Sorting

Data Structures & Algorithms
Sorting Techniques
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20. Sorting Algorithm Data Structures & Algorithms
Sorting refers to arranging data in a particular format. Sorting algorithm specifies the way
to arrange data in a particular order. Most common orders are in numerical or
lexicographical order.
The importance of sorting lies in the fact that data searching can be optimized to a very
high level, if data is stored in a sorted manner. Sorting is also used to represent data in
more readable formats. Following are some of the examples of sorting in real-life
scenarios:
 Telephone Directory – The telephone directory stores the telephone numbers of

people sorted by their names, so that the names can be searched easily.
 Dictionary – The dictionary stores words in an alphabetical order so that

searching of any word becomes easy.
In-place Sorting and Not-in-place Sorting

Sorting algorithms may require some extra space for comparison and temporary storage
of few data elements. These algorithms do not require any extra space and sorting is said
to happen in-place, or for example, within the array itself. This is called in-place sorting.
Bubble sort is an example of in-place sorting.
However, in some sorting algorithms, the program requires space which is more than or
equal to the elements being sorted. Sorting which uses equal or more space is called not-
in-place sorting. Merge-sort is an example of not-in-place sorting.
Stable and Not Stable Sorting

If a sorting algorithm, after sorting the contents, does not change the sequence of similar
content in which they appear, it is called stable sorting.
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If a sorting algorithm, after sorting the contents, changes the sequence of similar content
in which they appear, it is called unstable sorting.
Stability of an algorithm matters when we wish to maintain the sequence of original

elements, like in a tuple for example.
Adaptive and Non-Adaptive Sorting Algorithm

A sorting algorithm is said to be adaptive, if it takes advantage of already 'sorted' elements
in the list that is to be sorted. That is, while sorting if the source list has some element
already sorted, adaptive algorithms will take this into account and will try not to re-order
them.
A non-adaptive algorithm is one which does not take into account the elements which are
already sorted. They try to force every single element to be re-ordered to confirm their
sortedness.
Important Terms
Some terms are generally coined while discussing sorting techniques, here is a brief
introduction to them −
Increasing Order
A sequence of values is said to be in increasing order, if the successive element is greater
than the previous one. For example, 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9 are in increasing order, as every next
element is greater than the previous element.
Decreasing Order
A sequence of values is said to be in decreasing order, if the successive element is less
than the current one. For example, 9, 8, 6, 4, 3, 1 are in decreasing order, as every next
element is less than the previous element.
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Non-Increasing Order
A sequence of values is said to be in non-increasing order, if the successive element is
less than or equal to its previous element in the sequence. This order occurs when the
sequence contains duplicate values. For example, 9, 8, 6, 3, 3, 1 are in non-increasing
order, as every next element is less than or equal to (in case of 3) but not greater than
any previous element.
Non-Decreasing Order
A sequence of values is said to be in non-decreasing order, if the successive element is
greater than or equal to its previous element in the sequence. This order occurs when the
sequence contains duplicate values. For example, 1, 3, 3, 6, 8, 9 are in non-decreasing
order, as every next element is greater than or equal to (in case of 3) but not less than
the previous one.
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21. Bubble Sort Algorithm Data Structures & Algorithms
Bubble sort is a simple sorting algorithm. This sorting algorithm is comparison-based

algorithm in which each pair of adjacent elements is compared and the elements are
swapped if they are not in order. This algorithm is not suitable for large data sets as its
average and worst case complexity are of O(n2) where n is the number of items.
How Bubble Sort Works?

