SOIL

COMPACTION
SOIL COMPACTION

Soil compaction is the densification—reduction in void ratio—of a soil through the expulsion
of air. This is normally achieved by using mechanical compactors, rollers, and rammers with
the addition of water.

When water is added to the soil during compaction, it acts as a softening agent on the soil
particles. The soil particles slip over each other and move into a densely packed position.

Compaction increases the strength characteristics of soils, which increase the bearing
capacity of foundations constructed over them

Compaction also decreases the amount of undesirable settlement of structures and increases
the stability of slopes of embankments.

The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in terms of its dry unit weight.
PURPOSE OF COMPACTING SOIL

1. Increased Shear Strength – This means that the larger loads can be applied to compacted
soils since they are typically stronger. Increased bearing capacity, slope stability, and
pavement system strength.

2. Reduced Permeability – This inhibits soils’ ability to absorb water, and therefore reduces
the tendency to expand/shrink and potentially liquefy.

3. Reduced Compressibility – This also means that the larger loads can be applied to
compacted soils since they will produce smaller settlements.

4. Control Swelling and Shrinking.

5. Reduce Liquefaction Potential

IMPROPER COMPACTION CAN LEAD TO:

1. Structural distress from excessive total and differential settlements.

2. Cracking of pavements, floors, and basements.

3. Structural damage to buried structures, water and sewer pipes, and utility conduits.

4. Soil erosion
Compaction, in general, is the densification of soil by REMOVAL OF AIR

+ + +
Water Content
UNCOMPACTED SOIL

COMPACTED SOIL
The dry unit weight after compaction first increases as the moisture content increases. Beyond a
certain moisture content, any increase in the moisture content tends to reduce the dry unit weight.
This phenomenon occurs because the water takes up the spaces that would have been occupied by
the solid particles.

The moisture content at which the maximum dry unit weight (𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) is attained is generally
referred to as the Optimum Moisture Content (OMC).

𝛾𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥
Dry unit weight (γd )

OMC Water Content (MC)

Compaction Curve
Laboratory Compaction Tests

Laboratory compaction tests provide the basis for determining the percent compaction and
molding water content needed to achieve the required engineering properties, and for
controlling construction to assure that the required compaction and water contents are
achieved.

The aim of the test is to establish the maximum dry unit weight that may be attained for a
given soil with a standard amount of compactive effort.

When a series of samples of a soil are compacted at different water content the plot usually
shows a distinct peak.

The fundamentals of compaction of fine-grained soils are relatively new R.R Proctor in the
early 1930’s developed the principles of compaction. The proctor test is an impact
compaction. A hammer is dropped several times on a soil sample in a mold. The mass of the
hammer, height of drop, number of drops, number of layers of soil, and the volume of the
mold are specified.
Laboratory Compaction Tests

1. Standard Proctor Test (SPT)

- not sufficient for airways and highways

2. Modified Proctor Test (MPT)

- adopted by ASTM (Test Designation D-1557) and AASHTO (Test Designation T-180)
Standard Proctor Test
3 1 3
In the Proctor test, the soil is compacted in a mold that has a volume of 944 cm ( ft ). The soil
30
is compacted in 3 equal layers by a hammer that delivers 25 blows to each layer.
For each test, the moist unit weight ( 𝛾) of
compaction, can be calculated as

Standard Proctor compaction test results for a silty clay

The maximum dry unit weight at a given moisture
content with Zero Air Voids can be obtained when
the degree of saturation equals 100%.

𝛾𝑤
𝛾𝑧𝑎𝑣 =
1
𝑤+
𝐺𝑠

Zero Air Voids Curve / Saturation Line – Curve

that represents the fully saturated condition
(S=100%). It cannot be reached by compaction

Standard Proctor compaction test results for a silty clay

FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION

1. Effect of Soil Type

The soil type—that is, grain-size

distribution, shape of the soil grains,
specific gravity of soil solids, and amount
and type of clay minerals present—has a
great influence on the maximum dry unit
weight and optimum moisture content.
Lee and Suedkamp (1972) studied
compaction curves for 35 soil samples.
They observed that four types of
compaction curves can be found.
FACTORS AFFECTING COMPACTION

2. Effect of Compaction Effort (Energy)

The compaction energy per unit volume used for the Standard Proctor test can be given
as

SI Units

English Units
E = 12,400 ft-lb/ ft 3
The number of hammer blows per each layer
varied from 20 to 50, which varied the energy
per unit volume. We can see that,

1. As the compaction effort is increased, the

maximum dry unit weight of compaction
is also increased.

