Functions

A function is a relation between a set of inputs and a set of permissible outputs with the
property that each input is related to exactly one output. Let A & B be any two non-empty
sets; mapping from A to B will be a function only when every element in set A has one end
and only one image in set B.

Example:

Another definition of functions is that it is a relation “f” in which each element of set “A” is
mapped with only one element belonging to set “B”. Also, in a function, there can’t be two
pairs with the same first element.

Condition for a Function

Set A and Set B should be non-empty.

In a function, a particular input is given to get a particular output. So, a function f: A->B
denotes that f is a function from A to B, where A is a domain, and B is a co-domain.

For an element, a, which belongs to A, a ∈ A, a unique element b, b ∈ B is there

such that (a,b) ∈ f.


The unique element b to which f relates a is denoted by f(a) and is called f of a, or the value
of f at a, or the image of a under f.

 The range of f (image of a under f)

Range of f = { y ∈ Y | y = f (x), for some x in X}

 It is the set of all values of f(x) taken together.


A real-valued function has either P or any one of its subsets as its range. Further, if its
domain is also either P or a subset of P, it is called a real function.

Vertical Line Test:

A vertical line test is used to determine whether a curve is a function or not. If any curve cuts
a vertical line at more than one point, then the curve is not a function.
Types of Functions
There are various types of functions in Mathematics which are explained below in detail. The
different function types covered here are given below:

 One-one Function (Injective Function)

 Many-one Function
 Onto Function (Surjective Function)
 Into Function
 Polynomial Function
 Linear Function
 Identical Function
 Quadratic Function
 Rational Function
 Algebraic Functions
 Cubic Function
 Modulus Function
 Signum Function
 Greatest Integer Function
 Fractional Part Function
 Even and Odd Function
 Periodic Function
 Composite Function
 Constant Function
 Identity Function
One-one Function (Injective Function) (The element of range not repeated or every element of domain
has unique image )

If each element in the domain of a function has a distinct image in the co-domain, the function is said to be a
one-one function.

For example, f; R R, given by f(x) = 3x + 5, is one-one.

Many-one function

On the other hand, if there are at least two elements in the domain whose images are the same, the function is
known as many to one.

For example, f : R R, given by f(x) = x2 + 1, is many-one.

Onto Function (Surjective Function) (range = codomain)

A function is called an onto function if each element in the co-domain has at least one pre-image in the domain.

Into Function (Range not equal to codamain)

If there exists at least one element in the co-domain, which is not an image of any element in the domain, then
the function will be into function.

(Q) Let A = {x : 1 < x < 1} = B be a mapping f : A B; find the nature of the given function (P). F(x) = |x|

f (x) = |1|

Solution for x = 1 & -1

Hence, it is many one, the range of f(x) from [-1, 1] is [0, 1] is not equal to the co-domain.

Hence, it is into function.

Let’s say we have the function,

For different values of the input, we have different outputs; hence it is a one-one function, and also, it manages
equally to its co-domain; hence, it is onto also.

Polynomial function

A real-valued function f : P → P defined by

, where n ∈ N and h0 + h1 + … + hn ∈ P, for each a ∈ P, is called polynomial function.

 N = a non-negative integer.
 The degree of the polynomial function is the highest power in the expression.
 If the degree is zero, it’s called a constant function.
 If the degree is one, it’s called a linear function. For example, b = a+1.
 Graph type: Always a straight line.

So, a polynomial function can be expressed as:

The highest power in the expression is known as the degree of the polynomial function. The different types of
polynomial functions based on the degree are as follows:

1. The polynomial function is called a constant function if the degree is zero.

2. The polynomial function is called a linear if the degree is one.
3. The polynomial function is quadratic if the degree is two.
4. The polynomial function is cubic if the degree is three.

Linear Function

All functions in the form of ax + b where a, b ∈ R & a ≠ 0 are called linear functions. The graph will be a
straight line. In other words, a linear polynomial function is a first-degree polynomial where the input needs to
be multiplied by m and added to c. It can be expressed by f(x) = mx + c.

