Chapter 8

Formulating
Research Questions
and Queries

KEY TERMS
Breakdowns Predictive hypotheses review (Chapter 6). All of these processes are part of
Descriptive questions Predictive questions the important work of refining the structure and
Directional hypotheses Query content of any type of inquiry. Now you are ready to
Hypotheses Question move beyond these initial starting blocks as we
Integrated designs Relational questions examine how to develop specific questions within
Nondirectional hypotheses the experimental-type tradition and queries within
the naturalistic tradition. Developing a question or
CHAPTER OUTLINE query represents the first formal point of entry into
Research Questions in Experimental-Type Design a study.
Level 1: Questions That Seek to Describe Phenomena We have just used two distinct terms, “question”
Level 2: Questions That Explore Relationships Among and “query,” to describe these initial formal points
Phenomena of entry into a study. These terms reflect the different
Level 3: Questions That Test Knowledge approaches to research used in each tradition and in
Developing Experimental-Type Research Questions mixed methods. Your research question or query will
Hypotheses guide all other subsequent steps and decisions, such
Research Queries in Naturalistic Inquiry as how you collect information and what other types
Classic Ethnography of procedures you will follow.
Phenomenology
Grounded Theory
Narrative
Developing Naturalistic Research Queries
Integrating Research Approaches
Summary

Formulating
questions/
Up until now you have learned about specific think- queries
ing and some action processes, such as the role
of theory in research (Chapter 7), ways to identify
and frame research problems (Chapter 5), and the Philosophical Foundations
purpose of and methods for conducting the literature

97
98 PART II • Thinking Processes

Research Questions in but relationships are not yet understood. Level 3

questions test existing theory or models and are
Experimental-Type Design asked when a substantial body of knowledge is
In experimental-type research, entry into an investi- known and well-defined theory is developed.
gation requires the formulation of a very specific
question with a prescribed structure. That is, from a Level 1: Questions That Seek
broad topic of interest, you narrow your scope to to Describe Phenomena
articulate a specific question that will guide the Questions that aim to describe phenomena are
conduct of the investigation. This question must be referred to as Level 1 questions. Level 1 questions
concise and focused. It establishes the boundaries or are descriptive questions designed to elicit descrip-
limits framing the concepts, individuals, or phenom- tions of a single topic or a single population about
ena to be examined in the study. The question also which there is theoretical or conceptual material in
must be posed a priori, or before engaging in the the literature but little or no empirical knowledge.
research process, because it becomes the foundation This level of questioning leads to exploratory action
or basis from which all subsequent research action processes with the intent to precisely describe an
processes are developed and implemented and by identified and defined phenomenon.
which the rigor of the design is determined. As dis- Return to the mobility device example discussed
cussed in other chapters, rigor in experimental-type in Chapter 4. Suppose you are a therapist working in
design basically determines the worth of a study a rehabilitation center. One of your responsibilities
based on the degree to which the design answers the is to introduce clients to a range of adaptive mobility
research questions in a stable manner. So, without an equipment that clients may need or may find useful
articulated research question, design rigor is the at home. You notice, however, that some of your
guess of the reader, because the exact question being older clients appear hesitant to use this equipment,
answered has to be assumed or extrapolated from and you are not convinced that they will continue to
narrative about research aims and so forth. We there- use the issued assistive devices once they are home.
fore encourage you to identify and carefully articu- Because this has important practice, policy, and cost
late your research questions so that your reader does implications, you and your department consider this
not have to be a soothsayer. concern important enough to investigate.
The purpose of the research question in the
experimental-type tradition is to articulate not only
the concepts that will be studied, but also their struc- Your first step is to conduct a comprehensive
ture and scope, and to define the set of boundaries. literature review. You might start with a keyword
The research question leads the investigator to highly search, such as “adaptive equipment,” “assistive mobility
specified design and data collection action processes devices,” and “rehabilitation.” Although some literature
has been developed over the past several years,1,2 it is
that involve a form of observation or measurement
not yet adequate in its development to explain patterns
to answer the question as it is specified. Research
of use and nonuse, particularly among elders discharged
questions are developed deductively from the theo- from rehabilitation services. Because of the minimal
retical principles that exist and are presented in the literature development on abandonment, you decide
literature. that the first step is to design a Level 1 study to
Each type of question reflects a different level of describe patterns of equipment use in the home after
knowledge and theory development concerning the rehabilitation and to identify reasons for use and nonuse
topic of interest. Questions that seek to describe a among clinical populations, such as older people with
phenomenon, referred to as Level 1 questions, are recent strokes or hip fractures, who would benefit from
asked when little to nothing is empirically known the use of equipment over time. Your initial Level 1
about the topic. Level 2 questions explore relation- research questions are:
ships among phenomena and are asked when descrip- 1. What is the frequency of use of adaptive mobility
tive knowledge is known and formally articulated, devices by older individuals who have been diagnosed
 Chapter 8 • Formulating Research Questions and Queries 99

