Bolivia

259 languages
 Article
 Talk

 Read

 Edit

 View history

Tools



 

Appearance
hide
Text


Small

Standard

Large
Width


Standard

Wide
 Color (beta)


Automatic

Light

Dark
Report an issue with dark mode
Coordinates: 16°42′43″S 64°39′58″W
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about the South American country. For
other uses, see Bolivia (disambiguation).

Plurinational State of Bolivia

Estado Plurinacional de
Bolivia (Spanish)
show
Official names in indigenous
languages
 Flag

Coat of arms

Anthem: Himno Nacional de

Bolivia (Spanish)
"National Anthem of Bolivia"
Duration: 1 minute and 41 seconds.1:41

Other national symbol: Wiphala[1][2][3]

Location of Bolivia (dark green)

 in South America (gray)
Capital Sucre[b]
Administr La Paz[b]
ative cente
r
Largest Santa Cruz de la Sierra
city 17°48′S 63°10′W
Official la Spanish
nguages Quechua
Aymara
Guarani
Other Indigenous
languages
Ethnic gro 68% Mestizo (mixed W
ups hite and Indigenous)
(2009[4]) 20% Indigenous
5% White
2% Cholo
1% Black
1% other
3% unspecified
Religion
(2020)[5] o 92.8% Christianity
 81.4%
Catholicism
 11.4%
other Christian
6.5% no religion
0.7% other
Demonym( Bolivian
s)
 Governme Unitary presidential
nt republic
• President Luis Arce
• Vice David Choquehuanca
President
• President Andrónico Rodríguez
of the
Senate
• President Israel Huaytari[6]
of the
Chamber
of Deputies
Legislatur Plurinational Legislative
e Assembly
• Upper Chamber of Senators
house
• Lower Chamber of Deputies
house
Independence
from Spain
• Declared 6 August 1825
• Recognized 21 July 1847
• Current 7 February 2009
constitution
Area
• Total 1,098,581 km2 (424,164
sq mi) (27th)
• Water (%) 1.29
Population
• 2023 12,186,079[7] (79th)
 estimate
• Density 10.4/km2 (26.9/sq mi)
(224th)
GDP (PPP) 2023 estimate
• Total $125.428 billion[8] (94t
h)
• Per capita $10,340[8] (120th)
GDP (nom 2023 estimate
inal)
• Total $46.796 billion[8] (96th
)
• Per capita $3,857[8] (126th)
Gini (2019 41.6[9]
) medium inequality
HDI (2022 0.698[10]
) medium (120th)
Currency Boliviano (BOB)
Time zone UTC−4 (BOT)
Date dd/mm/yyyy
format
Drives on right
Calling +591
code
ISO 3166 BO
code
Internet .bo
TLD
Bolivia,[c] officially the Plurinational State of Bolivia,[d] is
a landlocked country located in central South America. It
is bordered by Brazil to the north and east, Paraguay to
the southeast, Argentina to the south, Chile to the
southwest, and Peru to the west. The seat of
government and administrative capital is La Paz, which
contains the executive, legislative, and electoral
branches of government, while the constitutional capital
is Sucre, the seat of the judiciary. The largest city and
principal industrial center is Santa Cruz de la Sierra,
located on the Llanos Orientales (eastern tropical
lowlands), a mostly flat region in the east of the country
with a diverse non-Andean culture.
The sovereign state of Bolivia is a constitutionally unitary
state divided into nine departments. Its geography varies
as the elevation fluctuates, from the western snow-
capped peaks of the Andes to the eastern lowlands,
situated within the Amazon basin. One-third of the
country is within the Andean mountain range. With an
area of 1,098,581 km2 (424,164 sq mi), Bolivia is the
fifth-largest country in South America after Brazil,
Argentina, Peru and Colombia, and, alongside
Paraguay, is one of two landlocked countries in the
Americas. It is the 27th largest country in the world, the
largest landlocked country in the Southern Hemisphere,
and the seventh largest landlocked country on earth,
after Kazakhstan, Mongolia, Chad, Niger, Mali, and
Ethiopia.
The country's population, estimated at 12 million,
[12]
is multiethnic,
including Amerindians, Mestizos, Europeans, Asians, Afr
icans and some other mixtures throughout. Spanish is
the official and predominant language, although
36 indigenous languages also have official status, of
which the most commonly spoken are Guaraní, Aymara,
and Quechua.
Well before Spanish colonization, the Andean region of
Bolivia was part of the great Incan Empire, while the
northern and eastern lowlands were inhabited by
independent tribes. Spanish conquistadores, arriving
from Cusco, Peru, and Asunción, Paraguay, forcibly took
control of the region in the 16th century. During the
subsequent Spanish colonial period, Bolivia was
administered by the Real Audiencia of Charcas. Spain
built its empire, in large part, upon the silver that was
extracted from Bolivia's mines. After the first call for
independence in 1809, sixteen years of fighting would
follow before the establishment of the Republic, named
for Simón Bolívar.[13] Over the course of the 19th and
early 20th centuries, Bolivia lost control of several
peripheral territories to neighboring countries, such as
Brazil's of the Acre territory, and the War of the
Pacific (1879), in which Chile seized the country's Pacific
coastal region.
Bolivia experienced a succession of military and civilian
governments until Hugo Banzer led a CIA-
supported coup d'état in 1971, replacing
the socialist government of Juan José Torres with
a military dictatorship. Banzer's regime cracked-down on
left-wing and socialist opposition parties, and other
perceived forms of dissent, resulting in the torturing and
murders of countless Bolivian citizens. Banzer was
ousted in 1978 and, twenty years later, returned as the
democratically elected President of Bolivia (1997–2001).
Under the 2006–2019 presidency of Evo Morales, the
country saw significant economic growth and political
stability, but was also widely accused of democratic
backsliding[14][15] and was described as a competitive
authoritarian regime.[16][17][18] Freedom House classifies
Bolivia as a partly-free democracy as of 2023, with a
66/100 score.[19]
Modern Bolivia is a charter member of the United
Nations (UN), Non-Aligned Movement (NAM),
[20]
Organization of American States (OAS), Amazon
Cooperation Treaty Organization (ACTO), Bank of the
South, ALBA, and the Union of South American
Nations (USAN). Bolivia remains a developing country,
and the second-poorest in South America, though it has
slashed poverty rates and now has one of the fastest-
growing economies on the continent (in terms of GDP).
Its main economic resources include agriculture, forestry,
fishing, mining, and goods such as textiles and clothing,
refined metals, and refined petroleum. Bolivia is
very geologically rich, with mines producing tin,
silver, lithium, and copper. The country is also known for
its production of coca plants and refined cocaine. In
2021, estimated coca cultivation and cocaine production
was 39,700 hectares and 317 metric tons, respectively.[21]
Etymology
[edit]

Bolivia is named after Simón Bolívar, a Venezuelan

leader in the Spanish American wars of independence.
[22]
The leader of Venezuela, Antonio José de Sucre, had
been given the option by Bolívar to either
unite Charcas (present-day Bolivia) with the newly
formed Republic of Peru, to unite with the United
Provinces of the Río de la Plata, or to formally declare its
independence from Spain as a wholly independent state.
Sucre opted to create a brand new state and on 6
August 1825, with local support, named it in honor of
Simón Bolívar.[23]
The original name was Republic of Bolívar. Some days
later, congressman Manuel Martín Cruz proposed: "If
from Romulus, Rome, then from Bolívar, Bolivia"
(Spanish: Si de Rómulo, Roma; de Bolívar, Bolivia). The
name was approved by the Republic on 3 October 1825.
In 2009, a new constitution changed the country's official
name to "Plurinational State of Bolivia" to reflect the
multi-ethnic nature of the country and the strengthened
rights of Bolivia's indigenous peoples under the new
constitution.[24][25]
History
[edit]
Main article: History of Bolivia
Pre-colonial
[edit]

Tiwanaku Empire at its largest

territorial extent, AD 950 (present-day boundaries
shown).
The region now known as Bolivia had been occupied for
over 2,500 years when the Aymara arrived; however,
present-day Aymara associate themselves with the
ancient civilization of the Tiwanaku Empire, which had its
capital at Tiwanaku, in Western Bolivia. The capital city
of Tiwanaku dates-back as early as 1500 BC, when it
was a small, agriculturally-based village.[26]
The Aymara community grew to urban proportions
between AD 600 and AD 800, becoming an important
regional power in the southern Andes. According to early
estimates,[when?] the city covered approximately 6.5 square
kilometers (2.5 square miles) at its peak, and had
between 15,000 and 30,000 inhabitants.[27] However, in
1996, satellite imaging was used to map the extent of
preserved suka kollus (flooded raised fields) across the
three primary valleys of Tiwanaku, with the results
suggesting a population-carrying capacity of anywhere
between 285,000 and 1,482,000 people.[28]
Around AD 400, Tiwanaku went from being a locally-
dominant force to a 'predatory' state, aggressively
expanding its reach into the Yungas and bringing its
culture and ways to new peoples in Peru, Bolivia, and
Chile. Nonetheless, Tiwanaku was not a violent or
domineering culture; to expand its reach, the state
exercised great political astuteness, created colonies,
fostered local trade agreements (which made other
cultures rather dependent), and instituted state cults.[29]
As rainfall gradually decreased, the stores of food
supplies decreased, and thus the elites lost power.
Tiwanaku disappeared around AD 1000. The area
remained uninhabited for centuries thereafter.[30]
Between 1438 and 1527, Incan Empire expanded from
its capital at Cusco, gaining control over much of what is
now the Bolivian Andes, and extending its control into
the fringes of the Amazon basin.
Colonial period
[edit]

