Topic #2: COORDINATION AND CONTROL

(A): NERVOUS SYSTEM

The nervous system consists of the:
(i) Central Nervous System (CNS) with the brain and spinal cord.
(ii) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) with the paired cranial and spinal nerves.

Neurone – is a nerve cell that transmits electrical impulses.

Nerves – are bundles of neurons surrounded by connective tissue.
Types of neurones
1. Sensory (receptor) neurone – carry impulses from receptors to the CNS.

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2. Motor (effector) neurone – carry impulses from the CNS to effectors.

3. Relay (connector) neurone – carry impulses from receptor neurons to effector neurons
or from one relay cell to another, e.g. in the brain.

NB: The cell body of a motor neurone is between a Dendron and an axon whereas in a
sensory neurone, the cell body is in some position along the axon.

Structure and function of the parts of the neurone

1. Cell body – is the main part of the cell containing cytoplasm and the nucleus.

2. Dendron – transmit impulses towards the cell body.

3. Dendrites – finely branched endings that receive impulses from other neurones.

4. Axon – transmit impulses away from the cell body to the target cell.

5. Myelin sheath – made of individual Schwann cells with abundant fatty material in their
surface membranes to form an insulation. They wrap themselves around the axis of the
axon and dendron, resulting in faster impulse conduction.

6. Schwann cell – makes the fatty myelin sheath.

7. Node of Ranvier – the gap between adjacent Schwann cells where the myelin sheath is
absent.
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 Properties of neurones
1. Conductivity – transmission of electrical / nerve impulses.

2. Irritability – are able to detect changes and respond to them.

Types of nerves
1. Sensory / receptor / afferent nerves – contains only sensory neurones which carry
impulses from the receptors to the CNS, e.g. optic nerve.

2. Motor / effector / efferent nerves – contains only motor neurones which carry impulses
from the CNS to effectors, e.g. some cranial nerves.

3. Mixed nerves – contains both sensory and motor neurones carrying impulses into and
out of the CNS, e.g. spinal nerves, some cranial nerves.
Stimulus – any detectable change in the external or internal environment.
Receptor – a cell or organ that detects a specific stimulus and converts it into an electrical
impulse.
Effector – is an organ that produces a response as a result of stimulus detection, e.g. muscle,
gland.
Coordination of body activities

Stimulus→Re ceptor ⃗
Sensory CNS ⃗
Motor Effector→Re sponse

A receptor detects a change in conditions (stimuli) and the message is carried from the receptor
to the CNS by a sensory neurone. After the CNS processes the information (brain only), a
message is carried from the CNS to an effector by a motor neurone which carries out a response.
Nerve Impulses
Nerve impulses – are messages passed along neurones in the form of electrical impulses called
action potentials.
NB: They are caused by the neurone membrane becoming permeable to sodium ions which set
up an electrical charge difference that passes along the membrane in one direction.
Nature / Conduction of nerve impulses
The axon of a neurone in resting condition has a difference in electrical charge between the
inside and outside. The outside is positive and the inside is negative (polarized). An impulse
causes the membrane to become permeable to the high concentration of positive sodium ions on
the outside. These sodium ions flow in making the inside positive and the outside negative.
These ions affect those next to them along the neurone so that a circuit is formed which causes
the impulse to travel (depolarization). Sodium ions are pumped out for the neurone to recover,
restoring the charge difference (repolarization).

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NB: In one neurone, the “all or nothing” principle applies. Once a stimulus is strong enough, an
impulse fires and this is not increased however strong the stimulus to the one neurone. However,
a nerve contains many neurones, so the greater the stimulus, the more neurones are fired. Hence,
a strong stimulus fires more neurones, creating a stronger nerve impulse.
Synapse
Synapse – is a gap or junction between neurones.
Transmission of nerve impulses across a synapse

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When an impulse arrives at a synapse, it causes the release of chemical neurotransmitters from
vesicles into the gap. These neurotransmitters diffuse across the gap and attach to receptors on
the membrane of the next neurone which causes an impulse to flow in the other neurone. An
enzyme from the second neurone breaks down the neurotransmitter very quickly after the
impulse has been passed.
Function of a synapse
To transmit impulses by means of neurotransmitters from one neurone to the next in one
direction.
Effects of drugs at synapses and on human behaviour
1. Stimulants – mimic the action of neurotransmitters resulting in high activity and
excitability in an individual, e.g. caffeine, amphetamines.