with strokes and discharged to their home following

rehabilitation? BOX 8-1 Level 1: Descriptive
2. What are the reasons for use and nonuse of assistive Research Questions
mobility devices by this population at 3, 6, and 9
1. What are the most commonly applied for assistive
months after discharge?
devices in an elder population of Swedish
residents who apply for grants for these devices?
2. For elders with depressive symptoms, to what
Now suppose you were interested in advancing extent do impairment, functional status, and
higher educational opportunities for students with severity of depressive symptoms change over
diverse sensory impairments in graduate health 3 years?
career education. Although a body of knowledge 3. What is the incidence of a history of family
exists regarding the attitudes of occupational therapy problems in the area of substance use,
faculty toward including students with disabling psychopathology, compulsive disorders, and
conditions in occupational therapy education, little violence? To what extent are there significant
is known about the attitudes of other public health differences in student histories of family problems
faculty toward including this student population in by age, gender, or race/ethnicity?
graduate education. Therefore, research based on a
Level 1 question will be meaningful and appropriate
to describe the attitudes of public health faculty 3. How do students perceive the costs and benefits
toward accepting and teaching students with diverse of helping in their communities?
impairments in their graduate classes. Level 1 ques- 4. To what extent are students aware that needs exist
tions focus on a description of one concept or vari- in their communities?
able in a population. To describe a variable, which
To answer these questions, the investigators iden-
can be defined as a characteristic or phenomenon that
tified specific items on the Community Service
has more than one value, you first derive a lexical
Attitudes Survey that measured each of the variables
definition of the concept from the literature and
named in the four Level 1 questions (actions to
operationalize or define it in such a way as to permit
address community needs; moral obligation to help
its measurement. Thus, Level 1 questions focus on
communities; perceived costs and benefits of com-
measuring the nature and/or magnitude of a particu-
munity helping; and awareness of needs in commu-
lar phenomenon in the population of interest.
nities). Occupational therapy students were named
In response to the changing context of practice, a
as their population of interest. Box 8-1 presents addi-
study conducted by Hoppes and Hellman3 examined
tional examples of Level 1 questions. Note that they
the attitudes of occupational therapy students toward
answered the questions “what?” and “how much?”
community practice. Although there was a growing
(As we discuss later, the wording of the first two
body of literature on the need to educate students for
questions posed by Hoppes and Hellman, although
community practice, Hoppes and Hellman were con-
seen frequently in this type of lexicon, is not correct
cerned that “students’ voices have seldom been heard
for experimental-type questions.)
in the discussion about assimilating community
As you can see, the focus of a Level 1 question
engagement into occupational therapy education.”
is on “what,” “how,” and “how much.” Level 1 ques-
To inform progressive occupational therapy educa-
tions focus on the description of one concept or vari-
tion that would be meaningful to students, these
able in a defined population. A variable is defined as
investigators initiated a descriptive study to answer
a characteristic or phenomenon that has more than
the following research questions:
one value. To describe a variable, you first derive a
1. Do students believe there are specific actions they lexical definition of the concept (description of the
can take to address community needs? term in words) from the literature and then opera-
2. Do students feel a moral obligation to help in their tionalize it (define a concept by how it will be mea­
communities? sured). For example, suppose you were interested in
100 PART II • Thinking Processes

understanding the degree of skill in computer use in population, the experimental-type researcher may
a population of well adults over the age of 85. The pose questions that are relational. Level 2 reflects
variable would be skill in computer use. You would relational questions and builds on and refines the
therefore consult the literature to find a fitting lexical results of Level 1 studies. The key purpose of Level
definition of skill in computer use and then opera- 2 questioning is to explore relationships among phe-
tionalize it so that numbers could be used as descrip- nomena that have already been identified and
tive of skill. described. Here the stem question asks, “What is the
We indicated earlier that the questions posed by relationship?” or a variation of this (e.g., “associa-
Hoppes and Hellman3 were not phrased correctly. tion”), and the topic contains two or more concepts
That is because research questions in experimental or variables. “What is the relationship between exer-
design cannot have yes or no answers but must allow cise capacity and cardiovascular health in middle-
for a range of options, even if the findings result aged men?” In this case, the two identified variables
in absence or presence. Level 1 questions there­ to be measured are exercise capacity and cardiovas-
fore focus on measuring the nature of a particular cular health. The specific population is middle-aged
phenomenon in the population of interest. The fol- men. As you can surmise, Level 1 research must
lowing stems are frequently used in these questions: have been accomplished for the two variables to be
“What is the extent of” or “How is,” followed by the defined and operationalized.
variable and the one population of interest. As shown
in the examples, only one population is identified. Suppose you are involved in establishing exercise
Notice that these stems all provide for a larger range programs for adults as part of their cardiac care.
than yes or no responses. Also, single concepts are Although you know there is much evidence to support
examined in each study, such as assistive devices, the cardiovascular benefits of aerobic exercise in general,
functional status, computer skill, and family disor- you do not know much about the exercise capacity of
ders. Each of these concepts can be defined so as middle-aged men, and this group has become your
to permit their measurement—that is, they can be primary clinical population. Thus, you may be interested
examined empirically. in asking a Level 2 question such as, “What is the
Level 1 questions describe the parts of the whole. relationship between exercise capacity and cardiovascular
health in middle-aged men?” In this case, the two
Remember, the underlying thinking process for
identified variables that are measured are exercise
experimental-type research is to learn about a topic
capacity and cardiovascular health. The specific
by examining its parts and their relationships. Level population is middle-aged men. As you can surmise,
1 questioning is the foundation for clarifying the Level 1 research must have been accomplished for
presence of parts, their magnitude, and/or their spe- the two variables to be identified, defined, and
cific nature. In the scheme of levels of abstraction, operationalized.
Level 1 questions target the lowest levels of abstrac-
tion: concepts and constructs (see Chapter 7).
As discussed in later chapters, Level 1 questions Returning to the example of attitudes of public
lead to the development of descriptive designs, such health faculty, suppose we now want to know the
as surveys, exploratory or descriptive studies, trend relationship between attitudes and numbers of stu-
designs, feasibility studies, need assessments, and dents admitted into public health majors. We would
case studies. pose a Level 2 question such as, “What is the rela-
tionship between faculty attitudes and number of
Level 2: Questions That Explore public health majors with mobility impairments?”
Relationships Among Phenomena This Level 2 question would lead us to measure and
The Level 2 relational questions build on and refine look at the association between two variables, atti-
the results of Level 1 studies. Once a “part” of a tudes and number of majors admitted to public health
phenomenon is described and there is existing programs. Suppose we found that negative attitudes
knowledge about it in the context of a particular were related to low numbers of public health majors
 Chapter 8 • Formulating Research Questions and Queries 101