The colonial Mint of Potosí

The Spanish conquest of the Inca empire began in 1524
and was mostly completed by 1533. The territory now
called Bolivia was known as Charcas, and was under the
authority of Spain. Local government came from
the Audiencia de Charcas located in Chuquisaca (La
Plata—modern Sucre). Founded in 1545 as a mining
town, Potosí soon produced fabulous wealth, becoming
the largest city in the New World with a population
exceeding 150,000 people.[31]

Metropolitan Cathedral of Sucre in

Sucre, a UNESCO World Heritage city.
By the late 16th century, Bolivian silver was an important
source of revenue for the Spanish Empire.[32] A steady
stream of natives served as labor force under the brutal,
slave conditions of the Spanish version of the pre-
Columbian draft system called the mita.[33] Charcas was
transferred to the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in
1776 and the people from Buenos Aires, the capital of
the Viceroyalty, coined the term "Upper Peru"
(Spanish: Alto Peru) as a popular reference to the Royal
Audiencia of Charcas. Túpac Katari led the indigenous
rebellion that laid siege to La Paz in March 1781,
[34]
during which 20,000 people died.[35] As Spanish royal
authority weakened during the Napoleonic Wars,
sentiment against colonial rule grew.
Independence and subsequent wars
[edit]
Main article: History of Bolivia (1809–1920)
The struggle for independence started in the city
of Sucre on 25 May 1809 and the Chuquisaca
Revolution (Chuquisaca was then the name of the city) is
known as the first cry of Freedom in Latin America. That
revolution was followed by the La Paz revolution on 16
July 1809. The La Paz revolution marked a complete
split with the Spanish government, while the Chuquisaca
Revolution established a local independent junta in the
name of the Spanish King deposed by Napoleon
Bonaparte. Both revolutions were short-lived and
defeated by the Spanish authorities in the Viceroyalty of
the Rio de La Plata, but the following year the Spanish
American wars of independence raged across the
continent.
Bolivia was captured and recaptured many times during
the war by the royalists and patriots. Buenos Aires sent
three military campaigns, all of which were defeated, and
eventually limited itself to protecting the national borders
at Salta. Bolivia was finally freed of Royalist dominion by
Marshal Antonio José de Sucre, with a military campaign
coming from the North in support of the campaign
of Simón Bolívar. After 16 years of war the Republic
was proclaimed on 6 August 1825.

The first coat of arms of Bolivia,

formerly named the Republic of Bolívar in honor
of Simón Bolívar
In 1836, Bolivia, under the rule of Marshal Andrés de
Santa Cruz, invaded Peru to reinstall the deposed
president, General Luis José de Orbegoso. Peru and
Bolivia formed the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, with de
Santa Cruz as the Supreme Protector. Following tension
between the Confederation and Chile, Chile declared
war on 28 December 1836. Argentina separately
declared war on the Confederation on 9 May 1837. The
Peruvian-Bolivian forces achieved several major victories
during the War of the Confederation: the defeat of the
Argentine expedition and the defeat of the first Chilean
expedition on the fields of Paucarpata near the city
of Arequipa. The Chilean army and its Peruvian rebel
allies surrendered unconditionally and signed the
Paucarpata Treaty. The treaty stipulated that Chile would
withdraw from Peru-Bolivia, Chile would return captured
Confederate ships, economic relations would be
normalized, and the Confederation would pay Peruvian
debt to Chile. However, the Chilean government and
public rejected the peace treaty. Chile organized a
second attack on the Confederation and defeated it in
the Battle of Yungay. After this defeat, Santa Cruz
resigned and went to exile in Ecuador and then Paris,
and the Peruvian-Bolivian Confederation was dissolved.

Historic headquarters of Banco

Nacional de Bolivia in Sucre
Following the renewed independence of Peru, Peruvian
president General Agustín Gamarra invaded Bolivia. On
18 November 1841, the battle de Ingavi took place, in
which the Bolivian Army defeated the Peruvian troops of
Gamarra (killed in the battle). After the victory, Bolivia
invaded Peru on several fronts. The eviction of the
Bolivian troops from the south of Peru would be achieved
by the greater availability of material and human
resources of Peru; the Bolivian Army did not have
enough troops to maintain an occupation. In the district
of Locumba – Tacna, a column of Peruvian soldiers and
peasants defeated a Bolivian regiment in the so-called
Battle of Los Altos de Chipe (Locumba). In the district of
Sama and in Arica, the Peruvian colonel José María
Lavayén organized a troop that managed to defeat the
Bolivian forces of Colonel Rodríguez Magariños and
threaten the port of Arica. In the battle of Tarapacá on 7
January 1842, Peruvian militias formed by the
commander Juan Buendía defeated a detachment led by
Bolivian colonel José María García, who died in the
confrontation. Bolivian troops left Tacna, Arica and
Tarapacá in February 1842, retreating towards
Moquegua and Puno.[36] The battles of Motoni and
Orurillo forced the withdrawal of Bolivian forces
occupying Peruvian territory and exposed Bolivia to the
threat of counter-invasion. The Treaty of Puno was
signed on 7 June 1842, ending the war. However, the
climate of tension between Lima and La Paz would
continue until 1847, when the signing of a Peace and
Trade Treaty became effective.
A period of political and economic instability in the early-
to-mid-19th century weakened Bolivia. In addition, during
the War of the Pacific (1879–83), Chile occupied vast
territories rich in natural resources south west of Bolivia,
including the Bolivian coast. Chile took control of
today's Chuquicamata area, the adjoining
rich salitre (saltpeter) fields, and the port
of Antofagasta among other Bolivian territories.
Since independence, Bolivia has lost over half of its
territory to neighboring countries.[37] Through diplomatic
channels in 1909, it lost the basin of the Madre de Dios
River and the territory of the Purus in the Amazon,
yielding 250,000 km2 to Peru.[38] It also lost the state of
Acre, in the Acre War, important because this region was
known for its production of rubber. Peasants and the
Bolivian army fought briefly but after a few victories, and
facing the prospect of a total war against Brazil, it was
forced to sign the Treaty of Petrópolis in 1903, in which
Bolivia lost this rich territory. Popular myth has it that
Bolivian president Mariano Melgarejo (1864–71) traded
the land for what he called "a magnificent white horse"
and Acre was subsequently flooded with Brazilians,
which ultimately led to confrontation and fear of war with
Brazil.[39]
In the late 19th century, an increase in the world price of
silver brought Bolivia relative prosperity and political
stability.
Early 20th century
[edit]
Main article: History of Bolivia (1920–1964)

Bolivia's territorial losses (1867–

1938)
During the early 20th century, tin replaced silver as the
country's most important source of wealth. A succession
of governments controlled by the economic and social
elite followed laissez-faire capitalist policies through the
first 30 years of the 20th century.[40]
Living conditions of the native people, who constitute
most of the population, remained deplorable. With work
opportunities limited to primitive conditions in the mines
and in large estates having nearly feudal status, they
had no access to education, economic opportunity,
and political participation. Bolivia's defeat by Paraguay in
the Chaco War (1932–1935), where Bolivia lost a great
part of the Gran Chaco region in dispute, marked a
turning-point.[41][42][43]
On 7 April 1943, Bolivia entered World War II, joining
part of the Allies, which caused president Enrique
Peñaranda to declare war on the Axis
powers of Germany, Italy and Japan.
In 1945, Bolivia became a founding member of the
United Nations.
The Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR), the
most historic political party, emerged as a broad-based
party. Denied its victory in the 1951 presidential
elections, the MNR led a successful revolution in 1952.
Under President Víctor Paz Estenssoro, the MNR,
having strong popular pressure, introduced universal
suffrage into his political platform and carried out a
sweeping land-reform promoting rural education and
nationalization of the country's largest tin mines.
Late 20th century
[edit]
Main article: History of Bolivia (1964–1982)