2. As the compaction effort is increased, the

optimum moisture content is decreased to
some extent.
Modified Proctor Test
▪ It was developed during World War II by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineering
▪ The standard Proctor test was modified to better represent field conditions.

1
✓ Same mold is used with a volume of 944 cm3 ( ft 3 ),
30
✓ Soil is compacted in five layers by a hammer that has a mass of 4.54 kg (10 lb).
✓ The drop of the hammer is 457 mm (18 in.).
✓ The number of hammer blows for each layer is kept at 25.
✓ compaction energy for this type of compaction test can be calculated as 2700 kN-m/m3 (56,000
ft-lb/ lb3 ).
 Modified
Proctor
Test

Standard
Proctor
Test
𝜸𝒅𝒎𝒂𝒙 (MPT)

MPT

𝜸𝒅𝒎𝒂𝒙 (SPT)

SPT

OMC OMC
(MPT) (SPT)
STRUCTURE OF COMPACTED CLAY

Dry unit weight (γd )

Water Content (MC)

Water Content
EXAMPLE 1:

The laboratory test results of a standard Proctor test are given in the following table.
INTERPRETATION OF PROCTOR TEST RESULTS

Knowledge of the optimum water content and the maximum dry unit weight of soils is very
important for construction specifications of soil improvement by compaction. Specifications
for earth structures (embankments, footings, etc.) usually call for a minimum of 95% of
Proctor maximum dry unit weight. This level of compaction can be attained at two water
contents—one before the attainment of the maximum dry unit weight, or dry of optimum, the
other after attainment of the maximum dry unit weight, or wet of optimum.

Normal practice is to compact the soil dry of optimum. Compact the soil wet of optimum for
swelling (expansive) soils, soil liners for solid waste landfills, and project where soil volume
changes from changes in moisture conditions are intolerable.
INTERPRETATION OF PROCTOR TEST RESULTS

When a heavily compacted soil mass (near to maximum dry unit weight) is sheared, it tends to
expand (dilate) and gets looser. Usually this expansion is not uniform; some parts of the soil
mass are looser than other parts. The flow rate of water in the soil will increase as water can
easily (compared to the intact one) flow through the looser parts, possibly leading to
catastrophic failure. Heavily compacted soils tend to show sudden decrease in strength when
sheared.

In engineering, if failure is to occur we prefer that it occurs gradually rather than suddenly
so that mitigation measures can be implemented. In some earth structures (for example,
earth dams) you should try to achieve a level of compaction that would cause the soil to
behave ductile (ability to deform without rupture). This may require compaction wet of
optimum at levels less than 95% of the maximum dry unit weight (approximately 80% to
90% of maximum dry unit weight).
Field Compaction
Compaction Equipment

Most of the compaction in the field is done with rollers. The four most common types of rollers are:

BIG PROJECTS

1. Smooth-wheel rollers (or smooth-drum rollers)

2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers
3. Sheepsfoot rollers
4. Vibratory rollers

SMALL PROJECTS

1. Walk behind Compactor

2. Plate Compactor
 Smooth-wheel Rollers
are suitable for proof rolling subgrades and for finishing
operation of fills with sandy and clayey soils. These
rollers provide 100% coverage under the wheels, with
ground contact pressures as high as 310 to 380 kN/m2 (45
to 55 lb/in2 ). They are not suitable for producing high unit
weights of compaction when used on
Smooth-wheel Rollers thicker layers.

Pneumatic Rubber-tired Rollers

are better in many respects than the smooth-wheel rollers.
The former are heavily loaded with several rows of tires.
These tires are closely spaced—four to six in a row. The
contact pressure under the tires can range from 600 to 700
kN/m2 (85 to 100 lb/in2 ), and they produce about 70 to
80% coverage. Pneumatic rollers can be used for sandy
and clayey soil compaction. Compaction is achieved by a
combination of pressure and kneading action. Pneumatic Rubber-tired Rollers
 Sheepsfoot Rollers
are drums with a large number of projections. The area
of each projection may range from 25 to 85 cm2 ( 4 to 13
in2 ). These rollers are most effective in compacting clayey
soils. The contact pressure under the projections can range
from 1400 to 7000 kN/m2 (200 to 1000 lb/in2 ). During
compaction in the field, the initial passes compact the
lower portion of a lift. Compaction at the top and middle
Sheepfoot Rollers of a lift is done at a later stage.