We take an unsorted array for our example. Bubble sort takes Ο(n2) time so we're keeping
it short and precise.
Bubble sort starts with very first two elements, comparing them to check which one is
greater.
In this case, value 33 is greater than 14, so it is already in sorted locations. Next, we
compare 33 with 27.
We find that 27 is smaller than 33 and these two values must be swapped.
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The new array should look like this −
Next we compare 33 and 35. We find that both are in already sorted positions.
Then we move to the next two values, 35 and 10.
We know then that 10 is smaller 35. Hence they are not sorted.
We swap these values. We find that we have reached the end of the array. After one
iteration, the array should look like this −
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To be precise, we are now showing how an array should look like after each iteration. After
the second iteration, it should look like this −
Notice that after each iteration, at least one value moves at the end.
And when there's no swap required, bubble sorts learns that an array is completely sorted.
Now we should look into some practical aspects of bubble sort.
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Algorithm
We assume list is an array of n elements. We further assume that swap function swaps
the values of the given array elements.
begin BubbleSort(list)
for all elements of list

if list[i] > list[i+1]
swap(list[i], list[i+1])
end if
end for
return list
end BubbleSort
Pseudocode
We observe in algorithm that Bubble Sort compares each pair of array element unless the
whole array is completely sorted in an ascending order. This may cause a few complexity
issues like what if the array needs no more swapping as all the elements are already
ascending.
To ease-out the issue, we use one flag variable swapped which will help us see if any
swap has happened or not. If no swap has occurred, i.e. the array requires no more
processing to be sorted, it will come out of the loop.
Pseudocode of BubbleSort algorithm can be written as follows −
procedure bubbleSort( list : array of items )
loop = list.count;
for i = 0 to loop-1 do:

swapped = false
for j = 0 to loop-1 do:
/* compare the adjacent elements */

if list[j] > list[j+1] then
/* swap them */
swap( list[j], list[j+1] )
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swapped = true
end if
end for
/*if no number was swapped that means

array is sorted now, break the loop.*/
if(not swapped) then

break
end if
end for
end procedure return list
Implementation
One more issue we did not address in our original algorithm and its improvised
pseudocode, is that, after every iteration the highest values settles down at the end of the
array. Hence, the next iteration need not include already sorted elements. For this
purpose, in our implementation, we restrict the inner loop to avoid already sorted values.
To know about bubble sort implementation in C programming language, please click here.
Bubble Sort Program in C

We shall see the implementation of bubble sort in C programming language here.
Implementation in C
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdbool.h>
#define MAX 10
int list[MAX] = {1,8,4,6,0,3,5,2,7,9};
void display(){
int i;
printf("[");
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// navigate through all items

for(i = 0; i < MAX; i++){
printf("%d ",list[i]);
}
printf("]\n");
}
void bubbleSort() {
int temp;
int i,j;
bool swapped = false;
// loop through all numbers

for(i = 0; i < MAX-1; i++) {
swapped = false;
// loop through numbers falling ahead

for(j = 0; j < MAX-1-i; j++) {
printf(" Items compared: [ %d, %d ] ", list[j],list[j+1]);
// check if next number is lesser than current no

// swap the numbers.
// (Bubble up the highest number)
if(list[j] > list[j+1]) {

temp = list[j];
list[j] = list[j+1];
list[j+1] = temp;
swapped = true;
printf(" => swapped [%d, %d]\n",list[j],list[j+1]);
}else {
printf(" => not swapped\n");
}
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// if no number was swapped that means

// array is sorted now, break the loop.
if(!swapped) {
break;
}
printf("Iteration %d#: ",(i+1));

display();
}
main(){
printf("Input Array: ");
display();
printf("\n");
bubbleSort();
printf("\nOutput Array: ");
display();
}
If we compile and run the above program, it will produce the following result −
Input Array: [1 8 4 6 0 3 5 2 7 9 ]
Items compared: [ 1, 8 ] => not swapped
Items compared: [ 8, 4 ] => swapped [4, 8]
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Iteration 1#: [1 4 6 0 3 5 2 7 8 9 ]
Iteration 2#: [1 4 0 3 5 2 6 7 8 9 ]
Iteration 3#: [1 0 3 4 2 5 6 7 8 9 ]
Iteration 4#: [0 1 3 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 ]
Iteration 5#: [0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ]
Output Array: [0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ]
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22. Insertion Sort Data Structures & Algorithms
This is an in-place comparison-based sorting algorithm. Here, a sub-list is maintained

which is always sorted. For example, the lower part of an array is maintained to be sorted.
An element which is to be 'insert'ed in this sorted sub-list, has to find its appropriate place
and then it has to be inserted there. Hence the name, insertion sort.
The array is searched sequentially and unsorted items are moved and inserted into the
sorted sub-list (in the same array). This algorithm is not suitable for large data sets as its
average and worst case complexity are of Ο(n2), where n is the number of items.
How Insertion Sort Works?