2. Depressants – block the release of neurotransmitters at the synapse, particularly in the

brain which will cause an individual to become lethargic and possibly depressed, e.g.
alcohol.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord. Each of these has:
(i) White matter – contains mainly the axons and dendrons of neurones. It appears
white in colour because these parts of the neurones are surrounded by Schwann cells
with their fatty myelin sheath. They conduct impulses up and down from the brain to
the spinal nerves and vice versa.

(ii) Grey matter – contains mainly the cell bodies of neurones. It appears grey in colour
because these parts of the neurones are not surrounded by myelin. They conduct
impulses across the body from side to side.

(iii) Cerebrospinal fluid – fluid which circulates within membranes (meninges) around
the outside of the CNS and also within the spinal canal.

Brain
It is the processor for the CNS. It controls all voluntary and many involuntary actions. It is also
the seat of awareness, knowledge, emotion and learning.
Structure of the brain
It is largely composed of neurones and other cells with supporting roles (some form a barrier to
prevent infection, others secrete cushioning fluids) and a well-developed blood supply (delivers
oxygen and nutrients). It is surrounded by three membranes or meninges (protects and nourishes

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the brain tissues) and has four interconnecting chambers or ventricles which contain
cerebrospinal fluid and lead to the central canal of the spinal cord.
Divisions of the brain

1. Forebrain – origin of emotion and damage to the area may cause aggression, apathy,
extreme sexual behaviour or other emotional disturbances.
(a) Cerebrum – is made up of two cerebral hemispheres whose surfaces are highly folded
called the cerebral cortex. The cortex is the centre of intelligence, memory, language
and consciousness. Certain regions of the cerebral hemispheres are concerned with
vision, hearing, moving certain muscles, speech and personalities.

(b) Hypothalamus – forms the floor and sides of part of the brain just behind the cerebral
hemispheres. It controls water balance (osmoregulation), temperature regulation,
blood pressure, heart rate and peristaltic gut movements.

(c) Pituitary gland – situated below the hypothalamus. It secretes hormones concerned
with growth, sexual reproduction and water balance in the body.

2. Midbrain – small region containing nerve fibres which connect the parts of the hindbrain
with the fore brain.

3. Hindbrain – posterior region of the brain.

(a) Cerebellum – lies behind and above the medulla oblongata. It controls balance,
posture and learned skills.

(b) Medulla oblongata – controls automatic or involuntary actions such as breathing,

heart rate / beat, swallowing, salivation, coughing and sneezing.
NB: The brain delays the flow of information around the nervous system because the neurones it
is made with are not fast-conducting neurones covered with a myelin sheath.

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 Organization of the brain
The brain contains three types of centres:
(i) Sensory centres – receive incoming messages from the sense organs.
(ii) Motor centres – carry instructions from the brain to the effectors.
(iii) Association centres – interpret the information delivered to the sensory centres and
ensure that appropriate instructions are given to the effectors by the motor centres.
Spinal cord
It acts as a relay system carrying impulses to and from the brain. It links the brain to the rest of
the nerves in the body, thereby coordinating actions.
Structure of the spinal cord

pg. 214 (CXC HSB)

It is a thick cord of nerve tissue that starts at the base of the brain and runs down the centre of the
vertebral column. The central canal contains cerebrospinal fluid.
NB: In the brain, the white matter is found in the centre of the cerebrum and the grey matter is
around the outside. In the spinal cord, the grey matter is in the middle and the white matter is on
the outside.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
It consists of all the nerves which automatically control all the internal mechanisms in the body
over which we have no conscious control, e.g. heartbeat, breathing, peristaltic gut movements,
dilation of pupils, constriction of blood vessels, cellular respiration, production of urine by the
kidneys, movement of blood throughout the body.