In 1971 Hugo Banzer Suárez, supported

by the CIA, forcibly ousted President Torres in a coup.
Twelve years of tumultuous rule left the MNR divided. In
1964, a military junta overthrew President Estenssoro at
the outset of his third term. The 1969 death of
President René Barrientos Ortuño, a former member of
the junta who was elected president in 1966, led to a
succession of weak governments. Alarmed by the rising
Popular Assembly and the increase in the popularity of
President Juan José Torres, the military, the MNR, and
others installed Colonel (later General) Hugo Banzer
Suárez as president in 1971. He returned to the
presidency in 1997 through 2001. Juan José Torres, who
had fled Bolivia, was kidnapped and assassinated in
1976 as part of Operation Condor, the U.S.-supported
campaign of political repression by South American right-
wing dictators.[44]
The United States' Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
financed and trained the Bolivian military dictatorship in
the 1960s. The revolutionary leader Che Guevara was
killed by a team of CIA officers and members of the
Bolivian Army on 9 October 1967, in Bolivia. Félix
Rodríguez was a CIA officer on the team with the
Bolivian Army that captured and shot Guevara.
[45]
Rodriguez said that after he received a Bolivian
presidential execution order, he told "the soldier who
pulled the trigger to aim carefully, to remain consistent
with the Bolivian government's story that Che had been
killed in action during a clash with the Bolivian army."
Rodriguez said the US government had wanted Che in
Panama, and "I could have tried to falsify the command
to the troops, and got Che to Panama as the US
government said they had wanted", but that he had
chosen to "let history run its course" as desired by
Bolivia.[46]
Elections in 1979 and 1981 were inconclusive and
marked by fraud. There were coups d'état, counter-
coups, and caretaker governments. In 1980,
General Luis García Meza Tejada carried out a ruthless
and violent coup d'état that did not have popular support.
The Bolivian Workers' Center, which tried to resist the
putsch, was violently repressed. More than a thousand
people were killed in less than a year. Cousin of one of
the most important narco-trafficker of the country, Luis
García Meza Tejada favors the production of cocaine.
[47]
He pacified the people by promising to remain in
power only for one year. At the end of the year, he
staged a televised rally to claim popular support and
announced, "Bueno, me quedo", or, "All right; I'll stay [in
office]".[48] After a military rebellion forced out Meza in
1981, three other military governments in 14 months
struggled with Bolivia's growing problems. Unrest forced
the military to convoke the Congress, elected in 1980,
and allow it to choose a new chief executive. In October
1982, Hernán Siles Zuazo again became president, 22
years after the end of his first term of office (1956–1960).
Democratic transition
[edit]
Main article: History of Bolivia (1982–present)
In 1993, Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada was
elected president in alliance with the Tupac Katari
Revolutionary Liberation Movement, which inspired
indigenous-sensitive and multicultural-aware policies.
[49]
Sánchez de Lozada pursued an aggressive economic
and social reform agenda. The most dramatic reform
was privatization under the "capitalization" program,
under which investors, typically foreign, acquired 50%
ownership and management control of public enterprises
in return for agreed upon capital investments.[50][51] In
1993, Sanchez de Lozada introduced the Plan de Todos,
which led to the decentralization of government,
introduction of intercultural bilingual education,
implementation of agrarian legislation,
and privatization of state owned businesses. The plan
explicitly stated that Bolivian citizens would own a
minimum of 51% of enterprises; under the plan,
most state-owned enterprises (SOEs), though not mines,
were sold.[52] This privatization of SOEs led to
a neoliberal structuring.[53]
The reforms and economic restructuring were strongly
opposed by certain segments of society, which instigated
frequent and sometimes violent protests, particularly in
La Paz and the Chapare coca-growing region, from 1994
through 1996. The indigenous population of
the Andean region was not able to benefit from
government reforms.[54] During this time, the umbrella
labor-organization of Bolivia, the Central Obrera
Boliviana (COB), became increasingly unable to
effectively challenge government policy. A teachers'
strike in 1995 was defeated because the COB could not
marshal the support of many of its members, including
construction and factory workers.
1997–2002 General Banzer presidency
[edit]

In the 1997 elections, General Hugo Banzer, leader of

the Nationalist Democratic Action party (ADN) and
former dictator (1971–1978), won 22% of the vote, while
the MNR candidate won 18%. At the outset of his
government, President Banzer launched a policy of using
special police-units to eradicate physically the illegal
coca of the Chapare region. The Revolutionary Left
Movement (MIR) of Jaime Paz Zamora remained a
coalition-partner throughout the Banzer government,
supporting this policy (called the Dignity Plan).[55] The
Banzer government basically continued the free-market
and privatization-policies of its predecessor. The
relatively robust economic growth of the mid-1990s
continued until about the third year of its term in office.
After that, regional, global and domestic factors
contributed to a decline in economic growth. Financial
crises in Argentina and Brazil, lower world prices for
export commodities, and reduced employment in the
coca sector depressed the Bolivian economy. The public
also perceived a significant amount of public sector
corruption. These factors contributed to increasing social
protests during the second half of Banzer's term.
Between January 1999 and April 2000, large-
scale protests erupted in Cochabamba, Bolivia's third
largest city at the time, in response to the privatization of
water resources by foreign companies and a subsequent
doubling of water prices. On 6 August 2001, Banzer
resigned from office after being diagnosed with cancer.
He died less than a year later. Vice President Jorge
Fernando Quiroga Ramírez completed the final year of
his term.
2002–2005 Sánchez de Lozada / Mesa presidency
[edit]

In the June 2002 national elections, former

President Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada (MNR) placed
first with 22.5% of the vote, followed by coca-advocate
and native peasant-leader Evo Morales (Movement
Toward Socialism, MAS) with 20.9%. A July agreement
between the MNR and the fourth-place MIR, which had
again been led in the election by former President Jaime
Paz Zamora, virtually ensured the election of Sánchez
de Lozada in the congressional run-off, and on 6 August
he was sworn in for the second time. The MNR platform
featured three overarching objectives: economic
reactivation (and job creation), anti-corruption, and social
inclusion.
In 2003, the Bolivian gas conflict broke out. On 12
October 2003, the government imposed martial law in El
Alto after 16 people were shot by the police and several
dozen wounded in violent clashes. Faced with the option
of resigning or more bloodshed, Sánchez de Lozada
offered his resignation in a letter to an emergency
session of Congress. After his resignation was accepted
and his vice president, Carlos Mesa, invested, he left on
a commercially scheduled flight for the United States.
The country's internal situation became unfavorable for
such political action on the international stage. After a
resurgence of gas protests in 2005, Carlos Mesa
attempted to resign in January 2005, but his offer was
refused by Congress. On 22 March 2005, after weeks of
new street protests from organizations accusing Mesa of
bowing to U.S. corporate interests, Mesa again offered
his resignation to Congress, which was accepted on 10
June. The chief justice of the Supreme Court, Eduardo
Rodríguez, was sworn as interim president to succeed
the outgoing Carlos Mesa.
2005–2019 Morales presidency
[edit]
 The neutrality of this section
is disputed. Relevant discussion may be
found on Talk:Bolivia/Archive 2. Please
do not remove this message
until conditions to do so are
met. (September 2020) (Learn how and when
to remove this message)
Former President, Evo Morales
Evo Morales won the 2005 presidential election with
53.7% of the votes in Bolivian elections.[56] On 1 May
2006, Morales announced his intent to re-nationalize
Bolivian hydrocarbon assets following protests which
demanded this action.[57] Fulfilling a campaign promise,
on 6 August 2006, Morales opened the Bolivian
Constituent Assembly to begin writing a new constitution
aimed at giving more power to the indigenous majority.[58]
2009 marked the creation of a new constitution and the
renaming of the country to the Plurinational State of
Bolivia. The previous constitution did not allow a
consecutive reelection of a president, but the new
constitution allowed for just one reelection, starting the
dispute if Evo Morales was enabled to run for a second
term arguing he was elected under the last constitution.
This also triggered a new general election in which Evo
Morales was re-elected with 61.36% of the vote. His
party, Movement for Socialism, also won a two-thirds
majority in both houses of the National Congress.[59] By
2013, after being reelected under the new constitution,
Evo Morales and his party attempted a third term as
President of Bolivia. The opposition argued that a third
term would be unconstitutional, but the Bolivian
Constitutional Court ruled that Morales' first term under
the previous constitution did not count towards his term
limit.[60] This allowed Evo Morales to run for a third term in
2014, and he was re-elected with 64.22% of the vote.
[61]
During his third term, Evo Morales began to plan for a
fourth, and the 2016 Bolivian constitutional
referendum asked voters to override the constitution and
allow Evo Morales to run for an additional term in office.
Morales narrowly lost the referendum;[62] however, in
2017 his party then petitioned the Bolivian Constitutional
Court to override the constitution on the basis that
the American Convention on Human Rights made term
limits a human rights violation.[63] The Inter-American
Court of Human Rights determined that term limits are
not a human rights violation in 2018;[64][65] however, once
again the Bolivian Constitutional Court ruled that Morales
has permission to run for a fourth term in the 2019
elections, and this permission was not retracted. "[T]he
country's highest court overruled the constitution,
scrapping term limits altogether for every office. Morales
can now run for a fourth term in 2019 – and for every
election thereafter."[66]
The revenues generated by the partial nationalization of
hydrocarbons made it possible to finance several social
measures: the Renta Dignidad (or old age minimum) for
people over 60 years old; the Juana Azurduy voucher
(named after the revolutionary Juana Azurduy de Padilla,
1780–1862), which ensures the complete coverage of
medical expenses for pregnant women and their children
in order to fight infant mortality; the Juancito Pinto
voucher (named after a child hero of the Pacific War,
1879–1884), an aid paid until the end of secondary
school to parents whose children are in school in order to
combat school dropout, and the Single Health System,
which since 2018 has offered all Bolivians free medical
care.[67]
The reforms adopted made the Bolivian economic
system the most successful and stable in the region.
Between 2006 and 2019, GDP grew from $9 billion to
over $40 billion, real wages increased, GDP per capita
tripled, foreign exchange reserves rose, inflation was
essentially eliminated, and extreme poverty fell from 38%
to 15%, a 23-point drop.[68]
Interim government 2019–2020
[edit]
See also: 2019 Bolivian general election and 2019
Bolivian political crisis
During the 2019 elections, the Transmisión de
Resultados Electorales Preliminares (TREP) (a quick
count process used in Latin America as a transparency
measure in electoral processes) was interrupted; at the
time, Morales had a lead of 46.86 percent to Mesa's
36.72, after 95.63 percent of tally sheets were counted.
[69]
Two days after the interruption, the official count
showed Morales fractionally clearing the 10-point margin
he needed to avoid a runoff election, with the final official
tally counted as 47.08 percent to Mesa's 36.51 percent,
starting a wave of protests and tension in the country.
Amidst allegations of fraud perpetrated by the Morales
government, widespread protests were organized to
dispute the election. On 10 November, the Organization
of American States (OAS) released a preliminary report
concluding several irregularities in the election,[70][71]
[72]
though these findings were heavily disputed.[73] The
New York Times reported on 7 June 2020 that the OAS
analysis immediately after the 20 October election was
flawed yet fuelled "a chain of events that changed the
South American nation's history".[74][75][76]