We take an unsorted array for our example.
Insertion sort compares the first two elements.
It finds that both 14 and 33 are already in ascending order. For now, 14 is in sorted sub-
list.
Insertion sort moves ahead and compares 33 with 27.
And finds that 33 is not in the correct position.
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It swaps 33 with 27. It also checks with all the elements of sorted sub-list. Here we see
that the sorted sub-list has only one element 14, and 27 is greater than 14. Hence, the
sorted sub-list remains sorted after swapping.
By now we have 14 and 27 in the sorted sub-list. Next, it compares 33 with 10.
These values are not in a sorted order.
So we swap them.
However, swapping makes 27 and 10 unsorted.
Hence, we swap them too.
Again we find 14 and 10 in an unsorted order.
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We swap them again. By the end of third iteration, we have a sorted sub-list of 4 items.
This process goes on until all the unsorted values are covered in a sorted sub-list. Now we
shall see some programming aspects of insertion sort.
Algorithm
Now we have a bigger picture of how this sorting technique works, so we can derive simple
steps by which we can achieve insertion sort.
Step 1 − If it is the first element, it is already sorted. return 1;

Step 2 − Pick next element
Step 3 − Compare with all elements in the sorted sub-list
Step 4 − Shift all the elements in the sorted sub-list that is greater than the
value to be sorted
Step 5 − Insert the value
Step 6 − Repeat until list is sorted
Pseudocode
procedure insertionSort( A : array of items )
int holePosition
int valueToInsert
for i = 1 to length(A) inclusive do:
/* select value to be inserted */

valueToInsert = A[i]
holePosition = i
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/*locate hole position for the element to be inserted */
while holePosition > 0 and A[holePosition-1] > valueToInsert do:

A[holePosition] = A[holePosition-1]
holePosition = holePosition -1
end while
/* insert the number at hole position */

A[holePosition] = valueToInsert
end for
end procedure
To know about insertion sort implementation in C programming language, please click

here.
Insertion Sort Program in C

This is an in-place comparison-based sorting algorithm. Here, a sub-list is maintained
which is always sorted. For example, the lower part of an array is maintained to be sorted.
An element which is to be 'insert'ed in this sorted sub-list, has to find its appropriate place
and then it is to be inserted there. Hence the name insertion sort.
Implementation in C
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 7
int intArray[MAX] = {4,6,3,2,1,9,7};
void printline(int count){

int i;
for(i = 0;i <count-1;i++){

printf("=");
}
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printf("=\n");
}
void display(){
int i;
printf("[");

for(i = 0;i<MAX;i++){
printf("%d ",intArray[i]);
}
printf("]\n");
}
void insertionSort(){
int valueToInsert;
int holePosition;
int i;

for(i = 1; i < MAX; i++){
// select a value to be inserted.

valueToInsert = intArray[i];
// select the hole position where number is to be inserted

holePosition = i;
// check if previous no. is larger than value to be inserted

while (holePosition > 0 && intArray[holePosition-1] > valueToInsert){
intArray[holePosition] = intArray[holePosition-1];
holePosition--;
printf(" item moved : %d\n" , intArray[holePosition]);
}
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if(holePosition != i){
printf(" item inserted : %d, at position : %d\n" ,
valueToInsert,holePosition);
// insert the number at hole position
intArray[holePosition] = valueToInsert;
}
printf("Iteration %d#:",i);
display();
}
}
main(){
display();
printline(50);
insertionSort();
printf("Output Array: ");
display();
printline(50);
}
Input Array: [4, 6, 3, 2, 1, 9, 7]

