L1.

CHARACTERISTICS AND KINDS OF

QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

A. Characteristics of Quantitative recommended in determining the sample

Research size to avoid the researcher's bias in
interpreting the results.
1. OBJECTIVE. Quantitative research
seeks accurate measurement and 6. REPLICATION. Quantitative methods
analysis of target concepts. It is not can be repeated to verify findings in
based on mere intuition and guesses. another setting, thus strengthen and
Data are gathered before proposing a reinforcing validity of findings eliminating
conclusion or solution to a problem. the possibility of spurious conclusions.
2. CLEARLY DEFINED RESEARCH 7. FUTURE OUTCOMES. By using
QUESTIONS. The researchers know in complex mathematical calculations and
advance what they are looking for. The with the aid of computers, if-then
research questions are well-defined for scenarios may be formulated thus
which objective answers are sought. All predicting future results. Quantitative
aspects of the study are carefully research puts emphasis on proof, rather
designed before data are gathered. than discovery.
3. STRUCTURED RESEARCH
INSTRUMENTS. Standardized
B. Kinds of Quantitative Research
instruments guide data collection, thus,
ensuring the accuracy, reliability and I. Descriptive Research
validity of data. Data are normally
gathered using structured research tools • Seeks to describe the current status
such as questionnaires to collect of an identified variable.
measurable characteristics of the • This type of quantitative research is
population like age, socio-economic used to explain the current state of a
status, number of children, among variable or topic. It can answer what,
others. where, when, and how, but not why
questions (those are answered in
4. NUMERICAL DATA. Figures, tables or qualitative research). The researcher
graphs showcase summarized data does not control or manipulate the
collection in order to show trends, variables. They just observe and
relationships or differences among measure them.
variables. In sum, the charts and tables • Examples: Surveys, Observations,
allow you to see the evidence collected. and Case Study
5. LARGE SAMPLE SIZES. To arrive at • Surveys are often used to gather a
a more reliable data analysis, a normal large amount of data that can be
population distribution curve is preferred. analyzed for frequencies, averages,
This requires a large sample size, and patterns.
depending on how the characteristics of • Observations are often used to gather
the population vary. Random sampling is data without relying on survey
 respondents’ honesty or accuracy. experimentation but cannot be
This method of descriptive research is considered a true experiment.
used to understand how individuals
act in real-life situations.
• Case studies can also be used to There are three (3) main types of
gather detailed information to identify quasi-experimental research designs:
characteristics of a narrowly defined
1. Nonequivalent groups: groups are
subject. They are frequently used to
similar, but only one experiences
generate hypotheses and theories.
treatment or variable.
II. Correlational Research 2. Regression discontinuity:
researchers assign an arbitrary cutoff
• Attempts to determine the extent of a
in the list of participants. Those above
relationship between two or more
the cutoff receive treatment or
variables using statistical data.
variable and those below do not. The
• Examines the relationships between individuals just below the threshold
different subjects and variables are used as a control group because
without the researcher controlling or they are so near the threshold.
manipulating any of them. It is 3. Natural experiments: an external
focused on relationships between event or situation (nature) results in
fixed variables. Correlational the random assignment of subjects to
research relies on the scientific the variable recipient group. These
method and hypotheses. experiments are observational and
• Examples: Surveys and Naturalistic are not considered true experiments.
Observation
• Surveys are fast, easy ways to IV. Experimental Research
measure your variables of interest. It's
• Often called true experimentation,
essential to ensure that your uses the scientific method to establish
questions are formulated correctly the cause-effect relationship among a
and your questions are free of bias. group of variables that make up a
• Naturalistic observation allows you to study.
gather data about a behavior or • The experimental research method is
phenomenon in its natural research that is guided by a specific
environment. This may include hypothesis or hypotheses. It is very
measuring frequencies, durations, useful for guiding decision-making.
scales, and amounts. Any research conducted using the
III. Causal-comparative/quasi- scientific method uses experimental
experimental research research methods.

