INSTRUMENTATION AND

PROCESS CONTROL

For
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
 INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS
CONTROL
SYLLABUS
Measurement of process variables; sensors, transducers and their dynamics, process
modeling and linearization, transfer functions and dynamic responses of various
systems, systems with inverse response, process reaction curve, controller modes (P,
PI, and PID); control valves; analysis of closed loop systems including stability,
frequency response, controller tuning, cascade and feed forward control.
ANALYSIS OF GATE PAPERS

Exam Year Total

2001 11
2002 8
2003 10
2004 7
2005 9
2006 11
2007 10
2008 11
2009 10
2010 8
2011 6
2012 8
2013 7
2014 10
2015 8
2016 7
2017 8
2018 7
2019 7
 CONTENTS
Topics Page No
1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 What is a Process? 1

1.2 What is Process Control? 1
1.3 Common Terms and Concepts in Process Control 1
2. LAPLACE TRANSFORM

2.1 Introduction to Laplace Transform 4

2.2 Examples 7

3. MATHEMATICAL MODELING

3.1 Process Modeling 10

3.2 State Variables and Equations 10
3.3 Example of Modeling a Stirred Tank Heater 11
3.4 Linearization of Non-linear Model 15
3.5 Deviation Variables 17
3.6 Examples 17

4. TRANSFER FUNCTION

4.1 Introduction to Transfer Function 21

4.2 First-Order Behavior 22
4.3 Second-Order Behavior 24
4.4 Processes With Dead Time 32
4.5 Examples 33

5. FEEDBACK CONTROLLER

5.1 Introduction to Feedback Control 36

5.2 Dynamic Behavior of Feedback Controller 43
5.3 Stability of a Closed Loop Process 50
5.4 Stability of Feedback Control System 54
5.5 Examples 60

6. FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS

6.1 Response of a First-Order System to a Sinusoidal Input 65
6.2 Complex Plane and Frequency Response Analysis 66
6.3 Example of Frequency Response of a Second Order System 67
6.4 Examples 67
7. INSTRUMENTATION

7.1 Introduction 71
7.2 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram 71
7.3 Process Flow Diagram 75
7.4 Actuators 76
7.5 Sensors 81

8. ADVANCE CONTROL

8.1 Feed Forward Control 88

8.2 Cascade Control 95
8.3 Ratio Control 98
8.4 Override Control 99
8.5 Auctioneering Control 100
8.6 Split Range Control 100
8.7 Adaptive Control 101
8.8 Inferential Control 103

9. Gate Questions 105

 1 INTRODUCTION

What is a Process?

The word ‘Process’ used popularly in process control and the process industry refers to the
ways and methods applied in changing or refining raw materials into end products suitable
for mankind. The raw materials which can either be in a liquid, gaseous or a mixture of solid
and liquid(slurry) are during processing transferred, measured, mixed, heated or cooled,
filtered, stored, or handled in some other way to produce the end product.
Process industries include the chemical industry, the oil and gas industry, the food and
beverage industry, the pharmaceutical industry, the water treatment industry, and the
power industry.

What is Process Control?

Process Control refers to the methods used to control process variables during the
manufacture of a product. The manufacturing process for a product is controlled for the
following reasons:
(i) To reduce product variability – Reducing product variability leads to increase in product
quality.
(ii) Increase efficiency – Increase in the efficiency of a manufacturing process will ensure
that minimum resources are required to produce a product which consequently saves
money for the manufacturers.
(iii) Ensure process safety – Every process must be controlled to operate safely. If this does
not happen, the consequences of a run-away process can be catastrophic as witnessed in the
1986 nuclear plant disaster in Chernobyl near pripyat, about 130 km (about 80 mi) north of
Kyiv (now in Ukraine) in the then USSR which exploded and burned.