==================================================
iteration 1#: [4, 6, 3, 2, 1, 9, 7]
item moved :6
item moved :4
item inserted :3, at position :0
iteration 2#: [3, 4, 6, 2, 1, 9, 7]
item moved :6
item moved :4
item moved :3
iteration 3#: [2, 3, 4, 6, 1, 9, 7]
item moved :6
item moved :4
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item moved :3
item moved :2
iteration 4#: [1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 7]
iteration 5#: [1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 7]
item moved :9
item moved :6
iteration 6#: [1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 6, 9]
Output Array: [1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 6, 9]
==================================================
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23. Selection Sort Data Structures & Algorithms
Selection sort is a simple sorting algorithm. This sorting algorithm is an in-place

comparison-based algorithm in which the list is divided into two parts, the sorted part at
the left end and the unsorted part at the right end. Initially, the sorted part is empty and
the unsorted part is the entire list.
The smallest element is selected from the unsorted array and swapped with the leftmost
element, and that element becomes a part of the sorted array. This process continues
moving unsorted array boundary by one element to the right.
This algorithm is not suitable for large data sets as its average and worst case complexities
are of O(n2), where n is the number of items.
How Selection Sort Works?

Consider the following depicted array as an example.
For the first position in the sorted list, the whole list is scanned sequentially. The first
position where 14 is stored presently, we search the whole list and find that 10 is the
lowest value.
So we replace 14 with 10. After one iteration 10, which happens to be the minimum value
in the list, appears in the first position of the sorted list.
For the second position, where 33 is residing, we start scanning the rest of the list in a
linear manner.
We find that 14 is the second lowest value in the list and it should appear at the second
place. We swap these values.
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After two iterations, two least values are positioned at the beginning in a sorted manner.
The same process is applied to the rest of the items in the array.
Following is a pictorial depiction of the entire sorting process −
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Now, let us learn some programming aspects of selection sort.
Algorithm
Step 1 − Set MIN to location 0
Step 2 − Search the minimum element in the list
Step 3 − Swap with value at location MIN
Step 4 − Increment MIN to point to next element
Step 5 − Repeat until list is sorted
Pseudocode
procedure selection sort
list : array of items
n : size of list
for i = 1 to n - 1
/* set current element as minimum*/
min = i
/* check the element to be minimum */
for j = i+1 to n
if list[j] < list[min] then
min = j;
end if
end for
/* swap the minimum element with the current element*/

if indexMin != i then
swap list[min] and list[i]
end if
end for
end procedure
To know about selection sort implementation in C programming language, please click

here.
149
Selection Sort Program in C

Selection sort is a simple sorting algorithm. This sorting algorithm is an in-place
comparison-based algorithm in which the list is divided into two parts, the sorted part at
the left end and the unsorted part at the right end. Initially, the sorted part is empty and
the unsorted part is the entire list.
Implementation in C
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 7
int intArray[MAX] = {4,6,3,2,1,9,7};

int i;

printf("=");
}
printf("=\n");
}
void display(){
int i;
printf("[");

printf("%d ", intArray[i]);
}
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printf("]\n");
}
void selectionSort(){
int indexMin,i,j;

for(i = 0; i < MAX-1; i++){
// set current element as minimum

indexMin = i;
// check the element to be minimum

for(j = i+1;j<MAX;j++){
if(intArray[j] < intArray[indexMin]){
indexMin = j;
}
}
if(indexMin != i){
printf("Items swapped: [ %d, %d ]\n" , intArray[i],
intArray[indexMin]);
// swap the numbers

int temp = intArray[indexMin];
intArray[indexMin] = intArray[i];
intArray[i] = temp;
}
printf("Iteration %d#:",(i+1));
display();
}
}
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main(){
display();
printline(50);
selectionSort();
display();
printline(50);
}
Input Array: [4, 6, 3, 2, 1, 9, 7]