refer to this level inquiry as a predictive question.

BOX 8-2 Level 2: Relational-Type Questions Given the findings of the Level 2 question, it would
1. What is the relationship among use of assistive be important to know whether attitudes are causal of
devices, living arrangements, and level of barriers to public health education for students with
difficulty performing activities of daily living mobility impairments. A Level 3 question would
in a sample of applicants to a home modification therefore be indicated. Building on the knowledge
program? already generated, we now would be able to ask the
2. What is the relationship among depressive following question: “To what extent do faculty atti-
symptoms, impairment status, functional status, tudes have an influence on the number of students
and use of assistive devices? with mobility impairments who are accepted into
3. To what extent are there differences in student
public health majors?” The resultant study will test
histories of family problems by age, gender, or
race/ethnicity?
the theoretical foundation proposing that negative
attitudes create educational barriers and exclusion of
otherwise qualified students, and the study will be
able to predict the opportunity for these students to
be accepted into public health majors on the basis of
with mobility impairments. We would be able to faculty attitudes. At this level of questioning, the
claim an association but not a causal relationship purpose is to predict what will happen and provide
between the two variables. a theory to explain the reason(s). On the basis of a
Let us revisit the Level 1 examples and see how Level 3 question, specific predictive hypotheses,
they can be modified to become Level 2 questions. statements predicting the outcome of one variable on
Suppose we have conducted studies to address the the basis of knowing another, are formulated. Action
Level 1 questions in Box 8-1. If we continue our based on this knowledge can be taken to promote
research agenda in each of these areas of inquiry, educational opportunity if you know where, why,
we would be ready for the relational questions in and how to intervene.
Box 8-2.
Level 2 questions address relationships between
At Level 2, we asked the question, “What is the
variables. Studies with this level of questioning rep-
relationship among the attitudes of occupational
resent the next level of complexity above Level 1 therapy faculty and the number of students with
questions. These questions continue to build on disabilities admitted into occupational therapy education
knowledge in the experimental-type framework by programs?” Assume that in conducting this relational-
examining their parts, their relationships, and the type study, we find an association between faculty
nature and direction of these relationships. Level 2 attitudes and number of students with disabilities.
questions primarily lead to research that uses passive That is, our study shows that programs in which the
observation design, as discussed later in the text. occupational therapy educators have positive attitudes
Refer to the levels of abstraction in Chapter 7 and tend to have a higher enrollment of students with
see where Level 2 questions fit in the schema of disabilities than programs with faculty having negative
attitudes. Building on this knowledge, you can now ask a
building theory and knowledge in the experimental
Level 3 question such as the following: “To what extent
tradition. do faculty attitudes influence the number of students
with disabilities who are accepted into occupational
Level 3: Questions That Test Knowledge therapy programs?” Such a study would test the theory
Level 3 questioning builds on the knowledge gener- underpinning the reasons that positive attitudes promote
ated from research conducted in Level 1 and Level opportunity for students with disabilities. Also, the study
2 investigations. A Level 3 question asks about a would be able to predict the opportunity for disabled
cause-and-effect relationship among two or more students to be accepted into occupational therapy
variables, with the specific purpose of testing knowl- programs on the basis of faculty attitudes.
edge or the theory underpinning the knowledge. We
102 PART II • Thinking Processes

