Brake failure results in accident: Figure 5 shows the
their brakes regularly. This may be the cause of the survey results of brake failure cases that resulted in
frequent brake failure. accidents. It was observed that out of a total number of
Out of the 485, 104 representing 22% stated that (485), (392) representing 81% did results in road
they service their brakes every 6 months. Twenty nine accident. Clearly the survey reveals that most accidents
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system should be inspected and serviced periodically in

order to minimize the rate of brake failure in mini-buses.

REFERENCES

Heisler, H., 1989. Advanced Vehicle Technology.

British Library Corporation Publications,
Birmingham, pp: 382-437.
Hillier, V.A.W., 1991. Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle
Technology. 4th Edn., Stanley Thornes Publishers
Ltd., Cheltenham, England, pp: 385-412.
Kalton and Moses, 1989. Advance Motor Technology
and Hydraulics. Licentiate, London and Budapest,
Fig. 5: Brake failures that resulted in accident pp: 242-264.
Mudd, S.C., 1972a. Technology for Motor Mechanics
on our road associated with commercial mini-buses is 2. 2nd Edn., Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd.,
as a result of brake failure and as a result all effort must London, pp: 145-161.
be made to reduce it or if possible avoid brake failure Mudd, S.C., 1972b. Technology for Motor Mechanics
completely. 2. 2nd Edn., Gibrine Publishing Co., Maryland, pp:
213-241.
CONCLUSION Nunney, M.J., Butterworth and Heinemann, 1998. Light
and Heavy Technology. 3rd Edn., Elsevier, pp:
The survey results showed that brake failure in 212-242.
commercial mini-buses is caused mainly by Overheating Reed, P.P.J. and V.C. Reid, 2000. Motivate. African
of the brake assembly due to prolong application of the University Press, Accra, Ghana, pp: 134-154.
brakes. The survey responses suggest that the braking

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