==================================================
Items swapped: [ 4, 1 ]
iteration 1#: [1, 6, 3, 2, 4, 9, 7]
iteration 2#: [1, 2, 3, 6, 4, 9, 7]
iteration 3#: [1, 2, 3, 6, 4, 9, 7]
iteration 4#: [1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 7]
iteration 5#: [1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 7]
iteration 6#: [1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9]
Output Array: [1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9]
==================================================
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24. Merge Sort Algorithm Data Structures & Algorithms
Merge sort is a sorting technique based on divide and conquer technique. With worst-case
time complexity being Ο(n log n), it is one of the most respected algorithms.
Merge sort first divides the array into equal halves and then combines them in a sorted
manner.
How Merge Sort Works?

To understand merge sort, we take an unsorted array as the following −
We know that merge sort first divides the whole array iteratively into equal halves unless
the atomic values are achieved. We see here that an array of 8 items is divided into two
arrays of size 4.
This does not change the sequence of appearance of items in the original. Now we divide
these two arrays into halves.
We further divide these arrays and we achieve atomic value which can no more be divided.
Now, we combine them in exactly the same manner as they were broken down. Please
note the color codes given to these lists.
We first compare the element for each list and then combine them into another list in a
sorted manner. We see that 14 and 33 are in sorted positions. We compare 27 and 10 and
in the target list of 2 values we put 10 first, followed by 27. We change the order of 19
and 35 whereas 42 and 44 are placed sequentially.
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In the next iteration of the combining phase, we compare lists of two data values, and
merge them into a list of found data values placing all in a sorted order.
After the final merging, the list should look like this −
Now we should learn some programming aspects of merge sorting.
Algorithm
Merge sort keeps on dividing the list into equal halves until it can no more be divided. By
definition, if it is only one element in the list, it is sorted. Then, merge sort combines the
smaller sorted lists keeping the new list sorted too.
Step 1 − if it is only one element in the list it is already sorted, return.

Step 2 − divide the list recursively into two halves until it can no more be
divided.
Step 3 − merge the smaller lists into new list in sorted order.
Pseudocode
We shall now see the pseudocodes for merge sort functions. As our algorithms point out
two main functions − divide & merge.
Merge sort works with recursion and we shall see our implementation in the same way.
procedure mergesort( var a as array )

if ( n == 1 ) return a
var l1 as array = a[0] ... a[n/2]

var l2 as array = a[n/2+1] ... a[n]
l1 = mergesort( l1 )
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l2 = mergesort( l2 )
return merge( l1, l2 )

end procedure
procedure merge( var a as array, var b as array )
var c as array
while ( a and b have elements )

if ( a[0] > b[0] )
add b[0] to the end of c
remove b[0] from b
else
add a[0] to the end of c
remove a[0] from a
end if
end while
while ( a has elements )

add a[0] to the end of c
remove a[0] from a
end while
while ( b has elements )

add b[0] to the end of c
remove b[0] from b
end while
return c
end procedure
To know about merge sort implementation in C programming language, please click here.
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Merge Sort Program in C

Merge sort is a sorting technique based on divide and conquer technique. With the worst-
case time complexity being Ο(n log n), it is one of the most respected algorithms.
Implementation in C
We shall see the implementation of merge sort in C programming language here −
#include <stdio.h>
#define max 10
int a[10] = { 10, 14, 19, 26, 27, 31, 33, 35, 42, 44 };
int b[10];
void merging(int low, int mid, int high) {

int l1, l2, i;
for(l1 = low, l2 = mid + 1, i = low; l1 <= mid && l2 <= high; i++) {
if(a[l1] <= a[l2])
b[i] = a[l1++];
else
b[i] = a[l2++];
}
while(l1 <= mid)

b[i++] = a[l1++];
while(l2 <= high)

b[i++] = a[l2++];
for(i = low; i <= high; i++)

a[i] = b[i];
}
void sort(int low, int high) {

int mid;
if(low < high) {
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mid = (low + high) / 2;