In a Level 3 question, it is already established that role of caregiver. Such Level 3 questions include the
two concepts are related, based on previous research following:
findings (from Level 2 research). The point of study To what extent does a home-based skills-training
at Level 3 is to test these concepts in action by intervention improve communication patterns
manipulating one to affect the other. Level 3 is the between children with physical impairments and their
most complex of experimental-type questioning. mothers?
Once the foundation questions formulated at Levels To what extent does participation in a virtual support
1 and 2 are answered, Level 3 questions can be posed group reduce emotional burdens among women
and answered to develop knowledge—not only of caring for family members with dementia?
parts and their relationships, but of how and why
these parts interact to cause a particular outcome.
Level 3 questions examine higher levels of abstrac-
tion, including principles, theories, and models. To answer a Level 3 question, research action
Consider these examples of possible questions: processes capable of revealing causal relationships
among variables must be implemented. A true exper-
1. In a population of adults with mobility impair- imental design or a variation would need to be
ments, what age, geographic, and device appear- conducted.
ance characteristics predict acceptance and use of Now consider the following example:
adaptive mobility devices for safe engagement in
regular fitness activity?
2. To what extent do age and previous experience
Suppose you are working in a middle school and
with using a computer predict willingness to use
are asked to develop a program to reduce and
a mobile tablet for communicating with friends
prevent obesity. Because of the popularity of
and family in a population of rural adults who smartphones in this age group, your program involves
cannot drive? providing a free mobile app and wireless sensing device
Knowledge generated from these types of Level for wirelessly tracking and recording level of physical
activity for youth who enroll in a regular, supervised
3 studies would provide guidance for safe participa-
sports and fitness program. You begin by selecting the
tion in fitness activity for individuals with mobility
children at highest risk for obesity: those who are already
impairments and for promoting virtual communica- overweight. You implement an experimental program for
tion for rural individuals who do not drive. children between the ages of 11 and 15 who meet the
Now consider another type of Level 3 question. weight criterion for being overweight but not obese. To
ascertain the success and viability of expanding the
program to all children, you now want to know whether
For the past 15 years of research on family the experimental program met the aims of reducing
caregiving, many Level 1 studies have described weight and increasing fitness. You pose the following
the experience of caregiving by families of children and question:
older adults with a wide range of physical and cognitive To what extent does participation in the experimental
impairments. Also, on the basis of Level 1 findings, there intervention predict fitness improvement and weight
is a rich body of knowledge at Level 2. For example, loss in overweight youth between the ages of 11
numerous studies show that women and spouses tend and 15?
to show more distress and burden with caregiving than
other family members. Given the knowledge of stress To answer your question, you would randomly
associated with caregiving and different relational select and assign your sample (we discuss sampling in
patterns that have emerged, more recent research has Chapter 14) and introduce the experimental condition—
tested the Level 3 type of questions. These studies, using the intervention—to one group and not the other. You
basic stress theories, have sought to predict caregiving then compare each group on a measure of exercise
outcomes over time and to test specific theory-based participation.
interventions to alleviate the burden associated with the
 Chapter 8 • Formulating Research Questions and Queries 103

TABLE 8-1 Questions at Three Levels in BOX 8-3 Helpful Rules in Developing
Experimental-Type Research a Research Question
Level of 1. At Level 1, examine a variable in one population.
Level Stem Abstraction Design Possibilities 2. At Level 2, examine the relationship between a
1 What is …? Concepts and Survey minimum of two variables.
constructs 3. If there is a cause or effect to be investigated,
What are …? Exploratory pose the question at Level 3.
Descriptive 4. If the words “cause,” “effect,” or any of their
Case study synonyms appear in the question, eliminate these
Needs assessment
words, or specify what they are and how they
2 What is the Relationships Survey vary.
relationship …? 5. All variables must be written so that they vary.
Correlational, passive 6. At Level 3, there must be two variables that
Observation specify a cause and effect.
Ex post facto 7. If a Level 3 question is written, make sure it is
3 Why …? Principles Experimental designs
both ethical and possible to manipulate the causal
Theories Quasi-experimental variable. If not, rewrite the question at Level 2.
designs Data from Brink PJ, Wood MJ: Basic steps in planning
Models nursing research: from question to proposal, ed 7, Boston,
2011, Jones & Bartlett.

Developing Experimental-Type questions. For a Level 1 question, the experimental-

Research Questions type researcher usually has a “hunch” about the
As you see, question formulation for experimental- expected distribution of a single variable; however,
type research is relatively straightforward. You can a statement about a single variable is not a hypoth-
refer to Table 8-1 as a basic guide in helping you esis. By definition, a Level 1 question does not have
develop research questions at the three levels. Also, the essential elements of at least two variables and a
Box 8-3 provides helpful rules for developing ques- statement of expected relationship.
tions at the appropriate level. Although a hypothesis is a researcher’s best
Keep in mind that one challenge in developing an hunch about a phenomenon, this “guess” does not
experimental-type research question, particularly for emerge from thin air. Rather, it must be based on
new researchers, is proposing a question that is (1) existing literature and theory and must stem from the
very specific, (2) not too broad, and (3) feasible to research question guiding the study.
study. One tendency is to develop a question that is Hypotheses serve important purposes in
too “big.” If your question can be broken down into experimental-type research. First, they form an
subquestions, you know you have not yet developed important link between the research question and the
an appropriate research question. design of the study. In essence, hypotheses rephrase
the research question and turn it into a testable or
Hypotheses measurable statement. Second, hypotheses may
As discussed in previous chapters, experimental- identify the anticipated direction of the proposed
type researchers frequently engage in studies that relationship between stated variables. Information
involve hypotheses. A classic definition of hypothe- regarding directionality of a relationship between
sis is “a proposition to be tested or a tentative state- variables is usually not contained in the actual
ment of a relationship between two variables.”4 research question.
As the definition implies, hypotheses are primar­ There are two types of hypotheses, nondirectional
ily necessary and developed for Level 2 and Level 3 and directional. Nondirectional hypotheses post a
104 PART II • Thinking Processes