2020 Bolivian general election,

results by departmentInauguration of Luis
Arce and David Choquehuanca on 8 November 2020
After weeks of protests, Morales resigned on national
television shortly after the Commander-in-Chief of the
armed forces General Williams Kaliman had urged that
he do so to restore "peace and stability".[77][78] Opposition
Senator Jeanine Áñez declared herself interim president,
claiming constitutional succession after the president,
vice president and both head of the legislature
chambers. She was confirmed as interim president by
the constitutional court who declared her succession to
be constitutional and automatic.[79][80] International
politicians, scholars and journalists are divided between
describing the event as a coup or a spontaneous social
uprising against an unconstitutional fourth term.[81]
[82]
Protests to reinstate Morales as president continued
becoming highly violent: burning public buses and
private houses, destroying public infrastructure and
harming pedestrians.[83][84][85][86][87] The protests were met
with more violence by security forces against Morales
supporters after Áñez exempted police and military from
criminal responsibility in operations for "the restoration of
order and public stability".[88][89]
In April 2020, the interim government took out a loan of
more than $327 million from the International Monetary
Fund to meet the country's needs during the COVID-19
pandemic.[90] New elections were scheduled for 3 May
2020. In response to the coronavirus pandemic, the
Bolivian electoral body, the TSE, made an
announcement postponing the election. MAS reluctantly
agreed with the first delay only. A date for the new
election was delayed twice more, in the face of massive
protests and violence.[91][92][93] The final proposed date for
the elections was 18 October 2020.[94] Observers from the
OAS, UNIORE, and the UN all reported that they found
no fraudulent actions in the 2020 elections.[95]
The general election had a record voter turnout of 88.4%
and ended in a landslide win for MAS which took 55.1%
of the votes compared to 28.8% for centrist former
president Carlos Mesa. Both Mesa and Áñez conceded
defeat.[96][97]
Government of Luis Arce: 2020 - present
[edit]

On 8 November 2020, Luis Arce was sworn in as

President of Bolivia alongside his Vice President David
Choquehuanca.[98] In February 2021, the Arce
government returned an amount of around $351 million
to the IMF. This comprised a loan of $327 million taken
out by the interim government in April 2020 and interest
of around $24 million. The government said it returned
the loan to protect Bolivia's economic sovereignty and
because the conditions attached to the loan were
unacceptable.[90]
Coup d'état attempt of Juan José Zúñiga: 2024-present
[edit]
Main article: 2024 Bolivian coup d'état attempt
On June 26, 2024, a military coup attempt led by Juan
José Zúñiga ended after lasting only 5 hours. In the
evening of 26 June, Bolivian police arrested Zúñiga.[99][100]
[101]

Geography
[edit]
Main article: Geography of Bolivia
 Topographical map of Bolivia
Bolivia is located in the central zone of South America,
between 57°26'–69°38'W and 9°38'–22°53'S. With an
area of 1,098,581 square kilometers (424,164 sq mi),
Bolivia is the world's 28th-largest country, and the fifth
largest country in South America,[102] extending from
the Central Andes through part of the Gran
Chaco, Pantanal and as far as the Amazon. The
geographic center of the country is the so-called Puerto
Estrella ("Star Port") on the Río Grande, in Ñuflo de
Chávez Province, Santa Cruz Department.
The geography of the country exhibits a great variety of
terrain and climates. Bolivia has a high level
of biodiversity,[103] considered one of the greatest in the
world, as well as several ecoregions with ecological sub-
units such as the Altiplano, tropical
rainforests (including Amazon rainforest), dry valleys,
and the Chiquitania, which is a tropical savanna.[citation
needed]
These areas feature enormous variations in altitude,
from an elevation of 6,542 meters (21,463 ft) above sea
level in Nevado Sajama to nearly 70 meters (230 ft)
along the Paraguay River. Although a country of great
geographic diversity, Bolivia has remained a landlocked
country since the War of the Pacific. Puerto Suárez, San
Matías and Puerto Quijarro are located in the Bolivian
Pantanal.
Bolivia can be divided into three physiographic regions:

Sol de Mañana (Morning Sun in

Spanish), a geothermal field in Eduardo Avaroa Andean
Fauna National Reserve, southwestern Bolivia. The
area, characterized by intense volcanic activity, with
sulfur spring fields and mud lakes, has indeed no
geysers but rather holes that emit pressurized steam up

to 50 meters high. Laguna

Colorada in the Puna de Lipez in Potosí
 The Andean region in the southwest spans 28% of
the national territory, extending over 307,603 square
kilometers (118,766 sq mi). This area is located above
3,000 meters (9,800 ft) altitude and is located between
two big Andean chains, the Cordillera
Occidental ("Western Range") and the Cordillera
Central ("Central Range"), with some of the highest
 spots in the Americas such as the Nevado Sajama,
with an altitude of 6,542 meters (21,463 ft), and
the Illimani, at 6,462 meters (21,201 ft). Also located in
the Cordillera Central is Lake Titicaca, the highest
commercially navigable lake in the world and the
largest lake in South America;[104] the lake is shared
with Peru. Also in this region are the Altiplano and
the Salar de Uyuni, which is the largest salt flat in the
world and an important source of lithium.
 The Sub-Andean region in the center and south of
the country is an intermediate region between
the Altiplano and the eastern llanos (plain); this region
comprises 13% of the territory of Bolivia, extending
over 142,815 km2 (55,141 sq mi), and encompassing
the Bolivian valleys and the Yungas region. It is
distinguished by its farming activities and its temperate
climate.
 The Llanos region in the northeast comprises 59% of
the territory, with 648,163 km2 (250,257 sq mi). It is
located to the north of the Cordillera Central and
extends from the Andean foothills to the Paraguay
River. It is a region of flat land and small plateaus, all
covered by extensive rain forests containing enormous
biodiversity. The region is below 400 meters (1,300 ft)
above sea level.
Geology
[edit]
 Bolivia map of Köppen
climate classification.[105]
The geology of Bolivia comprises a variety of
different lithologies as well as tectonic and sedimentary
environments. On a synoptic scale, geological units
coincide with topographical units. Most elementally, the
country is divided into a mountainous western area
affected by the subduction processes in the Pacific and
an eastern lowlands of stable platforms and shields.
Climate
[edit]

Chacaltaya ski resort, La Paz

Department
The climate of Bolivia varies drastically from one eco-
region to the other, from the tropics in the
eastern llanos to a polar climate in the western Andes.
The summers are warm, humid in the east and dry in the
west, with rains that often modify temperatures, humidity,
winds, atmospheric pressure and evaporation, yielding
very different climates in different areas. When the
climatological phenomenon known as El Niño[106][107] takes
place, it causes great alterations in the weather. Winters
are very cold in the west, and it snows in the mountain
ranges, while in the western regions, windy days are
more common. The autumn is dry in the non-tropical
regions.
 Llanos. A humid tropical climate with an average
temperature of 25 °C (77 °F). The wind coming from
the Amazon rainforest causes significant rainfall. In
May, there is low precipitation because of dry winds,
and most days have clear skies. Even so, winds from
the south, called surazos, can bring cooler
temperatures lasting several days.
 Altiplano. Desert-Polar climates, with strong and cold
winds. The average temperature ranges from 15 to
20 °C. At night, temperatures descend drastically to
slightly above 0 °C, while during the day, the weather
is dry and solar radiation is high. Ground frosts occur
every month, and snow is frequent.
 Valleys and Yungas. Temperate climate. The humid
northeastern winds are pushed to the mountains,
making this region very humid and rainy.
Temperatures are cooler at higher elevations. Snow
occurs at altitudes of 2,000 meters (6,600 ft).
 Chaco. Subtropical semi-arid climate. Rainy and
humid in January and the rest of the year, with warm
days and cold nights.
Issues with climate change
[edit]
Bolivia is especially vulnerable to the negative
consequences of climate change. Twenty percent of the
world's tropical glaciers are located within the country,
[108]
and are more sensitive to change in temperature due
to the tropical climate they are located in. Temperatures
in the Andes increased by 0.1 °C per decade from 1939
to 1998, and more recently the rate of increase has
tripled (to 0.33 °C per decade from 1980 to 2005),
[109]
causing glaciers to recede at an accelerated pace and
create unforeseen water shortages in Andean
agricultural towns. Farmers have taken to temporary city
jobs when there is poor yield for their crops, while others
have started permanently leaving the agricultural sector
and are migrating to nearby towns for other forms of
work;[110] some view these migrants as the first generation
of climate refugees.[111] Cities that are neighbouring
agricultural land, like El Alto, face the challenge of
providing services to the influx of new migrants; because
there is no alternative water source, the city's water
source is now being constricted.
Bolivia's government and other agencies have
acknowledged the need to instill new policies battling
the effects of climate change. The World Bank has
provided funding through the Climate Investment
Funds (CIF) and are using the Pilot Program for Climate
Resilience (PPCR II) to construct new irrigation systems,
protect riverbanks and basins, and work on building
water resources with the help of indigenous
communities.[112]
Biodiversity
[edit]