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 Reflex actions
Reflex action – is a rapid, automatic, unchanging response to a particular stimulus not involving
the brain.
Importance of reflex actions
To protect the body from danger.
Examples of reflex actions
1. Withdrawal of hand 5. Knee jerk
2. Production of saliva 6. Swallowing
3. Blinking of eye 7. Coughing
4. Narrowing (constriction) of pupils 8. Breathing
Reflex arc – is the arrangement of neurones / nerve pathway involved in the reflex action.
Spinal reflex actions
It gives us a quick response because impulses pass from sense organs in the skin to the spinal
cord and straight back to the effector muscles. It NEVER goes to the brain.
Example #1: Touching a hot object

When the hand touches a hot object, temperature and pain receptors in the skin detect the
stimulus and the message is passed along a sensory neurone to a relay neurone in the spinal cord,
which in turn, passes the information along a motor neurone to the effector (muscles of the arm).
The muscle contracts and the hand withdraw from the hot object.
NB: Later, some impulses do pass from the relay neurone into the white matter and then the
brain. Hence, we are quickly aware that the reflex action has taken place.

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 Example #2: Knee jerk reflex

A blow to the tendon just below the knee cap creating pressure is detected by stretch receptors in
the thigh muscle. A sensory neurone carries the stimulus to the spinal cord where it is transferred
to a motor neurone which carries the impulse back to the effector (muscles of the leg). The
muscles contracts pulling the foot forwards.
NB: In the knee jerk reflex action, there is no relay neurone. The impulses pass from a sensory
neurone directly to a motor neurone.
Cranial reflex actions, e.g. pupil reflex

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In bright light, the retina sends impulses to the brain via sensory neurones. After processing, an
impulse is sent via motor neurones to the circular muscles of the iris (effector), which will
contract making the pupil smaller so that less light can enter the eye (constriction).
In dim light, the retina sends impulses to the brain via sensory neurones. After processing, an
impulse is sent via motor neurones to the radial muscles of the iris (effector), which will contract
making the pupil larger so that more light can enter the eye (dilation).
Voluntary actions – are actions that involve conscious thought. They are not automatic, e.g.
driving a car.
Reflex arc of voluntary actions
Stimulus → Receptor → CNS → Effector → Response
Involuntary actions – are automatic actions that do not involve conscious thought, e.g.
breathing.
Reflex arc of involuntary actions
Stimulus → Receptor → Effector → Response
Comparison between voluntary and involuntary actions

Reflex / Involuntary action Voluntary action

Quick and simple More complex and variable
Automatic and involuntary Not automatic
Not under conscious control Under conscious control
Brain not involved Brain starts the action
Involves sensory, motor and relay neurones Involves neurones in the brain, white matter
of spinal cord and motor neurones
At one level in the spinal cord Many levels of spinal cord involved

Conditioned reflexes – are learned reflexes which can then be performed without conscious
thought, e.g. riding a bicycle, learning to walk.
Damage to the nervous system
It may be caused by:
(i) Injury, e.g. broken back from an accident.
(ii) Harmful drugs, e.g. heroin.
(iii) Infection, e.g. meningitis, infantile paralysis.
(iv) Degeneration as with age, e.g. Alzheimer’s disease (memory loss).

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 (B): HUMAN SENSE ORGANS
1. Skin – responds to touch, pain, pressure and temperature.
2. Ear – responds to sound and gravity.
3. Nose – responds to smell and taste.
4. Mouth (tongue) – responds to taste.
5. Eye – responds to light (sight).
Stimuli detected by body receptors

Stimulus Receptor Location

External
Sound Sound sensitive cells Cochlea of ear
Light Rod and cone cells Retina of the eye
Smell Chemoreceptors Nose
Taste Chemoreceptors Nose and tongue
Temperature Heat sensitive cells Dermis of skin
Pressure Pressure sensitive cells Dermis of skin
Touch Touch sensitive cells Dermis of skin
Pain Pain sensitive cells Dermis of skin
Gravity Gravity sensitive cells Inner ear
Internal
Blood concentration Osmoreceptors Hypothalamus of the brain
Blood temperature Thermoreceptors Hypothalamus of the brain
Tension in muscles Proprioreceptors Tendons