relationship or prediction but do not give you more There will be a significant difference in admission rates
information. Directional hypotheses, as indicated between programs with and programs without
by the name, not only propose a relationship or pre- positive faculty attitudes toward inclusion of students
diction, but posit the way in which variables are with disabilities.
related. As an example, in formulating a hypothesis Based on a literature review and prior empirical
on the causal relationship between faculty attitudes findings, the researcher may choose to state the
and educational opportunity in public health majors, directional hypothesis as follows:
we might state a nondirectional hypotheses such as: There will be significantly fewer students admitted to
programs with unfavorable faculty attitudes than to
Faculty attitudes are related to low admission rates. programs with favorable faculty attitudes toward
inclusion.
A directional hypotheses might look like:

Negative faculty attitudes are associated with lower A third and critical purpose of hypotheses is that
admission rates for students with mobility
these purposefully constructed statements “set the
impairments in public health curricula.
stage” for the type of statistical analyses that will be
used. We discuss these logical thinking processes
Consider this research question: “What is and actions later in the book.
the relationship between the attitudes of
occupational therapy faculty and the number of students
with disabilities admitted into occupational therapy
education programs?” In this study, the investigator may
hypothesize that there will be an association between
faculty attitudes toward inclusion and the number of
students with disabilities admitted into programs.
However, the direction of this expectation is not stated.
If the investigator formulates a directional hypothesis, it
may appear as follows: “It is hypothesized that positive
faculty attitudes will be associated with a greater Research question
number of admissions of students with disabilities.”

Notice that this statement does not suggest or Philosophical Foundations

state an expected cause but rather states a direction
in a proposed relationship.
Table 8-2 provides examples of hypotheses for
each type of experimental-type research question.
Now consider the hypothesis for the following
Level 3 question: “To what extent do faculty
attitudes influence the number of students with
Research Queries
disabilities who are accepted into occupational therapy in Naturalistic Inquiry
programs?” The researcher is interested in predicting
Now we turn to a completely different approach to
admission rates as a result of faculty attitudes. The
formulating research. In naturalistic inquiry, formal
researcher may structure a project in which programs
and faculty with positive attitudes are compared with entry into a study requires the initial development of
programs and faculty with unfavorable attitudes. If other a broad query. Although various philosophical per-
variables are controlled and a design is developed in spectives inform inquiry within naturalistic research,
which causal relationships are ascertained, the following as previously discussed, and although the task of
hypothesis may be stated: framing the problem and query are somewhat differ-
 Chapter 8 • Formulating Research Questions and Queries 105

TABLE 8-2 Examples of Hypotheses by Level of Question

Level Question Nondirectional/Hypothesis Directional Hypothesis
1 What is the pattern of use and reasons for No hypothesis is possible. Expected distribution: older adults with
nonuse of mobility aids among elders with mobility impairments will use mobility aids
mobility impairments? with high frequency.
2 What is the relationship between the attitudes of There will be an association between Positive faculty attitude will be associated
faculty toward disability and the actual number attitudes and the number of student with a greater number of admissions of
of admissions of students with disabilities? admissions. students with disabilities.
2 What is the relationship between gender and The level of depression in female Female spouse caregivers will be more
depression in spousal caregivers of elders with spouses will be different from the depressed than male spouse caregivers.
physical disabilities? level of depression in male spouses.
3 To what extent do faculty attitudes influence the There will be a significant difference Significantly fewer students are admitted to
number of students with disabilities who are in admission rates between programs programs with faculty who have unfavorable
accepted in occupational therapy programs? with and programs without positive attitudes than to programs with faculty who
faculty attitudes toward inclusion. have favorable attitudes toward inclusion.

ent among varied approaches, there is some underly- subquestions that are subsequently pursued. These
ing similarity to query development. smaller questions are contextual; that is, they are
Researchers in the naturalistic tradition generally derived inductively from the context itself and are
begin by identifying a topic and a broad problem rooted in the investigator’s ongoing efforts to under-
area or specifying a particular phenomenon from stand the broad problem area. In turn, each smaller
which a query is pursued. We thus use “query” to question that is posed may lead the investigator to
refer to a broad statement that identifies the phenom- use a different methodological approach. This inter-
enon or natural field of interest and to distinguish active questioning–data gathering–analyzing–refor-
naturalistic and experimental-type traditions in this mulating of the questions and initial query represents
action step. a critical and core action process of naturalistic
inquiry.
The natural field (which can be physical, concep- Let us examine the process by which a research
tual, or even virtual) where the phenomenon occurs query is developed and then reformulated in three
qualitative methodological approaches within the
The phenomenon of interest may refer to naturalistic tradition. As you read on, think about
symbolic patterns of interaction in a cultural what is common among formulation and reformula-
group, the experience of disability, the meaning of pain, tion of queries and how these processes differ from
or diverse interpretations of material objects such as
experimental-type questioning.
adaptive equipment.
Classic Ethnography
forms the basis for discovery, from which more spe- As the primary research approach in anthropology,5
cific and limited questions evolve in the course of ethnography is concerned with describing and inter-
conducting the research. Thus, the initial entry into preting cultural patterns of groups and understanding
the study is based on a query statement that identifies the cultural meanings people use to organize and
the phenomenon of interest and the location and interpret their experiences and more recently con-
population or community that will be the focus. sumption and response to images within visual
Then, once the study has been initiated and as new culture.6 In this approach, the researcher assumes a
insights and meanings are obtained, the first problem “learning role” to interpret and experience different
statement and query are reformulated. On the basis cultural settings and materials.7 The information
of new insights and issues that emerge in the field, gathered bridges the world and culture of the
the investigator formulates smaller, more concise researcher to that of the researched. After the
106 PART II • Thinking Processes