Vibratory Rollers
are extremely efficient in compacting granular soils.
Vibrators can be attached to smooth-wheel, pneumatic
rubber-tired, or sheepsfoot rollers to provide vibratory
effects to the soil. The vibration is produced by rotating
off-center weights.
Vibratory Rollers
SMALL PROJECTS

WALK-BEHIND COMPACTOR PLATE COMPACTOR

FACTORS AFFECTING FIELD COMPACTION
In addition to soil type and moisture content, other factors must be considered to achieve the
desired unit weight of compaction in the field. These factors include the thickness of lift, the
intensity of pressure applied by the compacting equipment, and the area over which the pressure
is applied.

These factors are important because the pressure applied at the surface decreases with depth,
which results in a decrease in the degree of soil compaction.

During compaction, the dry unit weight of soil also is affected by the number of roller passes.

In most cases, about 10 to 15 roller passes yield the maximum dry unit weight economically
attainable.
SPECIFICATION FOR FIELD COMPACTION
In most specifications for earthwork, the contractor is instructed to achieve a compacted field dry
unit weight of 90 to 95% of the maximum dry unit weight determined in the laboratory by either
the standard or modified Proctor test. This is a specification for relative compaction, which can
be expressed as
Where:

𝛾𝑑 R = Relative compaction.
R =
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑙𝑎𝑏) 𝛾𝑑 = In situ (field) dry unit weight of soil
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑙𝑎𝑏) = Max dry unit wt. calculated at lab using SPT/MPT

For the compaction of granular soils, specifications sometimes are written in terms of the
required relative density 𝐷𝑟 or the required relative compaction. Relative density should not be
confused with relative compaction.
1 1
−
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 𝛾𝑑 𝛾𝑑 − 𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
𝐷𝑟 = OR 𝐷𝑟 =
1 1 𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥) − 𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 𝛾𝑑
−
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
SPECIFICATION FOR FIELD COMPACTION
Equating R and 𝐷𝑟 Lee and Singh (1971) devised a correlation between
R and 𝐷𝑟 for granular soils:

Where:
Field Compaction Test or Field Density Test (FDT)
When the compaction work is progressing in the field, knowing whether the specified unit weight
has been achieved is useful. The standard procedures for determining the field unit weight of
compaction include,

1. Sand Cone Method

2. Rubber Balloon Method

3. Nuclear Method
Sand Cone Method After excavation of the hole, the cone with the
(ASTM Designation D-1556) sand-filled jar attached to it is inverted and
The sand cone device consists of a glass or placed over the hole. Sand is allowed to flow
plastic jar with a metal cone attached at its out of the jar to fill the hole and the cone. After
top. The jar is filled with uniform dry Ottawa that, the combined weight of the jar, the cone,
Sand. The combined weight of the jar, the and the remaining sand in the jar is determined
cone, and the sand filling the jar is as 𝑊4 , so
determined a𝑠 𝑊1 .

In the field, a small hole is excavated in the

area where the soil has been compacted. If the Where 𝑊5 = wt. of sand to fill the hole & cone
weight of the moist soil excavated from the
hole (𝑊2 ) is determined and the moisture
content of the excavated soil is known, the
dry weight of the soil can be obtained as,
Where 𝑉 = Vol. of hole excavated
𝑊𝐶 = wt. of sand to fill the cone only
𝛾𝑑(𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑) = dry unit wt. of Ottawa sand
SUMMARY / STEPS:

1.) 𝑊1 (weight of the jar + cone + sand filling the jar) 3.) Det. 𝑊2 (Moist unit wt.)
Before Use
4.) Det. 𝑊3 (Dry unit wt.) & 𝑤 (moisture content)

5.) Open Sand Cone device and fill the hole with
Ottawa sand.

2.) Dug a hole to 6” – 8” depth

SUMMARY / STEPS:

6.) Determine 𝑊4 (weight of the jar + cone + sand filling the jar - after filling the hole)

7.) Determine 𝑊5 (wt. of sand to fill the hole & cone)

8.) Determine 𝑊𝑐 (wt. of sand to fill the cone only)

𝑊𝑐 = 𝛾𝑑(𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑) × 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑒

9.) Determine

10.) Determine
Rubber Balloon Method
(ASTM Designation D-2167)

The procedure for the rubber balloon method is similar to that

for the sand cone method; a test hole is made and the moist
weight of soil removed from the hole and its moisture content
are determined.