Bolivia's national animal,[citation

needed]
the llama at Laguna Colorada.
Bolivia, with an enormous variety
of organisms and ecosystems, is part of the "Like-
Minded Megadiverse Countries".[113]
Bolivia's variable altitudes, ranging from 90–6,542
meters (295–21,463 ft) above sea level, allow for a vast
biologic diversity. The territory of Bolivia comprises four
types of biomes, 32 ecological regions, and 199
ecosystems. Within this geographic area there are
several natural parks and reserves such as the Noel
Kempff Mercado National Park, the Madidi National
Park, the Tunari National Park, the Eduardo Avaroa
Andean Fauna National Reserve, and the Kaa-Iya del
Gran Chaco National Park and Integrated Management
Natural Area, among others.
Bolivia boasts over 17,000 species of seed plants,
including over 1,200 species of fern, 1,500 species
of marchantiophyta and moss, and at least 800 species
of fungus. In addition, there are more than 3,000 species
of medicinal plants. Bolivia is considered the place of
origin for such species as peppers and chili peppers,
peanuts, the common beans, yucca, and several species
of palm. Bolivia also naturally produces over 4,000 kinds
of potatoes. The country had a 2018 Forest Landscape
Integrity Index mean score of 8.47/10, ranking it 21st
globally out of 172 countries.[114]
Bolivia has more than 2,900 animal species, including
398 mammals, over 1,400 birds (about 14% of birds
known in the world, being the sixth most diverse country
in terms of bird species)[115][unreliable source?], 204 amphibians,
277 reptiles, and 635 fish, all fresh water fish as Bolivia
is a landlocked country. In addition, there are more than
3,000 types of butterfly, and more than 60 domestic
animals.
In 2020 a new species of snake, the Mountain Fer-De-
Lance Viper, was discovered in Bolivia.[116]
Environmental policy
[edit]

A Ministry of Environment and Water was created in

2006 after the election of Evo Morales, who reversed
the privatization of the water distribution sector in the
1990s by President Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada. The
new Constitution, approved by referendum in 2009,
makes access to water a fundamental right. In July 2010,
at the initiative of Bolivia, the United Nations passed a
resolution recognizing as "fundamental" the "right to safe
and clean drinking water."[117]
In 2013, the 'Law of the Rights of Mother Earth' was
passed, which accords nature the same rights as
humans.[118]
Government and politics
[edit]
Main articles: Politics of Bolivia and Foreign relations of
Bolivia

Building of the Plurinational

Legislative Assembly in central La Paz
Bolivia has been governed by democratically elected
governments since 1982; prior to that, it was governed
by various dictatorships. Presidents Hernán Siles
Zuazo (1982–85) and Víctor Paz Estenssoro (1985–89)
began a tradition of ceding power peacefully which has
continued, although three presidents have stepped down
in the face of extraordinary circumstances: Gonzalo
Sánchez de Lozada in 2003, Carlos Mesa in 2005,
and Evo Morales in 2019.
Bolivia's multiparty democracy has seen a wide variety of
parties in the presidency and parliament, although
the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement, Nationalist
Democratic Action, and the Revolutionary Left
Movement predominated from 1985 to 2005. On 11
November 2019, all senior governmental positions were
vacated following the resignation of Evo Morales and his
government. On 13 November 2019, Jeanine Áñez, a
former senator representing Beni, declared herself
acting President of Bolivia. Luis Arce was elected on 23
October 2020; he took office as president on 8
November 2020.

Interior of the Palacio Quemado, the

former residence and main office for the President of
Bolivia
The constitution, drafted in 2006–07 and approved in
2009, provides for balanced executive, legislative,
judicial, and electoral powers, as well as several levels of
autonomy. The traditionally strong executive branch
tends to overshadow the Congress, whose role is
generally limited to debating and approving legislation
initiated by the executive. The judiciary, consisting of
the Supreme Court and departmental and lower courts,
has long been riddled with corruption and inefficiency.
Through revisions to the constitution in 1994, and
subsequent laws, the government has initiated
potentially far-reaching reforms in the judicial system as
well as increasing decentralizing powers to departments,
municipalities, and indigenous territories.
The executive branch is headed by a president and vice
president, and consists of a variable number (currently,
20) of government ministries. The president is elected to
a five-year term by popular vote, and governs from the
Presidential Palace (popularly called the Burnt
Palace, Palacio Quemado) in La Paz. In the case that no
candidate receives an absolute majority of the popular
vote or more than 40% of the vote with an advantage of
more than 10% over the second-place finisher, a run-off
is to be held among the two candidates most voted.[119]
The Asamblea Legislativa Plurinacional (Plurinational
Legislative Assembly or National Congress) has two
chambers. The Cámara de Diputados (Chamber of
Deputies) has 130 members elected to five-year terms,
63 from single-member districts (circunscripciones), 60
by proportional representation, and seven by the minority
indigenous peoples of seven departments. The Cámara
de Senadores (Chamber of Senators) has 36 members
(four per department). Members of the Assembly are
elected to five-year terms. The body has its headquarters
on the Plaza Murillo in La Paz, but also holds honorary
sessions elsewhere in Bolivia. The Vice President serves
as titular head of the combined Assembly.
The judiciary consists of the Supreme Court of Justice,
the Plurinational Constitutional Court, the Judiciary
Council, Agrarian and Environmental Court, and District
(departmental) and lower courts. In October 2011,
Bolivia held its first judicial elections to choose members
of the national courts by popular vote, a reform brought
about by Evo Morales.
The Plurinational Electoral Organ is an independent
branch of government which replaced the National
Electoral Court in 2010. The branch consists of the
Supreme Electoral Courts, the nine Departmental
Electoral Court, Electoral Judges, the anonymously
selected Juries at Election Tables, and Electoral
Notaries.[120] Wilfredo Ovando presides over the seven-
member Supreme Electoral Court. Its operations are
mandated by the Constitution and regulated by the
Electoral Regime Law (Law 026, passed 2010). The
Organ's first elections were the country's first judicial
election in October 2011, and five municipal special
elections held in 2011.
Capital
[edit]

Sucre is Bolivia's constitutional

capital and retains the judicial branch of government.
Bolivia has its constitutionally recognized capital
in Sucre, while La Paz is the seat of government. La
Plata (now Sucre) was proclaimed the provisional capital
of the newly independent Alto Peru (later, Bolivia) on 1
July 1826.[121] On 12 July 1839, President José Miguel de
Velasco proclaimed a law naming the city as the capital
of Bolivia, and renaming it in honor of the revolutionary
leader Antonio José de Sucre.[121] The Bolivian seat of
government moved to La Paz at the start of the twentieth
century as a consequence of Sucre's relative
remoteness from economic activity after the decline
of Potosí and its silver industry and of the Liberal Party in
the War of 1899.
The 2009 Constitution assigns the role of national capital
to Sucre, not referring to La Paz in the text.[119] In addition
to being the constitutional capital, the Supreme Court of
Bolivia is located in Sucre, making it the judicial capital.
Nonetheless, the Palacio Quemado (the Presidential
Palace and seat of Bolivian executive power) is located
in La Paz, as are the National Congress and
Plurinational Electoral Organ. La Paz thus continues to
be the seat of government.
Foreign relations
[edit]
Main article: Foreign relations of Bolivia

The presidents of Cuba, Bolivia, and

El Salvador (from l. to r.) greet Nicolás Maduro at his
second inauguration as Venezuela's president,
in Caracas, on 10 January 2019
Despite losing its maritime coast, the so-called Litoral
Department, after the War of the Pacific, Bolivia has
historically maintained, as a state policy, a maritime
claim to that part of Chile; the claim asks for sovereign
access to the Pacific Ocean and its maritime space. The
issue has also been presented before the Organization
of American States; in 1979, the OAS passed the 426
Resolution,[122] which declared that the Bolivian problem is
a hemispheric problem. On 4 April 1884, a truce was
signed with Chile, whereby Chile gave facilities of access
to Bolivian products through Antofagasta, and freed the
payment of export rights in the port of Arica. In October
1904, the Treaty of Peace and Friendship was signed,
and Chile agreed to build a railway between Arica and
La Paz, to improve access of Bolivian products to the
ports.
The Special Economical Zone for Bolivia in Ilo (ZEEBI) is
a special economic area of 5 kilometers (3.1 miles) of
maritime coast, and a total extension of 358 hectares
(880 acres), called Mar Bolivia ("Sea Bolivia"), where
Bolivia may maintain a free port near Ilo, Peru under its
administration and operation[123][unreliable source?] for a period of
99 years starting in 1992; once that time has passed, all
the construction and territory revert to the Peruvian
government. Since 1964, Bolivia has had its own port
facilities in the Bolivian Free Port in Rosario, Argentina.
This port is located on the Paraná River, which is directly
connected to the Atlantic Ocean.
In 2018, Bolivia signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition
of Nuclear Weapons.[124][125]
The dispute with Chile was taken to the International
Court of Justice. The court ruled in support of the
Chilean position, and declared that although Chile may
have held talks about a Bolivian corridor to the sea, the
country was not required to negotiate one or to surrender
its territory.[126]
Bolivia is the 68th most peaceful country in the world,
according to the 2024 Global Peace Index.[127]
Military
[edit]