• Used to identify a cause and effect There are three (3) types of
relationship between two variables, experimental research designs:
where one variable is dependent and 1. Pre-experimental: a researcher
another is independent. It has observes a group or multiple groups
aspects In common with
 after implementing a treatment or trend of a data set or providing a rapid
introducing a factor that is assumed to snapshot of your data. Another
lead to changes in the groups. This is advantage of the mean is that it's very
used to understand if further research easy and quick to calculate.
is necessary for the observed groups.
2. Standard Deviation
2. True experimental: depends on
statistical analysis to support or refute The standard deviation, often
the hypothesis. The participants must represented with the Greek letter sigma
be chosen in random sampling. (σ), is the measure of a spread of data
3. Quasi-experimental: participants around the mean. A high standard
are not chosen at random. deviation signifies that data is spread
more widely from the mean, where a low
standard deviation signals that more data
L2. STATISTICAL TOOLS IN align with the mean.
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
3. Regression
What is Statistical Tool?
Regression models’ the relationships
• Statistical tools help with data sorting between dependent and explanatory
and cleaning. They also help to variables, which are usually charted on a
identify and remedy issues with the scatterplot.
quality of data through various data
The regression line also designates
cleaning techniques. It's essential to
whether those relationships are strong or
note that when dealing with large data
weak.
sets, not all data may be relevant.
• The most well known Statistical tools Regression is commonly taught in high
are the mean, the arithmetical school or college Statistics courses with
average of numbers, median and applications for science or business in
mode, Range, dispersion, standard determining trends over time.
deviation, inter quartile range,
4. One sample t-test
coefficient of variation, etc.
• There are also software packages like A one sample t-test allows us to test
SAS and SPSS which are useful in whether a sample mean (of a normally
interpreting the results for large distributed interval variable) significantly
sample size. differs from a hypothesized value.
Statistical Tools in Research The mean of the variable for this
particular sample of students which is
1. Mean
statistically significantly different from the
• The arithmetic mean, more commonly test value.
known as — the average, ll is the sum We would conclude that this group of
of a list of numbers divided by the students has a significantly higher mean
number of items on the list. The mean on the writing test than the given.
is useful in determining the overall
5. One sample median test 11. Kruskal Wallis test
A one sample median test allows us to The Kruskal Wallis test is used when you
test whether a sample median differs have one independent variable with two
significantly from a hypothesized value. or more levels and an ordinal dependent
variable. In other words, it is the non-
6. Binomial test
parametric version of ANOVA and a
A one sample binomial test allows us to generalized form of the Mann-Whitney
test whether the proportion of successes test method since it permits 2 or more
on a two-level categorical dependent groups.
variable significantly differs from a
12. Paired t-test
hypothesized value.
A paired (samples) t-test is used when
7. Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test
you have two related observations (i.e.
The Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney test is a two observations per subject) and you
non-parametric analog to the want to see if the means on these two
independent samples t-test and can be normally distributed interval variables
used when you do not assume that the differ from one another.
dependent variable is a normally
13. Correlation
distributed interval variable (you only
assume that the variable is at least A correlation is useful when you want to
ordinal). see the linear relationship between two
(or more) normally distributed interval
8. Chi-square test
variables. Although it is assumed that the
A chi-square test is used when you want variables are interval and normally
to see if there is a relationship between distributed, we can include dummy
two categorical variables. variables when performing correlations.