sort(low, mid);
sort(mid+1, high);
merging(low, mid, high);
}else {
return;
}
}
int main() {
int i;
printf("List before sorting\n");
for(i = 0; i <= max; i++)

printf("%d ", a[i]);
sort(0, max);
printf("\nList after sorting\n");
for(i = 0; i <= max; i++)

printf("%d ", a[i]);
}
List before sorting

10 14 19 26 27 31 33 35 42 44 0
List after sorting
0 10 14 19 26 27 31 33 35 42 44
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25. Shell Sort Data Structures & Algorithms
Shell sort is a highly efficient sorting algorithm and is based on insertion sort algorithm.
This algorithm avoids large shifts as in case of insertion sort, if the smaller value is to the
far right and has to be moved to the far left.
This algorithm uses insertion sort on a widely spread elements, first to sort them and then
sorts the less widely spaced elements. This spacing is termed as interval. This interval is
calculated based on Knuth's formula as −
h = h * 3 + 1
where −
h is interval with initial value 1
This algorithm is quite efficient for medium-sized data sets as its average and worst case
complexity are of O(n), where n is the number of items.
How Shell Sort Works?

Let us consider the following example to have an idea of how shell sort works. We take
the same array we have used in our previous examples. For our example and ease of
understanding, we take the interval of 4. Make a virtual sub-list of all values located at
the interval of 4 positions. Here these values are {35, 14}, {33, 19}, {42, 27} and {10,
14}
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We compare values in each sub-list and swap them (if necessary) in the original array.
After this step, the new array should look like this −
Then, we take interval of 2 and this gap generates two sub-lists - {14, 27, 35, 42}, {19,
10, 33, 44}
We compare and swap the values, if required, in the original array. After this step, the
array should look like this −
Finally, we sort the rest of the array using interval of value 1. Shell sort uses insertion sort
to sort the array.
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Following is the step-by-step depiction −
160
We see that it required only four swaps to sort the rest of the array.
Algorithm
Following is the algorithm for shell sort.
Step 1 − Initialize the value of h

Step 2 − Divide the list into smaller sub-list of equal interval h
Step 3 − Sort these sub-lists using insertion sort
Step 3 − Repeat until complete list is sorted
Pseudocode
Following is the pseudocode for shell sort.
procedure shellSort()
A : array of items
/* calculate interval*/
while interval < A.length /3 do:
interval = interval * 3 + 1
end while
while interval > 0 do:
for outer = interval; outer < A.length; outer ++ do:
/* select value to be inserted */

valueToInsert = A[outer]
inner = outer;
/*shift element towards right*/

while inner > interval -1 && A[inner - interval] >= valueToInsert do:
A[inner] = A[inner - interval]
inner = inner - interval
end while
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/* insert the number at hole position */

A[inner] = valueToInsert
end for
/* calculate interval*/
interval = (interval -1) /3;
end while
end procedure
To know about shell sort implementation in C programming language, please click here.
Shell Sort Program in C

Shell sort is a highly efficient sorting algorithm and is based on insertion sort algorithm.
This algorithm avoids large shifts as in case of insertion sort, if the smaller value is to the
far right and has to be moved to the far left.
Implementation in C
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 7
int intArray[MAX] = {4,6,3,2,1,9,7};

int i;

printf("=");
}
printf("=\n");
}
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void display(){
int i;
printf("[");

}
printf("]\n");
}
void shellSort(){
int inner, outer;
int valueToInsert;
int interval = 1;
int elements = MAX;
int i = 0;
while(interval <= elements/3) {

interval = interval*3 +1;
}
while(interval > 0) {
printf("iteration %d#:",i);
display();
for(outer = interval; outer < elements; outer++) {

valueToInsert = intArray[outer];
inner = outer;
while(inner > interval -1 && intArray[inner - interval]
>= valueToInsert) {
intArray[inner] = intArray[inner - interval];
inner -=interval;
printf(" item moved :%d\n",intArray[inner]);
}
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intArray[inner] = valueToInsert;
printf(" item inserted :%d, at position :%d\n",valueToInsert,inner);
}
interval = (interval -1) /3;

i++;
}
}
int main() {
display();
printline(50);
shellSort();
display();
printline(50);
return 1;
}
Input Array: [4, 6, 3, 2, 1, 9, 7]