Classification of receptors
1. Photoreceptors – responds to light.
2. Chemoreceptors – responds to chemicals.
3. Thermoreceptors – responds to changes in temperature.
4. Mechanoreceptors – responds to mechanical changes such as changes in length.
NB: Receptors are transducers converting one form of energy to another.
The Human Eye
The eye is situated in a bony socket of the skull that protects it from knocks called an orbit and
has a number of muscles attached to it so that it can be moved. The eyebrows prevent sweat
from the brow from entering the eye. The eyelashes and eyelids help to protect the eye from
damage by foreign particles. The eyelids also help lubricate the surface of the eye with tears,
when they cause blinking. These tears are produced by tear glands and pass down ducts entering
at the inner end of each eyelid. Tears are slightly antiseptic containing an enzyme lysozyme that
destroys microorganisms.
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NB: The eye is a sense organ because it contains:
(i) Receptors – rod and cone cells on the retina.
(ii) Systems for making the most of the light stimulus including the lens and iris.
(iii) Its own blood supply via the choroid and physical protection via the sclera.
Structure and function of the internal parts of the eye

pg. 189 (CXC HSB)

1. Conjunctiva – a thin transparent skin continuous with lining of eyelids that protects the
cornea.

2. Sclera – a tough, white fibrous coat that protects the eyeball and helps retain its spherical
shape.

3. Cornea – transparent front part of the sclera where the greatest amount of refraction
(bending) of light occurs.

4. Retina – contains the light sensitive cells; rods and cones.

5. Choroid – a darkly coloured layer which prevents reflection of light inside the eye and
contains blood vessels to supply the retina with food and oxygen and to remove wastes.

6. Fovea (yellow spot) – contains cone cells only which work in bright light and gives us
our sense of colour. It provides detailed vision (resolution).

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 7. Optic nerve – composed of sensory neurones which carry nerve impulses from the retina
to the visual centre of the brain.

8. Blind spot – is the point where the optic nerve leaves the eye. It lacks the retina, so there
are no light sensitive cells here. Hence, light falling on this region cannot be detected (no
vision).

9. Vitreous humour – a jelly-like substance which helps to refract light, maintains the
shape of the eyeball, supports the lens and keeps the retina in place at the back of the eye.

10. Aqueous humour – colourless, watery fluid which helps to refract light and maintains
the shape of the eye.

11. Ciliary muscle – a circular ring of muscle fibres that contracts and relaxes to alter the
shape of the lens during accommodation.

12. Suspensory ligaments – attaches the lens to the ciliary body thereby controlling the
focusing of light on the retina.

13. Lens – a transparent, elastic, biconvex structure that makes fine adjustments to focus
light on the retina.

14. Iris – the coloured part of the eye composed of a muscle that can contract and expand,
controlling the amount of light that enters the eye.

15. Pupil – is the circular opening in the iris which allows light to enter into the eye.
NB: It appears black because the choroid is visible through it.
Photoreceptors of the retina
1. Rod cells – are packed most tightly around the edge of the retina. They work under low
light intensity (dim light). They provide black and white images.

2. Cone cells – are packed most tightly at the centre of the retina. They work under high
light intensity (bright light). They provide coloured images (red, green, blue).
Muscles of the iris
1. Circular muscles – lie in circles around the pupil.

2. Radial muscles – run outwards from the edge of the pupil.

Control of light entering the eye
Light falls on the retina and stimulates the rods and cones to produce nerve impulses which
travel to the brain along the optic nerve. In dim light, the radial muscles of the iris contract
making the iris smaller and enlarging the pupil (dilate). Thus, more light can enter and reach the

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retina. In bright light, the circular muscles of the iris contract enlarging the iris and so reducing
the size of the pupil (constrict). Hence, less light can enter and reach the retina.
Pigment accustoms the eye to dim light (Dark adaptation)
Over a longer period, the eyes become accustomed to dim light by a mechanism in the retina.
Pigment moves away from the light sensitive cells, so they are no longer screened as they are in
brighter light. Hence, there is a stimulus from the light that enters. This accounts for the
difficulty in seeing at first on entering a dark room or cinema. Later, when the pigment has left
the retina, it is easier to see than before.
Formation of images

pg. 193 (CXC HSB)

Light is made of small particles called photons that travel in straight lines called rays. When light
rays from a single point on an object enter the eye, they are refracted (bent) by the cornea and
lens and brought together (focused) onto a single point on the retina producing an image. The
image formed is inverted (upside down), diminished (smaller than the object) and has “holes” in
them. The brain interprets the image correcting the inversion and reduction in size and filling in
the “holes” as best it can by the process integration.