Common Terms and Concepts in Process Control

Process Variable:

In industrial process control, the process variable or PV is measured by a sensor or

instrument in the field and acts as an input to a controller, which takes action based on the
value of it. Common process variables include – level, flow, temperature, density, PH(acidity
or alkalinity), mass, conductivity etc.
Set Point:

The setpoint is the target value of the process variable that is desired to be maintained. For
example, if a process temperature needs to be kept within 5 °C of 100 °C, then the setpointis
100 °C.

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 Introduction

Controller:

It is an automatic device responding to changes in the physical quantity most representative

of controlled process, and controlling a manipulated variable to maintain it at its setpoint
value or to change it to a preset program.

Manipulated Variable:

The variable to be manipulated, in order to have control over the process variable (PV), is
called the manipulated variable or MV. If we control a particular flow for instance, we
manipulate a valve to control the flow. Here, the valve position is called the manipulated
variable and the measured flow becomes the process variable. The diagram below illustrates
the relationship between setpoint, measured variable and a controller:

Error

Error is the difference between the measured variable and the setpoint and can be either
positive or negative. The objective of any control scheme is to minimize or eliminate error.
Therefore, it is imperative that the concept of error be well understood. Any error can be
seen as having three major components. These include – the magnitude, duration and rate of
change of the error:
(i) Error magnitude - The magnitude of the error is simply the deviation between the values
of the setpoint and the process variable. The magnitude of error at anypoint in time
compared to the previous error provides the basis for determining the change in error. The
change in error is also an important value.
(ii) Duration of error - Duration refers to the length of time that an error condition has
existed.
(iii) Rate of change of error - The rate of change of error is shown by the slope of the error
plot shown below:

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 Introduction

Offset

Offset is a sustained deviation of the process variable from the setpoint. For example, if in a
pressure control loop, the control system held the process pressure at 10.5 bar consistently,
even though the setpoint is 10 bar, then an offset of 0.5 bar exists.

Load Disturbance

A load disturbance is an undesired change in one of the factors that can affect the process
variable. For example, in a temperature control loop adding cold process fluid to a vessel we
are maintaining the temperature at a constant value would be a load disturbance because it
would lower the temperature of the process fluid.

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 2 LAPLACE TRANSFORM

Introduction to Laplace Transforms

Most control system analysis and design techniques are based on linear systems theory.
Although we could develop these procedures using the state space models, it is generally
easier to work with transfer functions. Basically, transfer functions allow us to make
algebraic manipulations rather than working directly with linear differential equations
(state space models). To create transfer functions, we need the notion of the Laplace
transform.
The Laplace transform of a time-domain function, f(t), is represented by L[f(t)] and is defined
as
∞
L f ( t )  = F ( s ) ∫ f ( t ) e − st dt
0

The Laplace transform is a linear operation, so the Laplace transform of a constant (C)
multiplying a time-domain function is just that constant times the Laplace transform of the
function,
∞
f ( t )  C=
L C= f ( s ) C ∫ f ( t ) e − st dt
0

The Laplace transforms of a few common time-domain functions are shown next.

Exponential Function

Exponential functions appear often in the solution of linear differential equations. Here
f ( t ) = e − at
The transform is defined for t > 0 (we also use the identity that ex + y   
= ex ey )
∞ ∞
L f (=
t )  L e=
− at
(s)
 F= ∫e
− at − st
e=
dt ∫e
−( s + a ) t
dt
0 0

1  −( s + a ) t  ∞ 1 1
L f ( t )  =−  e  =− [0 − 1] =
s+a 0 s+a s+a
So we now have the following relationship:
1
L e − at  =
s+a

Derivatives

This will be important in transforming the derivative term in a dynamic equation to the
Laplace domain (using integration by parts),

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 Laplace Transform

 df ( t )  ∞ df ( t ) − st ∞
∞
=
L  ∫ = e dt 
 e − st
f ( t )  0 ∫ f ( t ) se dt
 + − st

 dt  0 dt 0

 df ( t )  ∞
L =

  0 − f ( 0 )  ∫ f ( t ) e dt =
 + s − st
−f ( 0 ) + sF ( s )
 dt  0

so we can write
 df ( t ) 
L =  sF ( s ) − f ( 0 )
 dt 
For an nth derivative, we can derive
 dnf ( t )  n
 s F ( s ) − s f ( 0 ) − s f ' ( 0 ) − .... − f ( 0)
n −1 n −2 ( n −1)
L =
 dt 
n initial conditions are needed: f ( 0 ) ,..., f ( 0)
( n – 1)

One reason for using deviation variables is that all of the initial condition terms in Equation
are 0, if the system is initially at steady-state.