9. Fisher's exact test 14. Simple linear regression

The Fisher's exact test is used when you Simple linear regression allows us to look
want to conduct a chi-square test, but at the linear relationship between one
one or more of your cells has an normally distributed interval predictor and
expected frequency of five or less. one normally distributed interval outcome
variable.
10. One-way ANOVA
15. Non-parametric correlation
A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
is used when you have a categorical A non-parametic correlation is used when
independent variable (with two or more one or both of the variables are not
categories) and a normally distributed assumed to be normally distributed and
interval dependent variable and you wish interval (but are assumed to be ordinal).
to test for differences in the means of the
dependent variable broken down by the
levels of the independent variable.
16. Multiple regression ordinal. The null hypothesis in this test is
that the distribution of the ranks of each
Multiple regressions is very similar to
type of score (i.e., reading, writing and
simple regression, except that in multiple
math) are the same.
regression you have more than one
predictor variable in the equation.
17. One-way MANOVA L3. IMPORTANCE OF QUANTITATIVE
RESEARCH ACROSS FIELDS
MANOVA (multivariate analysis of
variance) is like ANOVA, except that Quantitative research
there are two or more dependent
• Quantitative research involves
variables. In a oneway MANOVA, there is
analyzing and gathering numerical
one categorical independent variable and
two or more dependent variables. data to uncover trends, calculate
averages, evaluate relationships, and
18. Canonical correlation derive overarching insights. It’s used
in various fields, including the natural
Canonical correlation is a multivariate
and social sciences. Quantitative data
technique used to examine the
analysis employs statistical
relationship between two groups of
techniques for processing and
variables. For each set of variables, it
interpreting numeric data.
creates latent variables and looks at the
relationships among the latent variables. Humanities and Social Sciences
It assumes that all variables in the model
are interval and normally distributed. • Quantitative research assists us in
gaining a better grasp of the social
19. Factor analysis world and observing occurrences or
events that affect individuals.
Factor analysis is a form of exploratory
Quantitative research approaches are
multivariate analysis that is used to either
widely used in development research
reduce the number of variables in a
in several domains of expertise, and
model or to detect relationships among
they may be vitally applied to the
variables. All variables involved in the
Humanities and Social Sciences as
factor analysis need to be continuous
well. In the field of Humanities and
and are assumed to be normally
Social Sciences, quantitative
distributed. The goal of the analysis is to
research dominates the framework of
try to identify factors which underlie the
social problems. The analysis of
variables.
numerical patterns can be utilized to
20. Friedman test analyze psychological, social, and
economic phenomena.
You perform a Friedman test when you
have one within-subjects independent Information and Communication
variable with two or more levels and a Technology
dependent variable that is not interval
and normally distributed (but at least • In the field of ICT, quantitative
methods often deals with results
 computation and system analysis product or service, and elicit customer
using scientific approach. The comments to increase productivity.
objective of the quantitative method is
The quantitative research helps the
to develop and employ models based
business in several ways;
on mathematical approach,
hypotheses and theories pertaining to • Market Understanding, this helps
the nature of an ICT phenomenon. through surveys, tests, and other data
collecting techniques, it assists
Health and Social Sciences
organizations in understanding
• Quantitative health science is an consumer habits, preferences, and
interdisciplinary field that involves the market trends. For instance, a
application of quantitative methods company can calculate the demand
and statistical techniques to study for a new product or the degree of
health related issues. It focuses on consumer happiness.
the measurement, analysis, and • Performance Measurements, the
interpretation of data related to business performance may be