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 Accommodation
Accommodation – is the ability of the lens system to produce a sharp image of an object at
different distances.

pg. 193 (CXC HSB)

The lens is held in place by suspensory ligaments whose tension and shape of the lens is altered
by the ciliary muscle. When objects are near, the ciliary muscle contracts because the light needs
to be refracted more, causing the eyeballs to bulge as the suspensory ligaments relax. Hence, the
lens becomes more convex (short and fat). When objects are distant, the ciliary muscles relax
because the light needs to be refracted less, causing the eyeball to become spherical as the
suspensory ligaments tightened. Hence, the lens becomes less convex (long and thin).
NB: For a normal eye, objects nearer than 25cm cannot be focused, since at this distance the lens
cannot become any more convex to refract the light rays further. This distance is called the near
point of vision.
Stereoscopic vision – is the ability to judge depth of field (distance) so giving a 3D effect.
Because we have two eyes, our field of vision is greater than if we had a single eye. Most
importantly, because the fields of vision of the two eyes overlap, much of what we see is
registered at a slightly different angle by both eyes. This angle is used by the brain to judge
distance.

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 Eye defects
They are caused by:
(i) Size of the eyeball.
(ii) Shape of the lens.
(iii) Ability of the lens to change shape.

1. Long sightedness – inability to see near objects clearly but distant objects are clear.

pg. 195 (CXC HSB)

It is caused either by: (i) short eyeball or (ii) lens being able to relax enough (shorten and
fatten), so parallel light rays are focused behind the retina. This defect can be corrected
by using a converging (convex) lens in spectacles or contact lenses.

2. Short sightedness – inability to see distant objects clearly but near objects are clear.

pg. 195 (CXC HSB)

It is caused either by: (i) long eyeball or (ii) lens being unable to become thin enough, so
parallel light rays are focused in front of the retina. This defect can be corrected by using
a diverging (concave) lens in spectacles or contact lenses.

3. Astigmatism – is the condition where the lens or cornea has an uneven curvature.

As a result, light rays focus at different points on the retina resulting in distorted or
blurred vision. This defect can be corrected by using a cylindrical lens in spectacles or
contact lenses made from glass or hard plastic.

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 4. Old sight (presbyopia) – over the age of 40, the elasticity of the lens is gradually lost,
eventually leaving it in a more or less fixed shape suitable only for distance vision. Older
people generally use spectacles that have a single converging lens or bifocal lenses for
reading.

5. Cataract – is the condition when the lens becomes opaque or milky in appearance with
age. As a result, light is unable to pass through preventing the person from seeing. The
lens can be removed surgically and replaced with an artificial one.

6. Glaucoma – is the condition where the aqueous humour is produced at a greater rate than
it is reabsorbed. This causes a build-up of pressure which can damage the optic nerve.
This requires immediate treatment either by the use of drugs or by an operation to drain
the excess fluid. If this does not occur, the person may lose the sight in the affected eye.

Effect of diabetes on eyesight

High blood sugar can lead to problems like:
1. Blurry/poor vision
2. Blindness
3. Cataracts
4. Glaucoma
5. Diabetic Retinopathy – caused by damage to small blood vessels in the retina of the eye.
In early diabetic retinopathy, blood vessels can weaken, bulge, or leak into the retina.
This stage is called non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy.
If the disease gets worse, some blood vessels close off, which causes new blood vessels
to grow, or proliferate, on the surface of the retina. This stage is called proliferative
diabetic retinopathy. These abnormal new blood vessels can lead to serious vision
problems.
6. Diabetic macular edema – caused by swelling of the macula (the part of your retina
needed for reading, driving and seeing faces). Over time, this disease can destroy the
sharp vision in this part of the eye, leading to partial vision loss or blindness.