ethnographer has identified a phenomenon and cul- to uncover underlying meanings and cultural
tural setting, a query is pursued.8 There is always a patterns.
strong descriptive element in ethnography, so the Health and human service professionals have
ethnographic query implicates what the ethnogra- used ethnographic methods, such as interviewing
pher is to describe. You haven’t posed an ethno- and participant observation (discussed more fully in
graphic question until it is clear what the ethnographer subsequent chapters), to examine cultural variations
is to look at and to look for at least with sufficient in response to impairment, accessibility, adaptation,
clarity to initiate an inquiry. health services utilization, health care practices, and
In discussing his own experiences, Wolcott9 stated other related areas.
that the aims of ethnography are contained within
the researcher’s queries. The researcher is obligated The health or human service professional
to uphold the highest ethical standards, and to respect conducting an ethnography may start with a
and view ethnographic questions as emergent from general query such as, “How is pain expressed differently
the context and thus are necessarily often unplanned. by men and women?” or “How are individuals with
As you can see, experimental-type questions severe impairments able to live independently, and what
and hypotheses stand in stark contrast to the are their patterns of adaptation to varying degrees of
interpretative-opened, purposive query posed ini- community accessibility?”
tially by the ethnographer.
As the processes of data gathering and analysis
proceed in tandem, specific questions emerge and are Phenomenology
pursued. These questions emerge in the field as a The purpose of the phenomenological line of inquiry
consequence of what Agar10 classically labeled as is to uncover the meaning of a human experience or
breakdowns, or disjunctions, a concept that we still phenomenon typically of more than one individual,
find useful and central to ethnographic inquiry. “A through the description of those experiences as they
breakdown is a lack of fit between one’s encounter are lived by individuals.11
with a tradition and the schema-guided expectation Phemonenology “emphasizes studying empirical
by which one organizes experience.”10 A breakdown phenomena directly, as they are perceived by the
represents the difference between what the investiga- senses”11 and thus does not call for independent
tor observes and what he or she expects to observe. interpretation by the investigator. The entry into the
These differences stimulate a series of questioning context to be studied from this perspective is the
and further investigation. Each subquestion is related identification of the phenomenon of interest.
to the broader line of query and is investigated to
resolve the breakdown and develop a more compre-
For example, pain, resilience, aging in place,
hensive understanding of the phenomenon in its wellness, homelessness, and sadness may be
entirety. An ethnographic query therefore establishes phenomena that are relevant to the helping professions.
the phenomenon, the setting of interest, or both. The From the articulation of the phenomenon, a research
query also sets up the thinking and action processes query is generated, such as the following:
necessary to understand the boundaries of the study
1. What is the meaning of being homeless for middle-
and the phenomenon under investigation.
aged women?
To summarize, once a query has been posed, 2. What is the meaning of fear for persons with
questioning occurs simultaneously with collecting traumatic injury?
information and making sense of it. One process 3. What is the meaning of aging in place to community
drives the other. The interactive questioning, data residents?
gathering, and analytical waltz results in the refor- 4. What are the common elements in experiencing
mulation and refinement of the problem and the a feeling of well-being among poor, rural, elder
structuring of small subquestions. These subques- persons?
tions are then pursued in the field (defined broadly)
 Chapter 8 • Formulating Research Questions and Queries 107