However, the volume of the hole is determined by introducing

into it a rubber balloon filled with water from a calibrated
vessel, from which the volume can be read directly.

The dry unit weight of the compacted soil can be determined

by using 𝛾𝑑 (from Sand Cone Method). Figure RBM shows a
calibrated vessel that would be used with a rubber balloon.

Figure RBM
Nuclear Method

Nuclear density meters are often used for determining the compacted dry unit weight of soil. The
density meters operate either in drilled holes or from the ground surface.

It uses a radioactive isotope source. The isotope gives off Gamma rays that radiate back to the
meter’s detector.

Dense soil absorbs more radiation than loose soil.

The instrument measures the weight of wet soil per unit volume and the weight of water present in a
unit volume of soil. The dry unit weight of compacted soil can be determined by subtracting the
weight of water from the moist unit weight of soil.
Nuclear Method

Moisture Density Gauge

Special Compaction Techniques
Several special types of compaction techniques have been developed for deep compaction of in-
place soils, and these techniques are used in the field for large-scale compaction works. Among
these, the popular methods are,

1. Vibroflotation

2. Dynamic Compaction

3. Blasting.
Vibroflotation

Nuclear Vibroflotation is a technique for in situ

densification of thick layers of loose granular soil
deposits. It was developed in Germany in the 1930s.
The process involves the use of a Vibroflot unit (also
called the vibrating unit), which is about 2.1 m (7 ft)
long.

This vibrating unit has an eccentric weight inside it and

can develop a centrifugal force, which enables the
vibrating unit to vibrate horizontally.

There are openings at the bottom and top of the

vibrating unit for water jets. The vibrating unit is
attached to a follow-up pipe.
Dynamic Compaction
Dynamic compaction is a technique that has gained popularity in the United States for the
densification of granular soil deposits.

This process consists primarily of dropping a heavy weight repeatedly on the ground at regular
intervals. The weight of the hammer used varies over a range of 80 to 360 kN (18 to 80 kip), and
the height of the hammer drop varies between 7.5 and 30.5 m (25 and 100 ft). The stress waves
generated by the hammer drops aid in the densification. The degree of compaction achieved at a
given site depends on the following three factors:

1. Weight of hammer
2. Height of hammer drop
3. Spacing of locations at which the hammer is dropped

SI English
Blasting
Blasting is a technique that has been used successfully in many projects (Mitchell, 1970) for the
densification of granular soils. The general soil grain sizes suitable for compaction by blasting
are the same as those for compaction by vibroflotation.

The process involves the detonation of explosive charges, such as 60% dynamite at a certain
depth below the ground surface in saturated soil. The lateral spacing of the charges varies from
about 3 to 9 m (10 to 30 ft). Three to five successful detonations are usually necessary to achieve
the desired compaction. Compaction (up to a relative density of about 80%) up to a depth of
about 18 m (60 ft) over a large area can easily be achieved by using this process.

Usually, the explosive charges are placed at a depth of about two-thirds of the thickness of the
soil layer desired to be compacted. The sphere of influence of compaction by a 60% dynamite
charge can be given as follows (Mitchell, 1970):
EXAMPLE 2:
Laboratory compaction test results for a clayey • Calibrated dry density of Ottawa sand = 1570 kg/m3
silt are given in the following table. • Calibrated mass of Ottawa sand to fill the cone = 0.545 kg
• Mass of jar + cone + sand (before use) = 7.59 kg
• Mass of jar + cone + sand (after use) = 4.78 kg
• Mass of moist soil from hole = 3.007 kg
• Moisture content of moist soil = 10.2%

Determine:

a. Dry unit weight of compaction in the field?

b. Relative compaction in the field?

Following are the results of a field unit-weight
determination test performed on the same soil by
means of the sand cone method:
#2 SOLUTION:
a.) FOLLOW STEPS OF SAND CONE METHOD

i.) 𝑊1 = 7.59 kg (wt. before use)

𝑊2 = 3.007 kg (moist wt.)