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 (C): ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Hormone – is a chemical messenger secreted by an endocrine gland that travels in the blood all
around the body to stimulate its target tissue or organ.
Endocrine glands – are ductless glands composed of secretory cells that secrete their hormones
directly into the bloodstream.
Exocrine glands – are glands that secrete their hormones directly into a duct, e.g. salivary gland,
sweat gland, mammary gland, tear gland.
Location of endocrine glands in the body and the hormones they secrete

1. Pituitary gland – is found at the base of the brain.

(a) Growth hormone (GH) – controls the growth rate and development of children.

(b) Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) – stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete
thyroxine.

(c) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) – stimulates egg development and oestrogen
production in women and sperm production in men.

(d) Luteinising hormone (LH) – stimulates egg release in women and testosterone
production in men.

(e) Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) – controls the water content of the blood by its effect
on the kidneys (osmoregulation).
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2. Thyroid gland – lies in front of the trachea at the base of the larynx.

 Thyroxine – controls the rate of metabolism including heat production by the

liver and body mass.
NB: Lack of thyroxine in a child results in reduced mental and physical growth
(cretin). In adults, thyroxine plays an important role in the development of
personalities. An overactive gland makes the person overactive and often obsessively
hardworking who is usually taller and thinner. An underactive gland makes the
person unusually placid (gentle, calm, peaceful) and without any real energy or drive
who is usually shorter and fatter.
3. Pancreas – is found in the loop of the duodenum of the small intestine.

(a) Insulin – lowers blood sugar levels by changing sugar into glycogen.

(b) Glucagon – raises blood sugar levels by changing glycogen into sugar.
NB: The pancreas is also an exocrine gland. It secretes digestive enzymes down the
pancreatic duct into the duodenum of the small intestine.
4. Adrenal gland – located above the kidney.
 Adrenaline – prepares the body for stressful situations / action (fight or flight).
Effects of adrenaline
 Increased heart rate sending more blood carrying food and oxygen to the muscles.
 Deeper, more rapid breathing and airways widen to increase the amount of oxygen
entering the blood and to get rid of excess carbon dioxide produced.
 Glycogen in the liver is converted into glucose in the blood and the muscle cells absorb
more glucose for cellular respiration to provide extra energy.
 The pupils dilate, allowing more light into the eyes and making us over sensitive to
movement.
 Body hair stands on end.
 Increased mental awareness and speed of reaction.
 Blood is diverted away from the gut inhibiting digestion and into the big limb muscles.
 Skin becomes pale as blood is diverted away.

5. Testes – part of the male reproductive system.

 Testosterone – controls development of male secondary sexual characteristics and
sperm production.

6. Ovaries – part of the female reproductive system.

(a) Oestrogen – controls development of female secondary sexual characteristics and the
menstrual cycle.
(b) Progesterone – involved in the menstrual cycle.

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 Hormonal action
A stimulus affects the endocrine gland so that it releases a hormone which is distributed through
the body in the bloodstream. Receptors on the cell surface membrane of the target organ
recognize the circulating hormone molecules. The target organ brings about an appropriate
response to deal with the original stimulus.
Hormonal coordination
The production and secretion of hormones is controlled by a feedback mechanism. As the level
of hormone in the blood rises, it switches off (inhibits) its own production, so that the level never
gets too high. As the level of hormone in the blood falls, it switches on (stimulates) its own
production, so that the level never gets too low.
Comparison of the endocrine system and nervous system
Similarities
1. Chemicals released at synapses are similar to hormones.
2. Brain and endocrine glands control each other.
3. Both coordinate body activity.
Differences

Endocrine System Nervous System

Nature of message Hormones Electrical / Nerve impulses
Transport In the bloodstream Neurone membrane
Speed of action Transmission is slow except Transmission is fast
adrenaline
Effect of message Response is often long lasting Response is often short
lasting
Area of response Effects are widespread Effects are localized
Duration of response May take years to be Completed within seconds
completed
Production Stimuli from sense organs Stimuli from sense organs
affect endocrine (ductless) affect neurone membrane
glands
Main coordination Pituitary gland Brain
E.g. of processes controlled Growth, development of Reflexes, e.g. blinking,
reproductive system movement of limbs
Recipient of message Target organ receives Effector receives message
message
Disease Metabolic, e.g. growth Paralysis or mental illness
dwarfism

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