Time Delays (Dead Time)

Time delays often occur owing to fluid transport through pipes, or measurement sample
delays. Here we use q to represent the time delay. If f(t) represents a particular function of
time, then f(t – q) represents the value of the function q time units in the past.
∞ ∞ ∞
L f ( t − =
θ )  ∫ f ( t − θ) e =
dt ∫ f ( t − θ ) e
− st − s( t −θ+θ )
=
dt ∫ f ( t − θ) e
− s( t −θ ) − sθ
e dt
0 0 0
∞
t − θ )  e − sθ ∫ f ( t − θ ) e − s( t −θ) d ( t − θ )
L f (=
0

We can use a change of variables, t* = t – q, to integrate the function. Notice that the lower
limit of integration does not change, because the function is defined as f(t) = 0 for t < 0.
∞
L f ( t − θ )  e −=
= sθ
∫ f ( t *) e dt * e F ( s )
− st* − sθ

So the Laplace transform of a function with a time delay (q) is simply e –qs times the Laplace
transform of the non-delayed function.

Step Functions

Step functions are used to simulate the sudden change in an input variable (say a flow rate
being rapidly changed from one value to another). A step function is discontinuous at t = 0.
A "unit" step function is defined as
𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 1 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 1 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑡𝑡 ≥ 0
and using the definition of the Laplace transform,
∞ 1 1 1
𝐿𝐿[𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)] = ∫0 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = [𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ]∞
0 = − [ 0 − 1] =
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠

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 Laplace Transform

so
1
𝐿𝐿[1] =
𝑠𝑠
Similarly, the Laplace transform of a constant, C, is
𝐶𝐶
𝐿𝐿[𝐶𝐶 ] =
𝑠𝑠

Pulse

Consider a pulse function, where a total integrated input of magnitude P is applied

over tptime units, as shown in Figure.

Figure: Pulse function

The function is f ( t ) = P / t p for 0 <    t < t p and f ( t ) = 0 for t   
> t p . The Laplace transform is
𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝 ∞
𝑃𝑃 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑃 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝐹 (𝑠𝑠) = � 𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + � 0 ∙ 𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∙
0 𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝 𝑡𝑡𝑝𝑝 𝑠𝑠

Impulse

An impulse function can viewed as a pulse function, where the pulse period is decreased
while maintaining the pulse area, as shown in Figure. In the limit, as tp approaches 0, the
pulse function becomes (using L'Hopital's rule)

Figure: Concept of an impulse function

𝐿𝐿[𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠, 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑃𝑃] = 𝑃𝑃
If we denote a unit impulse as f(t) = d, then the Laplace transform is
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 1
Examples of common impulse inputs include a "bolus" (shot or injection) of a drug into a
physiological system, or dumping a bucket of fluid or bag of solids into a chemical reactor.

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 Laplace Transform

1 1
𝐿𝐿[𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ] = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐿𝐿−1 � � = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎

Initial- and Final-Value Theorems

The following theorems are very useful for determining limiting values in dynamics and
control studies. The long-term behavior of a time-domain function can be found by analyzing
the Laplace domain behavior in the limit as the s variable approaches zero. The initial value
of a time-domain function can be found by analyzing the Laplace domain behavior in the limit
as s approaches infinity.
The final-value theorem is,
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = lim[𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠)]
𝑡𝑡→∞ 𝑠𝑠→0
The initial-value theorem is,
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = lim [𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠)]
𝑡𝑡→0 𝑠𝑠→∞
It should be noted that these theorems only hold for stable systems.