health, healthcare, and disease tracked and measured over time with
patterns. the use of quantitative research. In
order to pinpoint areas that require
Agriculture and Fisheries
improvement, this may entail
• Quantitative research helps find and evaluating sales data, staff
prevent crop diseases. productivity measures, or the success
• It predicts market trends so farmers of marketing campaigns.
can plan better and earn more. • Employee Management, In order to
• It gives accurate data on production, assist management make data-driven
yield, and income. choices on HR policy, training
• It evaluates new technologies and initiatives, and workplace
manages risks like crop failures and enhancements, quantitative research
fish shortages. may evaluate employee happiness,
• It improves the resource use and productivity, and other aspects.
guiding policies, it boosts productivity, Sports
sustainability, and profits in farming
and fishing. • Performance Analysis: Quantitative
research helps in the detailed
Business analysis of athletes' performance
• The importance of quantitative metrics, such as speed, strength, and
research in business is that it may endurance. This data-driven
enhance the overall marketing approach allows coaches and
strategy, assist the firm in making analysts to identify strengths and
informed decisions on how to be the weaknesses, tailor training programs,
best and go forward with a specific and track progress over time.
• Talent Identification and L4. QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE
Recruitment: Quantitative metrics VARIABLES & QUANTITATIVE
are used to assess and compare RESEARCH METHOD
potential recruits based on
A. Qualitative Variable
performance statistics, physical
attributes, and game analytics. This • Are sometimes referred to as
objective evaluation aids in identifying categorical variables.
talented individuals who may excel in • The variable categories are not
professional sports. described as numbers but instead by
• Game Strategy and Tactics: Teams verbal groupings.
and coaches use quantitative data to • There are three types of categorical
develop and refine game strategies. variables: nominal, ordinal, and
Analyzing patterns and outcomes of binary (aka dichotomous).
past games helps in understanding
opponents’ tendencies and optimizing Three Types of Qualitative Variable
tactical decisions during matches. 1. Ordinal Variable
Importance of Quantitative Research • Groups that are ranked in a specific
• People do research to find solutions, order.
even tentative ones, to problems, in • E.g.: Education level (“high
order to improve or enhance ways of school”,”BS”,”MS”,”PhD”)
doing things, to disprove or provide 2. Nominal Variable
hypothesis, or simple to find answers
to questions or solutions to problems • Groups with no rank or order between
in daily life. them.
• Quantitative may fall short in • E.g.: Colors, brands
explaining 'Why', it can still provide 3. Binary Variable
valuable insights offering objective
data in various fields which helps • Also known as dichotomous variables
them to identify the trends, to analyze • Are simply categorical variables that
psychological, social, and economic have only two categories or levels.
phenomena, measure the impact of • E.g.: have a pet at home, pass/fail of
technology, to improve patient care, a test
and to guide in decisioning process,
and more.
B. Quantitative Variable • It involves collecting data through
surveys, observations, or
• Represent measurable quantities and
experiments, and then analyzing the
can be expressed as numbers.
data to identify patterns and trends.
• Can be either continuous or discrete.
3. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Two Types of Quantitative Variable
• A type of research that involves
1. Discrete Variable
manipulating an independent variable
Counts of individual items or values. and measuring its effects on a
dependent variable.
• E.g.: Number of students in a class,
• Participants are randomly assigned to
number of members in a person’s family
groups, which helps to control for
2. Continuous Variable extraneous variables and increase
the internal validity of the study.
• Numerical variables that can take on an
• E.g.: “Effects of cryotherapy applied
infinite number of values within a given
at different temperatures on
range.
inflammatory pain during the acute
• They often include fractions and phase of arthritis in rats” by Sasaki, R.
decimals. et al. (2021).