==================================================
iteration 0#: [4, 6, 3, 2, 1, 9, 7]
item moved :4
iteration 1#: [1, 6, 3, 2, 4, 9, 7]
item moved :6
item moved :6
item moved :3
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item moved :6
item moved :9
Output Array: [1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9]
==================================================
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26. Quick Sort Data Structures & Algorithms
Quick sort is a highly efficient sorting algorithm and is based on partitioning of array of
data into smaller arrays. A large array is partitioned into two arrays one of which holds
values smaller than the specified value, say pivot, based on which the partition is made
and another array holds values greater than the pivot value.
Quick sort partitions an array and then calls itself recursively twice to sort the two resulting
subarrays. This algorithm is quite efficient for large-sized data sets as its average and
worst case complexity are of O(nlogn), where n is the number of items.
Partition in Quick Sort

Following animated representation explains how to find the pivot value in an array.
The pivot value divides the list into two parts. And recursively, we find the pivot for each
sub-lists until all lists contains only one element.
Quick Sort Pivot Algorithm

Based on our understanding of partitioning in quick sort, we will now try to write an
algorithm for it, which is as follows.
Step 1 − Choose the highest index value has pivot

Step 2 − Take two variables to point left and right of the list excluding pivot
Step 3 − left points to the low index
Step 4 − right points to the high
Step 5 − while value at left is less than pivot move right
Step 6 − while value at right is greater than pivot move left
Step 7 − if both step 5 and step 6 does not match swap left and right
Step 8 − if left ≥ right, the point where they met is new pivot
166
Quick Sort Pivot Pseudocode

The pseudocode for the above algorithm can be derived as −
function partitionFunc(left, right, pivot)

leftPointer = left -1
rightPointer = right
while True do
while A[++leftPointer] < pivot do
//do-nothing
end while
while rightPointer > 0 && A[--rightPointer] > pivot do

//do-nothing
end while
if leftPointer >= rightPointer

break
else
swap leftPointer,rightPointer
end if
end while
swap leftPointer,right
return leftPointer
end function
Quick Sort Algorithm

Using pivot algorithm recursively, we end up with smaller possible partitions. Each
partition is then processed for quick sort. We define recursive algorithm for quicksort as
follows −
Step 1 − Make the right-most index value pivot

Step 2 − partition the array using pivot value
Step 3 − quicksort left partition recursively
Step 4 − quicksort right partition recursively
167
Quick Sort Pseudocode

To get more into it, let see the pseudocode for quick sort algorithm −
procedure quickSort(left, right)
if right-left <= 0
return
else
pivot = A[right]
partition = partitionFunc(left, right, pivot)
quickSort(left,partition-1)
quickSort(partition+1,right)
end if
end procedure
To know about quick sort implementation in C programming language, please click here.
Quick Sort Program in C

Quick sort is a highly efficient sorting algorithm and is based on partitioning of array of
data into smaller arrays. A large array is partitioned into two arrays one of which holds
values smaller than the specified value, say pivot, based on which the partition is made
and another array holds values greater than the pivot value.
Implementation in C
#include <stdio.h>
#define MAX 7
int intArray[MAX] = {4,6,3,2,1,9,7};

int i;

printf("=");
}
printf("=\n");
168
void display(){
int i;
printf("[");

}
printf("]\n");
}
void swap(int num1, int num2){

int temp = intArray[num1];
intArray[num1] = intArray[num2];
intArray[num2] = temp;
}
int partition(int left, int right, int pivot){
int leftPointer = left -1;
int rightPointer = right;
while(true){
while(intArray[++leftPointer] < pivot){