This approach is different from ethnography in

that phenomenological queries focus on particular BOX 8-4 Examples of Grounded-Theory
experiences (e.g., grief, birth of a child, aging, well- Queries That Generate Theory
ness, divorce, illness, and impairment) from the per- • What theoretical principles characterize the
spective of the individuals and do not seek to experience of women who become homeless?
understand group or cultural patterns. However, • What similarities and differences can be revealed
similar to ethnography, the research begins with a among ways in which traumatically injured
broad query. On the basis of what the investigator individuals experience their acute care
learns through the action of conducting the research, hospitalization?
subquestions and specific inquiries are developed • How do Native Americans residing in a rural New
that further inform the overarching query related to England community define and maintain their
health?
the meaning of experience for the individuals par-
ticipating in the study.
As example, Vickers used a phenomenological
approach to explore the experience of people with BOX 8-5 Examples of Grounded-Theory
multiple sclerosis who have left work.12 Different Queries That Modify Theory
from assumptions that loss of health and function • How can the current theory of moral development
from the disease was the primary cause of unemploy- be expanded or modified to explain the moral
ment, Vickers found that this phenomenon was expe- development of Native American children and
rienced in diverse ways with diverse meanings adolescents?
beyond the disease process. • What is the relevance of current theory on career
development in white middle-class male children
and black middle-class female children?
Grounded Theory
Grounded theory is a method in naturalistic research
that is used primarily to generate theory.13 The Narrative
researcher begins with a broad query in a particular Although there is no single definition of narrative,12
topic area and then collects relevant information all have two common elements, storytelling and
about the topic. As the action processes of data col- meaning making. In general, narrative methods are
lection continue, each piece of information is interpretive strategies used in diverse disciplines and
reviewed, compared, and contrasted with other infor- fields but are particularly popular in postmodern and
mation. From this constant comparison process, post-postmodern studies such as interdisciplinary
commonalities and dissimilarities among categories health care robotics and biological art.14 Synthesizing
of information become clear, and ultimately a theory the diverse definitions of narrative, we define it as a
that explains observations is inductively developed. naturalistic method in which stories are told and
Thus, queries that will be answered through grounded inductively analyzed for meaning. Stories can be
theory do not relate to specific domains but rather to generated by an individual or group in response to a
the structure of how the researcher wants to organize query or can exist in the form of text or even image.
the findings (Box 8-4). However, regardless of the form, the data must tell
As you can see, each query indicates that the a story that can be interpreted. According to Squire,15
research aim is to reveal theoretical principles about narrative queries are particularly useful when knowl-
the phenomenon under study. Grounded theory can edge is not known or is insufficient to describe a
also be used to modify existing theory or to expand phenomenon. Squire also suggests that narrative
on or uncover differences from what is already queries may serve to illuminate difficult phenomena
known. In the two queries in Box 8-5, grounded or those not easily discussed. However, regardless
theory is structured to address current theory from a of the form or function, the data must tell a story
new and inductive perspective. that can be interpreted. Mensinga16 demonstrated
108 PART II • Thinking Processes

five different approaches to narrative, all of which

investigated career choice. Although the studies TABLE 8-3 Form and Function of
themselves did not identify specific queries, the Question/Query Formulation
initial entry point into each was a broad statement Across Research Traditions
about the evolution of career choice and its meaning Experimental- Naturalistic Mixed Method
to the informants who generated the stories. Life Type Inquiry Design
history is a type of narrative in that it tells a story Form Focused question Broad query Both, or either
about the chronology of a life and the meaning of Function Define variables, Identify Both, or either
events within that life. Queries specific to life history population, and phenomena
address part or a whole longitudinal life and the level of inquiry of interest
events (turnings) within it that shaped decisions and and context
pathways.

Developing Naturalistic Research Queries traditions and approaches and, by their nature, may
Ethnography, phenomenology, and grounded theory be complex. As such, these designs may rely on the
reflect distinct approaches in naturalistic inquiry. formulation of a query, a question, or both and may
Queries developed within each methodology and order the formulation of these in diverse ways to
design reflect a different purpose and a preferred way accomplish the overall research purpose.17,18
of knowing and are shaped by the particular resources Consider the following examples to highlight the
available to the investigator. Nevertheless, underly- differences in approach among the experimental-
ing each of these approaches is an essential iterative type and naturalistic research traditions and mixed
process of query–subquestion–reformulation that is method design.
central to the structuring of the research enterprise In determining the extent to which and how the
in naturalistic inquiry. design of a mobility device resolved the problem of
abandonment, you conduct a mixed method outcome
assessment guided by the following questions and
queries:
1. To what extent do elders abandon an aestheti-
Subquestions cally designed mobility device compared to a
typical “medicalized walker” with equivalent
functionality?
2. What meanings are perceived by elders regarding
the aesthetic design of mobility devices?
Query
Question 1 reflects the structure of an experimental-
type level 2 question. Note that it asks for association
between abandonment frequency and design by
Philosophical Foundations crafting a comparison group approach to inquiry.
Question 2 seeks meaning of object, or what we have
introduced as object reading.7
As shown, integrated designs can be complex.
Integrating Research Approaches Therefore it is important for you to clearly articulate
Asking questions and posing queries often co- the specific questions and queries that are posed
occur in mixed methods. Table 8-3 includes this cat- jointly and to delineate how each contributes to the
egory in summarizing experimental and naturalistic other.
question/query formulation. As noted, mixed method In your elder study, which the questions above
or integrated designs combine different research guide, the advantage of a mixed method inquiry is
 Chapter 8 • Formulating Research Questions and Queries 109