• E.g.: Weight, temperature 4. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

C. Quantitative Research Method • A type of research that involves

manipulating an independent variable
1. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH and measuring its effects on a
• A type of research that examines the dependent variable However, unlike
relationship between two or more experimental research design,
variables. participants are not randomly
• The research aims to determine assigned to groups, which can limit
whether there is a positive or negative the generalizability of the results.
correlation between the variables and • E.g.: “Changes in mortality after
the strength of the relationship. Massachusetts health care reform” by
• E.g.: “Examination of the relationship Sommers, B. D., Long, S. K., &
between smartphone addiction and Baicker, K. (2014)
cyberchondria in adolescents” by 5. SURVEY RESEARCH
Köse S., & Murat, M. (2021)
• A type of quantitative research design
2. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH that involves collecting data from a
• A type of research that aims to sample of individuals using a
describe and explain the questionnaire or survey.
characteristics of a population or • The data collected can be used to
phenomenon. identify trends, attitudes, opinions,
and behaviors of a population.
• E.g.: “Privacy and security concerns of number generating
as major barriers for e‐commerce: a software/random number tables.
survey study” by Udo, G. J. (2001)
TECHNIQUES:
• Assigns a unique number to each
L5. QUANTITATIVE SAMPLING member ofthe population, then
METHODS & ITS TECHNIQUES, randomly draws numbers to selectthe
TYPES, AND EXAMPLE sample. (Lottery Method)
• Utilizes a pre-existing table of random
Probability Sampling
numbers, selecting members by
• Probability sampling is a technique in following a specific rule or pattern.
which the researcher chooses (Random Number Table)
samples from a larger population
EXAMPLES:
using a method based on probability
theory. For a participant to be • A factory manager needs to inspect
considered as a probability sample, 100 products from a batch of 1,000 to
he/she must be selected using a check for defects. The manager uses
random selection. It gives each a random number table to select 100
individual unit in the population a products for inspection, ensuring that
known and non-zero chance of being every product has an equal
selected. probability of being chosen.
• A school wants to survey 50 students
Types of Probability Sampling
about their study habits. Each student
❖ Simple Random is assigned a unique number, and a
❖ Stratified random number generator is used to
❖ Cluster select 50 students from the total
❖ Systematic student population, ensuring each
❖ Stratified has an equal chance of being chosen.
A. SIMPLE RANDOM B. STRATIFIED
• This sampling method is as easy as • It involves a method where a larger
assigning numbers to the individuals population can be divided into smaller
(sample) and then randomly choosing groups.
from those numbers through an • A common method is to arrange or
automated process. classify by sex, age, ethnicity, and
• In this sampling method, each similar ways.
member of the population has an • Splitting subjects into mutually
exactly equal chance of being exclusive groups and then using
selected. simple random sampling to choose
• There are two ways in which the members from groups.
samples are chosen for this sampling
method: A lottery system and the use
TECHNIQUES: D. SYSTEMATIC
• Calculate the proportion of the total • It is when you choose every “nth”
population that each stratum individual to be a part of the sample.
represents. • Systematic sampling is a probability
• Select a sample from each stratum sampling method where researchers
that mirrors these proportions. select members of the population at a
regular interval.
EXAMPLES:
TECHNIQUES:
• If you have a population of 1,000
people consisting of 60% males and • Determine the total number of
40% females, and you want a sample individuals or units in the population.
of 100, you would select 60 males and • Determine the desired sample size
40 females to maintain the (n).
population's gender distribution. • Compute the sampling interval using
the formula: (where T is the total
C. CLUSTER SAMPLING
number of individuals in the
• Cluster Sampling is a way to population, and 𝑛 is the desired
randomly select participants when sample size. Randomly select a
they are geographically spread out. starting position.
• Cluster sampling usually analyzes a • From the randomly chosen starting
particular population in which the point, select every nth element in the
sample consists of more than a few list to form your sample.
elements, for example, city, family,
university, etc.
TECHNIQUES:
• Divide the population into clusters EXAMPLES:
(e.g., schools, neighborhoods). A quality control manager at a
• Randomly select a subset of clusters. manufacturing plant wants to inspect
• Include all members of the chosen every 10th item produced on an
clusters in the sample. assembly line for defects. If there are
1,000 items produced in a shift, the
EXAMPLE: manager would randomly select a
• The company has offices in 10 cities starting point(e.g., the 5th item) and
across the country (all with roughly the sample size (100), then inspect
the same number of employees in every 10th item after that(5th, 15th,
similar roles). You don’t have the 25th, etc.).
capacity to travel to every office to
collect your data, so you use random
sampling to select 3 offices – these
are your clusters.
Summary: Importance of Quantitative Data
Collection
• Probability sampling is a sampling
technique that gives each individual • Quantitative data collection provides
unit in the population a known and valuable information for
non-zero chance of being selected. understanding complex phenomena
• There are four Probability sampling and making informed decisions based
methods which are Simple random, on empirical evidence.
Cluster, Stratified, and Systematic.
Quantitative data collection is
• Simple sampling is as assigning
important for several reasons:
numbers to the individuals and then
randomly choosing from those ❖ Objectivity
numbers through an automated ❖ Generalizability
process. ❖ Precision
• Systematic Sampling sampling ❖ Comparison
method when population are selected ❖ Replicability
according to a random starting point
Quantitative data collection methods:
but with a fixed, periodic interval.
• The difference between stratified ❖ Surveys/Questionnaires
sampling and cluster sampling is that ❖ Interviews
in stratified sampling, you divide your ❖ Observations
population in groups (strata)that ❖ Document
share a common characteristic. While ❖ Review
in cluster sampling, you use ❖ Probability Sampling
preexisting groups (city, family,
1. Surveys/Questionnaires
university, etc.)
Surveys and Questionnaires aid in
collecting data from a group or a large
L6: METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION number of people.