//do nothing
}
while(rightPointer > 0 && intArray[--rightPointer] > pivot){

//do nothing
}
if(leftPointer >= rightPointer){

break;
}else{
printf(" item swapped :%d,%d\n",
169
intArray[leftPointer],intArray[rightPointer]);
swap(leftPointer,rightPointer);
}
printf(" pivot swapped :%d,%d\n", intArray[leftPointer],intArray[right]);

swap(leftPointer,right);
printf("Updated Array: ");
display();
return leftPointer;
}
void quickSort(int left, int right){

if(right-left <= 0){
return;
}else {
int pivot = intArray[right];
int partitionPoint = partition(left, right, pivot);
quickSort(left,partitionPoint-1);
quickSort(partitionPoint+1,right);
}
}
main(){
display();
printline(50);
quickSort(0,MAX-1);
display();
printline(50);
}
170
Input Array: [4 6 3 2 1 9 7 ]
==================================================
pivot swapped :9,7
Updated Array: [4 6 3 2 1 7 9 ]
pivot swapped :4,1
Updated Array: [1 6 3 2 4 7 9 ]
item swapped :6,2
pivot swapped :6,4
Updated Array: [1 2 3 4 6 7 9 ]
pivot swapped :3,3
Updated Array: [1 2 3 4 6 7 9 ]
Output Array: [1 2 3 4 6 7 9 ]
==================================================
171

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Data Structures & Algorithms

 Telephone Directory – The telephone directory stores the telephone numbers of

 Dictionary – The dictionary stores words in an alphabetical order so that

In-place Sorting and Not-in-place Sorting

Stable and Not Stable Sorting

Stability of an algorithm matters when we wish to maintain the sequence of original

Adaptive and Non-Adaptive Sorting Algorithm

Bubble sort is a simple sorting algorithm. This sorting algorithm is comparison-based

How Bubble Sort Works?

The new array should look like this −

Then we move to the next two values, 35 and 10.

Now we should look into some practical aspects of bubble sort.

for all elements of list

Pseudocode of BubbleSort algorithm can be written as follows −

procedure bubbleSort( list : array of items )

for i = 0 to loop-1 do:

for j = 0 to loop-1 do:

/* compare the adjacent elements */

/*if no number was swapped that means

if(not swapped) then

end procedure return list

Bubble Sort Program in C

// navigate through all items

bool swapped = false;

// loop through all numbers

// loop through numbers falling ahead

// check if next number is lesser than current no

if(list[j] > list[j+1]) {

// if no number was swapped that means

printf("Iteration %d#: ",(i+1));

This is an in-place comparison-based sorting algorithm. Here, a sub-list is maintained

How Insertion Sort Works?

Insertion sort compares the first two elements.

Insertion sort moves ahead and compares 33 with 27.

And finds that 33 is not in the correct position.

These values are not in a sorted order.

However, swapping makes 27 and 10 unsorted.

Hence, we swap them too.

Again we find 14 and 10 in an unsorted order.

Step 1 − If it is the first element, it is already sorted. return 1;

for i = 1 to length(A) inclusive do:

/* select value to be inserted */

/*locate hole position for the element to be inserted */

while holePosition > 0 and A[holePosition-1] > valueToInsert do:

/* insert the number at hole position */

To know about insertion sort implementation in C programming language, please click

Insertion Sort Program in C

int intArray[MAX] = {4,6,3,2,1,9,7};

void printline(int count){

for(i = 0;i <count-1;i++){

// navigate through all items

// loop through all numbers

// select a value to be inserted.

// select the hole position where number is to be inserted

// check if previous no. is larger than value to be inserted

Input Array: [4, 6, 3, 2, 1, 9, 7]

Selection sort is a simple sorting algorithm. This sorting algorithm is an in-place

How Selection Sort Works?

Following is a pictorial depiction of the entire sorting process −

Now, let us learn some programming aspects of selection sort.

/locate hole position for the element to be inserted /

/shift element towards right/