The Bolivian military comprises three branches: Ejército

(Army), Naval (Navy) and Fuerza Aérea (Air Force).
The Bolivian army has around 31,500 men. There are six
military regions (regiones militares—RMs) in the army.
The army is organized into ten divisions. Although it is
landlocked, Bolivia keeps a navy. The Bolivian Naval
Force (Fuerza Naval Boliviana in Spanish) is a naval
force about 5,000 strong in 2008.[128] The Bolivian Air
Force ('Fuerza Aérea Boliviana' or "FAB") has nine air
bases, located at La Paz, Cochabamba, Santa
Cruz, Puerto
Suárez, Tarija, Villamontes, Cobija, Riberalta,
and Roboré.
Law and crime
[edit]
Main articles: Law enforcement in Bolivia and Crime in
Bolivia
There are 54 prisons in Bolivia, which incarcerate around
8,700 people as of 2010. The prisons are managed by
the Penitentiary Regime Directorate (Spanish: Dirección
de Régimen Penintenciario). There are 17 prisons
in departmental capital cities and 36 provincial prisons.[129]
Administrative divisions
[edit]
Main articles: Departments of Bolivia, Provinces of
Bolivia, Municipalities of Bolivia, Cantons of Bolivia,
and Native Community Lands

Mount Illimani overlooking La Paz,

the capital city of the La Paz Department and the seat of
government of Bolivia
Bolivia has nine departments—Pando, La
Paz, Beni, Oruro, Cochabamba, Santa
Cruz, Potosí, Chuquisaca, Tarija.
According to what is established by the Bolivian Political
Constitution, the Law of Autonomies and
Decentralization regulates the procedure for the
elaboration of Statutes of Autonomy, the transfer and
distribution of direct competences between the central
government and the autonomous entities.[130]
There are four levels of decentralization: 1) Departmental
government is constituted by the Departmental
Assembly, with rights over the legislation of the
department. The department governor is chosen by
universal suffrage. 2) Municipal government is
constituted by a Municipal Council which is responsible
for legislation of the municipality. The municipality's
mayor is chosen by universal suffrage. 3) Regional
government is formed by several provinces or
municipalities of geographical continuity within a
department. It is constituted by a Regional Assembly. 4)
Original indigenous government is constituted by self-
governance of original indigenous people on the ancient
territories where they live.
No. Department Capital
1 Pando Cobija
2 La Paz La Paz
3 Beni Trinidad
4 Oruro Oruro
5 Cochabamba Cochabamba
Santa Cruz de
6 Santa Cruz
la Sierra
7 Potosí Potosí
8 Chuquisaca Sucre Terr
9 Tarija Tarija itorial division of Bolivia

El Palmar Nature Preserve, in

northern Chuquisaca
While Bolivia's administrative divisions have similar
status under governmental jurisprudence, each
department varies in quantitative and qualitative factors.
Generally speaking, Departments can be grouped either
by geography or by political-cultural orientation. For
example, Santa Cruz, Beni and Pando make up the low-
lying "Camba" heartlands of the Amazon, Moxos and
Chiquitanía. When considering political orientation, Beni,
Pando, Santa Cruz, Tarija are generally grouped for
regionalist autonomy movements; this region is known
as the "Media Luna". Conversely, La Paz, Oruro, Potosí,
Cochabamba have been traditionally associated with
Andean politics and culture. Today, Chuquisaca
vacillates between the Andean cultural bloc and the
Camba bloc.[citation needed]
Economy
[edit]
Main article: Economy of Bolivia

La Paz is Bolivia's main financial

center
Driven largely by its natural resources Bolivia has
become a regional leader in measures of economic
growth, fiscal stability and foreign reserves,[131] although it
remains a historically poor country. Bolivia's estimated
2012 gross domestic product (GDP) totaled
$27.43 billion at official exchange rate and $56.14 billion
at purchasing power parity. Despite a series of mostly
political setbacks, between 2006 and 2009 the Morales
administration spurred growth higher than at any point in
the preceding 30 years. The growth was accompanied
by a moderate decrease in inequality.[132] Under Morales,
per capita GDP doubled from US$1,182 in 2006 to
US$2,238 in 2012. GDP growth under Morales averaged
5 percent a year, and in 2014 only Panama and the
Dominican Republic performed better in all of Latin
America.[133] Bolivia's nominal GDP increased from
11.5 billion in 2006 to 41 billion in 2019.[134]
Bolivia in 2014, before a strong decline, boasted the
highest proportional rate of financial reserves of any
nation in the world, with Bolivia's rainy day fund totaling
some US$15 billion or nearly two-thirds of total annual
GDP, up from a fifth of GDP in 2005.[133]

Ivirgarzama, an important
agricultural region for the cultivation of bananas, citrus
fruits, pineapples and rice
Agriculture
[edit]

Agriculture is less relevant in the country's GDP

compared to the rest of Latin America. The country
produces close to 10 million tons of sugarcane per year
and is the 10th largest producer of soybean in the world.
It also has considerable yields of maize,
potato, sorghum, banana, rice, and wheat. The country's
largest exports are based on soy (soybean meal
and soybean oil).[135] The culture of soy was brought by
Brazilians to the country: in 2006, almost 50% of soy
producers in Bolivia were people from Brazil, or
descendants of Brazilians. The first Brazilian producers
began to arrive in the country in the 1990s. Before that,
there was a lot of land in the country that was not used,
or where only subsistence agriculture was practiced.[136]
Bolivia's most lucrative agricultural product continues to
be coca, of which Bolivia is the world's third largest
cultivator.[137][138]
Mineral resources
[edit]

The Cerro Rico in Potosí, still an

important mining site since the colonial times.
Bolivia, while historically renowned for its vast mineral
wealth, is relatively under-explored in geological and
mineralogical terms. The country is rich in various
mineral and natural resources, sitting at the heart of
South America in the Central Andes.
Mining is a major sector of the economy, with most of the
country's exports being dependent on it.[139] In 2019, the
country was the eighth largest world producer of silver;
[140]
fifth largest world producer of tin[141] and antimony;
[142]
seventh largest producer of zinc,[143] eighth largest
producer of lead,[144] fourth largest world producer
of boron;[145] and the sixth largest world producer
of tungsten.[146] The country also has considerable gold
production, which varies close to 25 tons/year, and also
has amethyst extraction.[147]

Lithium mine in the Salar de Uyuni.

Bolivia has the world's largest lithium reserves, second
largest antimony reserves, third largest iron ore reserves,
sixth largest tin reserves, ninth largest lead, silver, and
copper reserves, tenth largest zinc reserves, and
undisclosed but productive reserves of gold and
tungsten. Additionally, there is believed to be
considerable reserves of uranium and nickel present in
the country's largely under-explored eastern regions.
Diamond reserves may also be present in some
formations of the Serranías Chiquitanas in Santa Cruz
Department.
Bolivia has the second largest natural gas reserves in
South America.[148] Its natural gas exports bring in millions
of dollars per day, in royalties, rents, and taxes.[131] From
2007 to 2017, what is referred to as the "government
take" on gas totaled approximately $22 billion.[131]
The government held a binding referendum in 2005 on
the Hydrocarbon Law. Among other provisions, the law
requires that companies sell their production to the state
hydrocarbons company Yacimientos Petroliferos
Fiscales Bolivianos (YPFB) and for domestic demand to
be met before exporting hydrocarbons and increased the
state's royalties from natural gas.[149] The passage of the
Hydrocarbon law in opposition to then-President Carlos
Mesa can be understood as part of the Bolivian gas
conflict which ultimately resulted in election of Evo
Morales, Bolivia's first indigenous president.[150] The US
Geological Service estimates that Bolivia has 21 million
tonnes of lithium, which represent at least 25% of world
reserves – the largest in the world. However, to mine for
it would involve disturbing the country's salt flats
(called Salar de Uyuni), an important natural feature
which boosts tourism in the region. The government
does not want to destroy this unique natural landscape
to meet the rising world demand for lithium.[151] On the
other hand, sustainable extraction of lithium is attempted
by the government. This project is carried out by the
public company "Recursos Evaporíticos" subsidiary
of COMIBOL.