Quantitative DATA COLLECTION - designed in a manner to legitimize the

behavior and trust of the respondents
• Quantitative data collection refers to
the collection of numerical data that - ideal for both quantitative and
can be analyzed using statistical qualitative research
methods. It measures variables and
- among the most popular tools of data
establishes relationships between
collection in quantitative research along
variables.
with interviews
• The data collected through
quantitative methods is typically in the A. Web-based Surveys/Questionnaire
form of numbers, such as response
In a web-based questionnaire, the
frequencies, means, and standard
respondent will receive an email with a
deviations, and can be analyzed
survey link.
using statistical software.
Upon clicking this link, they will be - for quantitative data collection, the
directed to a secure online survey tool researchers must have a naturalistic
where they can complete the survey or fill observation approach
out the questionnaire.
A. Structured Observations
B. Mail Surveys/Questionnaire
In structured observations, the
In a mail questionnaire, the survey is researcher focuses on a specific area of
mailed out to a host of the sample interest, aiming to quantify particular
population, enabling the researcher to behaviors or attitudes exhibited by the
connect with a wide range of audiences. audience. It also specifies in detail what
is to be observed and how the
The mail survey packet typically includes
measurements are to be recorded.
an explanatory cover letter detailing the
research type, purpose, company details, Structured observations are also known
return address, and the questionnaire as systematic observations.
itself.
4. DOCUMENT REVIEW
2. Interviews
Document review is a process used to
Interviews are a formidable quantitative collect data after reviewing the existing
data collection tool, facilitating direct documents. It is the act of reviewing
conversations between researchers and existing documentation from other data
participants. sources to find information to answer or
understand a new question.
- a standard method used for data
collection - an efficient and effective way of
gathering data as documents are
- interviews conducted to collect
manageable
quantitative data utilize structured
questioning techniques to collect - presents practical resources to get
numerical data from participants qualified data from the past
- Telephone Interviews, Face-to-Face A. Public Records
Interviews, and Computer-Assisted
Official, ongoing records of an
Personal Interviewing
organization.
3. Observations
ex. annual policy reports, student activity
Observations involve measuring and reports, etc.
quantifying the characteristics of a
B. Personal Documents
phenomenon.
Individual personal accounts of
- used to collect and quantify things using
individual’s actions, behavior, health,
set parameters and criteria
physique, etc.
- allows researchers to seamlessly blend
ex. height, weight, etc.
into the environment, providing a unique
perspective
C. Physical Evidence
Documents meticulously maintained by
individuals or organizations.
ex. awards, certificates of achievement,
etc.
5. PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Probability sampling is rooted in the
random selection of sample population
members and enabling researchers to
make a probability statement based on
data collected at random from the
targeted demographic. rules out the
possibility of sampling bias
allows researchers to collect the data
from representatives of the population
they are interested in studying