Questions and Answers

Question: Expand the following equation of Laplace transform in terms of its partial
fractions and obtain its time-domain response
2𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) =
(𝑠𝑠 + 1)(𝑠𝑠 + 2)
Solution:
The following equation in Laplace transform is expanded with its partial fractions as follows.
2𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵
= +
(𝑠𝑠 + 1)(𝑠𝑠 + 2) (𝑠𝑠 + 1) (𝑠𝑠 + 2)
2𝑠𝑠 𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠 + 2) + 𝐵𝐵(𝑠𝑠 + 1)
=
(𝑠𝑠 + 1)(𝑠𝑠 + 2) (𝑠𝑠 + 1)(𝑠𝑠 + 2)
By equating both sides, A and B are determined as A=−2, B = 4. Therefore
2 4
𝑌𝑌 (𝑠𝑠) = − +
(𝑠𝑠 + 1) (𝑠𝑠 + 2)
Taking Laplace inverse of above equation,
𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = −2𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 + 4𝑒𝑒 −2𝑡𝑡

Question: Expand the following equation of Laplacetransform in terms of its partial

fractionsand obtain its time-domain response
2𝑠𝑠 + 1
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) =
(𝑠𝑠 + 1 + 𝑗𝑗)(𝑠𝑠 + 1 − 𝑗𝑗)
Solution:
2𝑠𝑠 1
𝑌𝑌 (𝑠𝑠) = +
(𝑠𝑠 + 1)2 + 1 (𝑠𝑠 + 1)2 + 1
Taking Laplace inverse of above equation,
𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = 2𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 cos 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 sin 𝑡𝑡

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 Laplace Transform

Question: Determine the initial value of the time-domain response of the following equation
using initial-value theorem
2𝑠𝑠 + 1
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) =
(𝑠𝑠 + 1 + 𝑗𝑗)(𝑠𝑠 + 1 − 𝑗𝑗)
Solution: Solution of the above equation is,
𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = 2𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 cos 𝑡𝑡 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 sin 𝑡𝑡
Applying initial value theorem,
𝑠𝑠(2𝑠𝑠 + 1)
lim =2
𝑠𝑠→∞ (𝑠𝑠 + 1 + 𝑗𝑗)(𝑠𝑠 + 1 − 𝑗𝑗)

Question: Solve the following linear differential equation using Laplace Transform:
d2 y dy dy
2
+3 − y = 5t ; = 0 ; y t =0 = 2
dt dt dt t =0
Solution:
d2 y dy
2
+3 − y = 5t
dt dt
Taking Laplace Transform of the equation we obtain,

Hence,

or,

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 Laplace Transform

Hence,

or,

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 3 MATHEMATICAL MODELLING

3.1 Process Modeling

A mathematical model of a process is a set of differential and algebraic equations whose

solution yields the static and dynamic behavior of the process. In other words, a
mathematical model essentially describes the physical and chemical phenomena of a
process. Unarguably, performing experiments is the best way to gather information (data)
about a process. However, time, effort and cost associated with experimental approach of
gathering information may not be an easy option, especially for costly experiments.
Mathematical model is a good alternative in such situations. However, it should be noted that
a model is never a perfect alternative to the real life process. There is always a scope of error,
however small it may be, between model and the process. Nevertheless, a reliable modelling
exercise needs to be adopted so that the process/model mismatch remains as small as
possible.
A mathematical model is useful for various purposes in the process industries. A trainee
operator can learn the process details with the help of a process model. The operator needs
to learn know-hows of critical situation and perform what-if analysis for the process. Such
critical situation is never advisable “to be created” in the real-life plant operation. Hence,
simulation of process model serves the purpose in this case. In fact the simulation of process
model is carried out for design, safety analysis and controller synthesis of that process. Trial
of the controller on a process model prior to the actual plant application is mandatory.