The Salar de Uyuni is the most

visited site in Bolivia
Tourism
[edit]
Main article: Tourism in Bolivia
The income from tourism has become increasingly
important. Bolivia's tourist industry has placed an
emphasis on attracting ethnic diversity.[152] The most
visited places include Nevado Sajama, Torotoro National
Park, Madidi National Park, Tiwanaku and the city of La
Paz.
The best known of the various festivals found in the
country is the "Carnaval de Oruro", which was among
the first 19 "Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible
Heritage of Humanity", as proclaimed by UNESCO in
May 2001.[153]
Transport
[edit]
Main article: Transport in Bolivia
Roads
[edit]

Bolivia's Yungas Road was called the "world's most

dangerous road" by the Inter-American Development
Bank, called (El Camino de la Muerte) in Spanish.[154] The
northern portion of the road, much of it unpaved and
without guardrails, was cut into the Cordillera Oriental
Mountain in the 1930s. The fall from the narrow 12 feet
(3.7 m) path is as much as 2,000 feet (610 m) in some
places and due to the humid weather from
the Amazon there are often poor conditions like
mudslides and falling rocks.[155] Each year over 25,000
bikers cycle along the 40 miles (64 km) road. In 2018, an
Israeli woman was killed by a falling rock while cycling on
the road.[156]
The Apolo road goes deep into La Paz. Roads in this
area were originally built to allow access to mines
located near Charazani. Other noteworthy roads run
to Coroico, Sorata, the Zongo Valley (Illimani mountain),
and along the Cochabamba highway (carretera).
[157]
According to researchers with the Center for
International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bolivia's road
network was still underdeveloped as of 2014. In lowland
areas of Bolivia there is less than 2,000 kilometers
(2,000,000 m) of paved road. There have been some
recent investments; animal husbandry has expanded
in Guayaramerín, which might be due to a new road
connecting Guayaramerín with Trinidad.[158] The country
only opened its first duplicated highway in 2015: a
203 km stretch between the capital La Paz and Oruro.[159]
Air
[edit]
See also: List of airlines of Bolivia and List of airports in
Bolivia

Boliviana de Aviación (BoA) is a

state-owned company and the country's largest airline.
Two BoA Boeing 737-300s parked at Jorge Wilstermann
International Airport.
The General Directorate of Civil Aeronautics (Dirección
General de Aeronáutica Civil—DGAC) formerly part of
the FAB, administers a civil aeronautics school called the
National Institute of Civil Aeronautics (Instituto Nacional
de Aeronáutica Civil—INAC), and two commercial air
transport services TAM and TAB.
TAM – Transporte Aéreo Militar (the Bolivian Military
Airline) was an airline based in La Paz, Bolivia. It was the
civilian wing of the 'Fuerza Aérea Boliviana' (the Bolivian
Air Force), operating passenger services to remote
towns and communities in the North and Northeast of
Bolivia. TAM (a.k.a. TAM Group 71) has been a part of
the FAB since 1945. The airline suspended its
operations since September 2019.[160]
Boliviana de Aviación, often referred to as simply BoA, is
the flag carrier airline of Bolivia and is wholly owned by
the country's government.[161]
A private airline serving regional destinations is Línea
Aérea Amaszonas,[162] with services including some
international destinations.
Although a civil transport airline, TAB – Transportes
Aéreos Bolivianos, was created as a subsidiary company
of the FAB in 1977. It is subordinate to the Air Transport
Management (Gerencia de Transportes Aéreos) and is
headed by an FAB general. TAB, a charter heavy cargo
airline, links Bolivia with most countries of the Western
Hemisphere; its inventory includes a fleet of Hercules
C130 aircraft. TAB is headquartered adjacent to El Alto
International Airport. TAB flies to Miami and Houston,
with a stop in Panama.
The three largest, and main international airports in
Bolivia are El Alto International Airport in La Paz, Viru
Viru International Airport in Santa Cruz, and Jorge
Wilstermann International Airport in Cochabamba. There
are regional airports in other cities that connect to these
three hubs.[163]
Technology
[edit]

Bolivia owns a communications satellite which

was offshored/outsourced and launched by China,
named Túpac Katari 1.[164] In 2015, it was announced that
electrical power advancements include a planned
$300 million nuclear reactor developed by the Russian
nuclear company Rosatom.[165] Bolivia was ranked 97th in
the Global Innovation Index in 2023, up from 110th in
2019.[166][167][168]
Water supply and sanitation
[edit]
Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Bolivia
Bolivia's drinking water and sanitation coverage has
greatly improved since 1990 due to a considerable
increase in sectoral investment. However, the country
has the continent's lowest coverage levels and services
are of low quality. Political and institutional instability
have contributed to the weakening of the sector's
institutions at the national and local levels.
Two concessions to foreign private companies in two of
the three largest cities – Cochabamba and La Paz/El
Alto – were prematurely ended in 2000 and 2006
respectively. The country's second largest city, Santa
Cruz de la Sierra, manages its own water and sanitation
system relatively successfully by way of cooperatives.
The government of Evo Morales intends to strengthen
citizen participation within the sector. Increasing
coverage requires a substantial increase of investment
financing.
According to the government the main problems in the
sector are low access to sanitation throughout the
country; low access to water in rural areas; insufficient
and ineffective investments; a low visibility of community
service providers; a lack of respect of indigenous
customs; "technical and institutional difficulties in the
design and implementation of projects"; a lack of
capacity to operate and maintain infrastructure; an
institutional framework that is "not consistent with the
political change in the country"; "ambiguities in the social
participation schemes"; a reduction in the quantity and
quality of water due to climate change; pollution and a
lack of integrated water resources management; and the
lack of policies and programs for the reuse of
wastewater.[169]
Only 27% of the population has access to improved
sanitation, 80 to 88% has access to improved water
sources. Coverage in urban areas is bigger than in rural
ones.[170]
Agriculture
[edit]
Main article: Agriculture in Bolivia
Further information: Bolivian cuisine
See also: Bolivian wine

Quinoa field near Lake Titicaca.

Bolivia is the world's second largest producer of the crop.
The agrarian reform promised by Evo Morales – and
approved in a referendum by nearly 80 per cent of the
population – has never been implemented. Intended to
abolish latifundism by reducing the maximum size of
properties that do not have an "economic and social
function" to 5,000 hectares, with the remainder to be
distributed among small agricultural workers and
landless indigenous people, it was strongly opposed by
the Bolivian oligarchy. In 2009, the government gave in
to the agribusiness sector, which in return committed to
end the pressure it was exerting and jeopardizing until
the new constitution was in place.[171]
However, a series of economic reforms and projects
have improved the condition of modest peasant families.
They received farm machinery, tractors, fertilizers, seeds
and breeding stock, while the state built irrigation
systems, roads and bridges to make it easier for them to
sell their produce in the markets. The situation of many
indigenous people and small farmers was regularized
through the granting of land titles for the land they were
using.[171]
In 2007, the government created a "Bank for Productive
Development" through which small workers and
agricultural producers can borrow easily, at low rates and
with repayment terms adapted to agricultural cycles. As
a result of improved banking supervision, borrowing
rates have been reduced by a factor of three between
2014 and 2019 across all banking institutions for small
and medium-sized agricultural producers. In addition, the
law now requires banks to devote at least 60% of their
resources to productive credits or to the construction of
social housing.[171]
With the creation of the Food Production Support
Enterprise (Emapa), the government sought to stabilize
the domestic market for agricultural products by buying
the best prices for the production of small and medium-
sized farmers, thus forcing agribusinesses to offer them
fairer remuneration. According to Vice President Àlvaro
García Linera, "by setting the rules of the game, the
State establishes a new balance of power that gives
more power to small producers. Wealth is better
redistributed to balance the power of the agribusiness
sector. This generates stability, which allows the
economy to flourish and benefits everyone.[171]
Demographics
[edit]
Main article: Demographics of Bolivia

People in La Paz city center

According to the last two censuses carried out by the
Bolivian National Statistics Institute (Instituto Nacional de
Estadística, INE), the population increased from
8,274,325 (from which 4,123,850 were men and
4,150,475 were women) in 2001 to 10,059,856 in 2012.
[172]

In the last fifty years the Bolivian population has tripled,

reaching a population growth rate of 2.25%. The growth
of the population in the inter-census periods (1950–1976
and 1976–1992) was approximately 2.05%, while
between the last period, 1992–2001, it reached 2.74%
annually.
Some 67.49% of Bolivians live in urban areas, while the
remaining 32.51% in rural areas. The most part of the
population (70%) is concentrated in the departments
of La Paz, Santa Cruz and Cochabamba. In
the Andean Altiplano region the departments of La Paz
and Oruro hold the largest percentage of population, in
the valley region the largest percentage is held by the
departments of Cochabamba and Chuquisaca, while in
the Llanos region by Santa Cruz and Beni. At national
level, the population density is 8.49, with variations
marked between 0.8 (Pando Department) and 26.2
(Cochabamba Department).
The largest population center is located in the so-called
"central axis" and in the Llanos region. Bolivia has a
young population. According to the 2011 census, 59% of
the population is between 15 and 59 years old, 39% is
less than 15 years old. Almost 60% of the population is
younger than 25 years of age.
Ethnic groups
[edit]