For example, f(x) = 2x + 1 at x = 1

f(1) = 2.1 + 1 = 3

f(1) = 3
Another example of a linear function is y = x + 3

Identical Function

Two functions, f and g, are said to be identical if

(a) The domain of f = domain of g

(b) The range of f = the range of g

(c) f(x) = g(x) ∀ x ∈ Df & Dg

For example, f(x) = x

Solution: f(x) = x is defined for all x

But

is not defined of x = 0

Hence, it is identical for x ∈ R – {0}

Quadratic Function

All functions in the form of y = ax2 + bx + c where a, b, c ∈ R, a ≠ 0 will be known as Quadratic functions. The
graph will be parabolic.

, we will get its maximum on minimum value depending on the leading coefficient, and that value will be -D/4a
(where D = Discriminant).

In simpler terms,

A quadratic polynomial function is a second-degree polynomial, and it can be expressed as:

F(x) = ax2 + bx + c, and a is not equal to zero.

Where a, b, and c are constant, and x is a variable.

Example, f(x) = 2x2 + x – 1 at x = 2

If x = 2, f(2) = 2.22 + 2 – 1 = 9

For example, y = x2

Read More: Quadratic Function Formula

Rational Function
These are the real functions of the type

where f (a) and g (a) are polynomial functions of a defined in a domain, where g(a) ≠ 0.

 For example, f : P – {– 6} → P defined by

 is a rational function.
 Graph type: Asymptotes (the curves touching the axes lines).

Algebraic Functions

An algebraic equation is known as a function that consists of a finite number of terms involving powers and
roots of independent variable x and fundamental operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division.

For example,

Cubic Function

A cubic polynomial function is a polynomial of degree three and can be expressed as:

F(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, and a is not equal to zero.

In other words, any function in the form of f(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d, where a, b, c, d ∈ R & a ≠ 0
For example, y = x3

Domain ∈ R

Range ∈ R

Modulus Function

The real function f : P → P defined by f (a) = |a| = a when a ≥ 0. and f(a) = -a when a < 0 ∀ a ∈ P is called the
modulus function.

 Domain of f = P
 Range of f = P+ U {0}

Domain: R

Range: [0, ∞)

Signum Function

The real function f : P → P is defined by

is called the signum function or sign function (gives the sign of real number).

 Domain of f = P
 Range of f = {1, 0, – 1}

For example, signum (100) = 1

signum (log 1) = 0

signum (x21) =1

Greatest Integer Function

The real function f : P → P defined by f (a) = [a], a ∈ P assumes the value of the greatest integer less than or
equal to a is called the greatest integer function.

Thus f (a) = [a] = – 1 for – 1 ⩽ a < 0

f (a) = [a] = 0 for 0 ⩽ a < 1


[a] = 1 for 1 ⩽ a < 2



[a] = 2 for 2 ⩽ a < 3 and so on…




The greatest integer function always gives integral output. The greatest integral value that has been taken by the
input will be the output.

For example, [4.5] = 4

[6.99] = 6

[1.2] = 2

Domain ∈ R

Range ∈ Integers

Fractional Part Function

{x} = x – [x]

It always gives fractional value as output.

For example, {4.5} = 4.5 – [4.5]

= 4.5 – 4 = 0.5

{6.99} = 6.99 – [6.99]

= 6.99 – 6 = 0.99

{7} = 7 – [7] = 7 –7 = 0

Even and Odd Function

If f(x) = f(-x), then the function will be even function, and if f(x) = -f(-x), then the function will be odd function.

Example 1:

f(x) = x2sinx

f(-x) = -x2sinx

Here, f(x) = -f(-x)

It is an odd function.

Example 2:

and

f(x) = f(-x)

It is an even function.

Periodic Function

A function is said to be a periodic function if a positive real number T exists, such that f(u – t) = f(x) for all x ε
domain.

For example, f(x) = sin x

f(x + 2π) = sin (x + 2π) = sin x fundamental

Then period of sin x is 2π.