its capacity not only to ascertain use but to delve into end-of-life health care among individuals whose
the visual world and meanings that prevent elders income is just above the poverty line. On the basis
from following safety practices. of the large body of literature on access to health care
We have already introduced single subject and prior to enactment of the ACA, the researchers
case study design. Briefly, these inquiries focus on a conduct a secondary analysis of case data to answer
single unit of analysis that may be studied as holistic the following Level 1 experimental-type question:
or embedded with multiple parts.19 Single subject
and case study research is particularly useful through- What is the income level of patients in palliative
out in that it is designed to generate findings as well care?
as theory through collecting and analyzing data
through more than one approach. Moreover, because In this study, the investigators find that there is a
single subject design refers to one phenomenon and disproportionate underrepresentation of low-income
does not aim to examine groups and subpopulations individuals in palliative care, and they thus set out
within groups (unless a group is framed as a single to investigate why.
entity), these mixed method designs are feasible and Once again, relying on theory and research that
robust within the daily context of health and human has been generated in similar studies conducted
service practice. Single subject design is particularly before the ACA,20 the investigators develop a study
useful in clinical practice. If you wanted to know in which they identify the variables of provider rec-
how a client was progressing in clinical practice, you ommendation and geographic diversity that promote
might ask the following mixed method question: or inhibit palliative care and pose the following
Level 2 questions:
What progress does the client feel she is making
1. How is provider recommendation related to
(query) and how is it exhibited in her mood
assessment (Level 1 type question)?
a family’s decision to seek palliative care for
a dying family member in a low-income
population?
These two forms (question and query) illustrate
2. What differences in urban versus rural popula-
structured and unstructured questioning characteris-
tions exist in decisions to seek palliative care?
tic of single subject thinking and action.
3. How are palliative care trends different following
the passage of the ACA?
Now suppose you want to study socialization of
older frail adults who are aging in place. Your
While the Level 1 and Level 2 questions are
purpose is to understand how virtual communication productive in identifying variables that may be pre-
device acceptance affects the psychological well-being dictive of a decision to seek palliative care, the inves-
of the adults who for the most part remain at home. tigators decide that the literature does not provide
You pose a specific question, such as, “What is the sufficient theory about decision-making processes.
relationship between computer acceptance, use, and They therefore plan a naturalistic study to answer the
social interaction in a population of frail older adults following queries:
living in their own homes?” Can you guess which
type of question this is? If you guessed Level 2 in the 1. How do low-income families who now have
experimental-type tradition, you are correct. This health insurance through an ACA plan decide to
question narrows the area of concern of relationships seek palliative care for their loved ones?
between use of virtual communication and psychological 2. What experiences and life circumstances are
well-being of frail adults living in their homes. important in decisions to seek or not to seek pal-
liative care?
Following the implementation of the Affordable The investigators in this example initially isolated
Care Act (ACA),20 a health care research team is constructs and variables relevant to their areas
interested in studying disparities in access to of study that favor experimental-type design. The
110 PART II • Thinking Processes

constructs posed in the research question were iden- the interaction of the investigator within the field or
tified from reading the research literature, from prac- with the phenomenon of the study. Thus, an initial
tice experience, or from federal funding initiatives research question and query have different levels of
that define the ACA, poverty level, and related health meaning and implications for the conduct of studies
benefits and that suggest geographic differences. in experimental-type design and naturalistic research.
Thus, Level 1 and Level 2 questions were appropri- Research queries and subquestions are dynamic, ever
ate. However, once decision-making processes and changing, and derived inductively.
experiences became central to the research agenda, Integrated studies use the strengths of both
the investigators moved to an epistemological frame- experimental-type and naturalistic traditions to pose
work based in naturalistic tradition. They proceeded questions and queries that can reveal, describe,
inductively, on the basis of a pluralistic framework relate, or predict.
that proposes multiple decision pathways, experi-
ences, new legislation and benefits, and realities that
need to be discovered and understood to derive a
EXERCISES
comprehensive view of the decision to seek pallia- 1. To test your understanding of the differences
tive care in the current health care context. Based on between levels of questioning in experimental-
an understanding of different realities of and choices type designs, select a problem area in which you
to pursue end-of-life options that will emerge in the are interested. Frame the problem in terms of
course of the study, comprehensive guidelines can Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3 questions.
then be developed and further evaluated. 2. Using the problem area you selected, formulate a
broad query to pursue within a naturalistic design.
3. Review your different problem statements and
Summary specific queries or questions. Identify the differ-
There are many ways to frame a research problem. ent assumptions that each makes about level of
Each approach to problem formulation and query or knowledge, preferred way of knowing, and
question development differs according to its required resources to conduct the study. Use the
research tradition. In experimental-type design, the table below to assist you.
question drives each subsequent research step. 4. Select three research articles in the literature and
Refinement of a research question occurs before identify each research question or query. After
any further action processes can be implemented. you have identified them, characterize the nature
Conciseness and clarity are critical to the conduct of each using the table below.
of the study and are the hallmarks of what makes
the research question meaningful and appropriate.
Experimental-type questions are definitive, struc- Assumed Preferred
tured, and derived deductively before the researcher Question/ Level of Way of Required
engages in specified actions. They all must contain Query Knowledge Knowing Resources
three elements: the variable or variables, the level of 1.
questioning, and the population to be studied.
In naturalistic inquiry, the query establishes the 2.
initial entrance and boundaries for the study but is 3.
reformulated in the actual process of collecting and
analyzing data. The researcher fully expects and pre-
pares for new queries and subquestions to emerge in References
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