Danza de los macheteros, typical

dance from San Ignacio de Moxos, Bolivia
 Aymara man with a llama, near Lake
Titicaca, Bolivia
The vast majority of Bolivians are mestizo (with the
indigenous component higher than the European one),
although the government has not included the cultural
self-identification "mestizo" in the November 2012
census.[173] There are approximately three dozen native
groups totaling approximately half of the Bolivian
population – the largest proportion of indigenous people
in the Americas. A 2018 estimate of racial classification
put mestizo (mixed white and Amerindian) at 68%,
indigenous at 20%, white at 5%, cholo at 2%, black at
1%, other at 4%, while 2% were unspecified; 44%
attributed themselves to some indigenous group,
predominantly the linguistic categories
of Quechuas or Aymaras.[4] White Bolivians comprised
about 14% of the population in 2006, and are usually
concentrated in the largest cities: La Paz, Santa Cruz de
la Sierra and Cochabamba, but as well in some minor
cities like Tarija and Sucre. The ancestry of whites and
the white ancestry of mestizos lies within Europe and the
Middle East, most notably Spain, Italy, Germany,
Croatia, Lebanon and Syria. In the Santa Cruz
Department, there are several dozen colonies of
German-speaking Mennonites from Russia totaling
around 40,000 inhabitants (as of 2012).[174]
Afro-Bolivians, descendants of African slaves who
arrived in the time of the Spanish Empire, inhabit
the department of La Paz, and are located mainly in the
provinces of Nor Yungas and Sud Yungas. Slavery was
abolished in Bolivia in 1831.[175] There are also important
communities of Japanese (14,000[176]) and Lebanese
(12,900[177]).
Indigenous peoples, also called "originarios" ("native" or
"original") and less frequently, Amerindians, could be
categorized by geographic area, such as Andean, like
the Aymaras and Quechuas (who formed the
ancient Inca Empire), who are concentrated in the
western departments of La
Paz, Potosí, Oruro, Cochabamba and Chuquisaca.
There also are ethnic populations in the east, composed
of the Chiquitano, Chané, Guaraní and Moxos, among
others, who inhabit the departments of Santa
Cruz, Beni, Tarija and Pando.
There are small numbers of European citizens from
Germany, France, Italy and Portugal, as well as from
other countries of the Americas, as Argentina, Brazil,
Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, the United States,
Paraguay, Peru, Mexico and Venezuela, among others.
There are important Peruvian colonies in La Paz, El
Alto and Santa Cruz de la Sierra.
There are around 140,000 Mennonites in Bolivia of
Friesian, Flemish and German ethnic origins.[178][179]
Language
[edit]
Main article: Languages of Bolivia
Bolivia has great linguistic diversity as a result of
its multiculturalism. The Constitution of
Bolivia recognizes 36 official languages besides
Spanish: Aymara, Araona, Baure, Bésiro, Canichana, Ca
vineño, Cayubaba, Chácobo, Chimán, Ese
Ejja, Guaraní, Guarasu'we, Guarayu, Itonama, Leco, Ma
chajuyai-Kallawaya, Machineri, Maropa, Mojeño-
Ignaciano, Mojeño-Trinitario, Moré, Mosetén, Movima, P
acawara, Puquina, Quechua, Sirionó, Tacana, Tapieté, T
oromona, Uru-Chipaya, Weenhayek, Yaminawa, Yuki, Y
uracaré, and Zamuco.[180]
Spanish is the most spoken official language in the
country, according to the 2001 census; as it is spoken by
two-thirds of the population. All legal and official
documents issued by the State, including the
Constitution, the main private and public institutions, the
media, and commercial activities, are in Spanish.
The main indigenous languages are: Quechua (21.2% of
the population in the 2001
census), Aymara (14.6%), Guarani (0.6%) and others
(0.4%) including the Moxos in the department of Beni.[4]
Plautdietsch, a German dialect, is spoken by about
70,000 Mennonites in Santa Cruz. Portuguese is spoken
mainly in the areas close to Brazil.
Religion
[edit]
Main article: Religion in Bolivia
Religion in Bolivia (2014)[181]
Catholicism (77%)
Protestantism (16%)
Other (3%)
No religion (4%)

Basilica of San Francisco in La Paz

Bolivia is a constitutionally secular state that guarantees
the freedom of religion and the independence of
government from religion.[182]
According to the 2001 census conducted by the National
Institute of Statistics of Bolivia, 78% of the population
is Roman Catholic, followed by 19% that are Protestant,
as well as a small number of Bolivians that are Orthodox,
and 3% non-religious.[183][184]
The Association of Religion Data Archives (relying on the
World Christian Database) records that in 2010, 92.5%
of Bolivians identified as Christian (of any denomination),
3.1% identified with indigenous religion, 2.2% identified
as Baháʼí, 1.9% identified as agnostic, and all other
groups constituted 0.1% or less.[185]
Much of the indigenous population adheres to different
traditional beliefs marked
by inculturation or syncretism with Christianity. The cult
of Pachamama,[186] or "Mother Earth", is notable. The
veneration of the Virgin of Copacabana, Virgin of
Urkupiña and Virgin of Socavón, is also an important
feature of Christian pilgrimage. There also are
important Aymaran communities near Lake Titicaca that
have a strong devotion to James the Apostle.[187] Deities
worshiped in Bolivia include Ekeko, the Aymaran god of
abundance and prosperity, whose day is celebrated
every 24 January, and Tupá, a god of the Guaraní
people.
Largest cities and towns
[edit]
See also: List of cities and largest towns in Bolivia
Approximately 67% of Bolivians live in urban areas,
[188]
among the lowest proportion in South America.
Nevertheless, the rate of urbanization is growing
steadily, at around 2.5% annually. According to the 2012
census, there are total of 3,158,691 households in
Bolivia – an increase of 887,960 from 2001.[172] In 2009,
75.4% of homes were classified as a house, hut, or
Pahuichi; 3.3% were apartments; 21.1% were rental
residences; and 0.1% were mobile homes.[189] Most of the
country's largest cities are located in the highlands of the
west and central regions.
  v
 t
 e
Largest cities or
Census 2
Rank Name Department
1 Santa Cruz de la Sierra Santa Cruz
2 El Alto La Paz
3 La Paz La Paz
4 Cochabamba Cochabamba
Santa Cruz de la Sierra 5 Oruro Oruro
6 Sucre Chuquisaca
7 Tarija Tarija
8 Potosí Potosí
El Alto 9 Sacaba Cochabamba
10 Quillacollo Cochabamba
[190]

Culture
[edit]
Main article: Culture of Bolivia
See also: Music of Bolivia and Public holidays in Bolivia

Gate of the Sun, 500–950

CE, Tiwanaku
Bolivian culture has been heavily influenced by the
Spanish, the Aymara, the Quechua, as well as the
popular cultures of Latin America as a whole.
The cultural development is divided into three distinct
periods: precolumbian, colonial, and republican.
Important archaeological ruins, gold and silver
ornaments, stone monuments, ceramics,
and weavings remain from several important pre-
Columbian cultures. Major ruins include Tiwanaku, El
Fuerte de Samaipata, Inkallaqta and Iskanwaya. The
country abounds in other sites that are difficult to reach
and have seen little archaeological exploration.[191]

The Diablada, dance primeval,

typical and main of Carnival of Oruro, a Masterpiece of
the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity since 2001.
The Spanish brought their own tradition of religious art
which, in the hands of local native, mestizo and
some criollo builders and artisans, developed into a rich
and distinctive style of architecture, painting, and
sculpture known as Andean Baroque. The colonial
period produced not only the paintings of Pérez de
Holguín, Flores, Bitti, and others but also the works of
skilled but unknown stonecutters, woodcarvers,
goldsmiths, and silversmiths. An important body of
Native Baroque religious music of the colonial period
was recovered and has been performed internationally to
wide acclaim since 1994.[191]
Bolivian artists of stature in the 20th century
include María Luisa Pacheco, Roberto Mamani
Mamani, Alejandro Mario Yllanes, Alfredo Da Silva,
and Marina Núñez del Prado.
Bolivia has a rich folklore. Its regional folk music is
distinctive and varied. The "devil dances" at the annual
carnival of Oruro are one of the great folkloric events of
South America, as is the lesser known carnival
at Tarabuco.[191]
Education
[edit]
Main article: Education in Bolivia

The Universidad Mayor Real y

Pontificia San Francisco Xavier de Chuquisaca, Bolivia's
oldest higher education institution.
In 2008, following UNESCO standards, Bolivia was
declared free of illiteracy, making it the fourth country in
South America to attain this status.[192]
Bolivia has public and private universities. Among
them: Universidad Mayor, Real y Pontificia de San
Francisco Xavier de Chuquisaca USFX – Sucre, founded
in 1624; Universidad Mayor de San Andrés UMSA – La
Paz, founded in 1830; Universidad Mayor de San
Simon UMSS – Cochabamba, founded in
1832; Universidad Autónoma Gabriel René
Moreno UAGRM – Santa Cruz de la Sierra, founded in
1880; Universidad Técnica de Oruro UTO – Oruro,
founded in 1892; Universidad Evangélica Boliviana UEB
– Santa Cruz de la Sierra, founded in 1980;
and Universidad Autónoma Tomás Frías UATF – Potosi,
founded in 1892.
Health
[edit]
Main article: Health in Bolivia
See also: Refresh Bolivia
According to UNICEF under-five mortality rate in 2006
was 52.7 per 1000 and was reduced to 26 per 1000 by
2019.[193] The infant mortality rate was 40.7 per 1000 in
2006 and was reduced to 21.2 per 1000 in 2019.
[194]
Before Morales took office, nearly half of all infants
were not vaccinated; now nearly all are vaccinated.
Morales also put into place several supplemental
nutrition programs, including an effort to supply free food
in public health and social security offices, and his
desnutrición cero (zero malnutrition) program provides
free school lunches.[133]
Between 2006 and 2016, extreme poverty in Bolivia fell
from 38.2% to 16.8%. Chronic malnutrition in children
under five years of age also went down by 14% and the
child mortality rate was reduced by more than 50%,
according to World Health Organization.[195] In 2019 the
Bolivian government created a universal healthcare
system which has been cited as a model for all by the
World Health Organization.[196]