Composite Function

Let A, B, and C be three non-empty sets

Let f: A → B & g : G → C be two functions, then gof : A → C. This function is called the composition of f and
g given gof (x) = g(f(x)).

For example, f(x) = x2 & g(x) = 2x

f(g(x)) = f(2,x) = (2x)2 = 4x2

g(f(x)) = g(x2) = 2x2

Constant Function

The function f : P → P is defined by b = f (x) = D, a ∈ P, where D is a constant ∈ P, is a constant function.

 Domain of f = P
 Range of f = {D}
 Graph type: A straight line which is parallel to the x-axis.

In simple words, the polynomial of 0th degree where f(x) = f(0) = a0 = c. Regardless of the input, the output
always results in a constant value. The graph for this is a horizontal line.

Identity Function

P= set of real numbers

The function f : P → P defined by b = f (a) = a for each a ∈ P is called the identity function.

 Domain of f = P
 Range of f = P
 Graph type: A straight line passing through the origin.

In Mathematics, a set is defined as the collection of well-defined distinct objects. The

different objects that create a set are called the elements of the set. Generally, the
elements of the sets can be written in any order but it should not be repeated. The set is
usually represented by the capital letter. In basic set theory, two sets can either be
equivalent, equal or unequal to each other. In this article, we are going to discuss what is
meant by equal and equivalent set with examples and also the difference between them.
What are Equal Sets?

Two sets A and B can be equal only if each element of set A is also the element of the set
B. Also if two sets are the subsets of each other, they are said to be equal. This is
represented by:

A=B

A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A ⟺ A = B

If the condition discussed above is not met, then the sets are said to be unequal. This is
represented by:

A≠B

Let us now go ahead and find when the given two sets are equivalent.

What are Equivalent Sets?

To be equivalent, the sets should have the same cardinality. This means that there
should be one to one correspondence between elements of both the sets. Here, one to
one correspondence means that for each element in the set A, there exists an element in
the set B till the sets get exhausted.

Definition 1: If two sets A and B have the same cardinality if there exists an objective
function from set A to B.

Definition 2: Two sets A and B are said to be equivalent if they have the same cardinality
i.e. n(A) = n(B).

In general, we can say, two sets are equivalent to each other if the number of elements
in both the sets is equal. And it is not necessary that they have same elements, or they
are a subset of each other.

Equal And Equivalent Sets Examples

Equal Set Example

If P = {1, 3, 9, 5, −7} and Q = {5, −7, 3, 1, 9,}, then P = Q. It is also noted that no
matter how many times an element is repeated in the set, it is only counted once. Also,
the order doesn’t matter for the elements in a set. So, to rephrase in terms of cardinal
number, we can say that:
If A = B, then n(A) = n(B) and for any x ∈ A, x ∈ B too.

Equivalent Set Example

If P = {1,−7,200011000,55} and Q = {1,2,3,4}, then P is equivalent to Q.

If C = {x : x is positive integer} and D = {d : d is a natural number},

then C is equivalent to D.

Important points:

 All the null sets are equivalent to each other.

 If A and B are two sets such that A = B, then A is equivalent to B. This means that
two equal sets will always be equivalent but the converse of the same may or
may not be true.
 Not all infinite sets are equivalent to each other. For e.g. the set of all real
numbers and the set of integers.
 Difference Between Equal and Equivalent Sets
Sr. Points Equal Sets Equivalent Sets
No

1 Definition Two sets are said to be equal if Two sets are equivalent when
all the elements of both the the number of elements of both
sets are the same. the sets is the same.

2 Number of Same in both sets Same in both sets

elements

3 Cardinality Same of both sets Same of both sets

4 Elements Elements should be the same Elements need not be the same

5 Symbol = ~ or

6 Relation Equal sets can be equivalent Equivalent sets cannot be equal.

also.

7 Example A={2,4,6,8} X= {2, 4, 6, 8}

B={4,8,2,6} Y={1,7,5,9}
A=B X~Y