𝑊2
𝑊3 = (dry wt.)
1+𝑤
𝑊5 = 2.81 kg
3.007
𝑊3 = = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟑 kg
1 + 0.102

𝑊4 = 4.78 kg (wt. after use)

𝑊𝑐 = 0.545 kg
𝑊5 = 𝑊1 − 𝑊4 = 2.81 kg (wt. to fill cone and hole)
𝑊ℎ = 2.265 kg

𝑊𝑐 = 0.545 kg (wt. of sand in the cone)

𝑊ℎ = 𝑊5 − 𝑊𝑐 = 2.265 kg (wt. of sand in the hole)

#2 SOLUTION:
a.) FOLLOW STEPS OF SAND CONE METHOD

ii.) Determine Volume of Hole iii.) Dry Unit Wt.

𝑀 𝑀𝑑 𝑊3
𝜌= (density eq’n) 𝜌𝑑 = = (dry density eq’n)
𝑉 𝑉ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑉ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝑊ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒
𝜌(𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑎𝑤𝑎 𝑠𝑎𝑛𝑑) = (Using Property of Ottawa Sand) 2.73 kg kg
𝑉ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝜌𝑑 = = 1895.83
1.44 × 10−3 m3 m3
kg 2.265 kg
1570 = 𝛾𝑑 = 𝜌𝑑 × 𝑔
m3 𝑉ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒
= 1895.83 × 9.81
𝑉ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 m3
kN
𝛾𝑑 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟔𝟎
m3
#2 SOLUTION:
b.) First plot the given data (PLOT IT YOURSELF)

Approximately,

𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑙𝑎𝑏) = 18.9 kN/m3 𝑂𝑀𝐶 = 10.8 % (say just before 11% water content)

𝛾𝑑
R = 𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑙𝑎𝑏) Subjective reading

18.6
=
18.9

R = 0.𝟗𝟖𝟒𝟏 or 𝟗𝟖. 𝟒𝟏 % (> 95% ∴ PASS! )

EXAMPLE 3:
An embankment for a highway 30 m wide and 1.2 m of compacted thickness is to be constructed from a sandy
soil, trucked from a borrow pit. The water content of the sandy soil in the borrow is 15% and its void ratio is
0.75. The specification requires the embankment be compacted to a dry unit weight of 18.2 kN/m3 . Length of
the embankment is 1.5 km. Assume 𝐺𝑠 = 2.7. Determine the volume of borrowed material required?

SOLUTION

SHORT-CUT METHOD:

1 + 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝑉𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤 = × 𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝑒𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤

𝑉𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤 = Volume Required from Borrow 𝑒𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤 = Void ratio of Borrow Site
𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 = Volume to Construction Site (Compacted Volume) 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 = Void ratio of Compacted Site
i) Determine 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 of construction pavement iii) Required Volume from Borrow

𝐺𝑠
𝛾𝑑 = 𝛾 1 + 0.455
1 + 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑤 𝑉𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤 = × 54000
0.75
2.7
18.2 = (9.81) 𝑉𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤 = 𝟏𝟎𝟒, 𝟕𝟔𝟎 m3
1 + 𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒

𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 = 0.455

ii) Determine Volume of compacted volume of pavement

𝑉𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 = 1.2 × 1500 × 30 = 54,000 m3

EXAMPLE 4:
The maximum and minimum dry densities of a sand were determined in the laboratory to be 1682 kg/m3 and
1510 kg/m3 , respectively. In the field, if the relative density of compaction of the same sand is 70%, what are its
relative compaction (%) and dry density (kg/m3 )?

SOLUTION

i) Recall 𝐷𝑟

𝛾𝑑 − 𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥) 𝜌𝑑 − 𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥)

𝐷𝑟 = 𝐷𝑟 =
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥) − 𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 𝛾𝑑 𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥) − 𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 𝜌𝑑

𝜌𝑑 −1510 1682
OR 0.7 =
1682−1510 𝜌𝑑

𝜌𝑑 − 𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
𝐷𝑟 = 𝜌𝑑 = 1626.42 kg/m3
𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥) − 𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛) 𝜌𝑑
ii.) Relative Compaction

Use

1510
𝑅0 =
1682

Where: 𝑅0 = 0.8977

0.8977
𝑅 =
1 − 0.7(1 − 0.8977)
Or
𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑖𝑛)
𝑅0 =
𝜌𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥) 𝑅 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟔𝟔𝟗 or 𝟗𝟔. 𝟔𝟗 % (> 95% ∴ PASS! )
FIN