3.2 State variables and equations

The state variables are a set of fundamental dependent quantities whose values describe the
natural state of a given process. The state equations are set of differential equations which
describe the progression of the states with time. The state variables are primarily the
fundamental quantities of a process viz., mass, energy and momentum, whereas the state
equations are generated out of conservation principle involving these fundamental
quantities.
Let S be the fundamental quantity. The state equation can be written as:
Rate of accumulation of S within the system
= Flow rate of S coming to the system
− Flow rate of S going of the system
+ Rate of s generated within the system
− Rate of S consumed within the system
If there are N no. of streams going inside a process and M no. of streams coming out of a
process, the mass balance equations for the process can be written as:

(1)

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 Mathematical Modeling

Where ρ and V represent the density and volume of the material inside the system
and ρ(i/ j) and F(i/ j) are the density and flow rate of the incoming/outgoing streams
respectively. In case of a chemical reaction, let CA and CA(i/ j) be the concentrations of
component A of material inside the process and the streams respectively and r be the rate of
the reaction. The component balance equations can be written as
(2)

Let h and h (i/ j) be the enthalpies of material inside the process and incoming/outgoing
streams respectively, Q be the heat supplied to the system (or heat removed from the
system), W is the work done on (or by) the system. Then the energy (E) balance equation for
such system is written as
(3)

As the chemical process plants are usually static, momentum balance equations are usually
not required for such cases.
In addition to the above state equations, a few algebraic equations are also useful for
modeling of a chemical process. Examples of such equations are:
Transport rate equation: (4a)

Kinetic rate equation: (4b)

Phase equilibrium (4c)

equation:
Gas law: (4d)

3.3 Example of Modeling a Stirred Tank Heater

Consider the stirred tank heater in the Fig 3.1 as shown below. The question is what would
change in case a change is occurred in the input condition (either in the manipulated variable
or the disturbance). It is evident that inlet flow rate and its temperature are the input
condition which can undergo a change and in such situation the mass and energy content
(state variables) of the tank would show a progression. In normal situation, flow rate or
temperature of an inlet flow does not have a potential to displace the tank physically from
its normal position. Hence, there is no scope of progression of momentum of the tank. In
other words, one need not carry out momentum balance operation on this process, rather
mass and energy balance operation would suffice.

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 Mathematical Modeling

Figure 3.1 Schematic of a stirred tank heater

Let us now apply the material balance and energy balance operation on this process that
would yield the following two equations:

3.3.1 Material balance

Rate of accumulation of water = rate of water inlet - rate of water outlet

dm
= mi − m o
dt
d d
{ρV} = {ρAh} = Fiρi − Foρo
dt dt
Where A is the cross sectional area of the tank. If we assume the density of water to be
constant then the material balance equation would take the final form as
dh
A = Fi − Fo
dt
For a free flow system,
F0 = c h
Where c is a constant. Hence,
dh
A = Fi − c h (5)
dt

3.3.2 Energy balance

Rate of accumulation of heat = rate of heat in - rate of heat out + rate of heat supplied

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 Mathematical Modeling

If we assume the density and specific heat of water to be constant and the reference
temperature to be zero, then the energy balance equation would take the form as

(6)

Equation 6 and 7 represent the mathematical model of the stirred tank heater.

3.3.3 Degrees of Freedom

The degree of freedom is defined by the total number of independent variables that must be
specified in order to define the system completely. In other words, it is the minimum number
of independent variables required to be specified so that the model equation(s) can be
solved.
Let us analyze the case of the stirred tank heater:
Total no. of variables : 5 ( h, T, F , T , Q ) i i

Total no. of equations : 2

With only two equations in hand, one can solve for only two unknown variables in order to
obtain a unique solution. Hence, out of 5 variables, 3 needs to be specified before a unique
solution of the equation can be attempted. It is evident from the list of variables that one
needs to specify Fi , Ti and Q in order to solve for the state variables h and T. Essentially the
degree of freedom is calculated by subtracting the number of equations from number of
variables. Thus the degree of freedom of the stirred tank heater process is 3.

3.3.4 Simulation of the mathematical model of stirred tank heater

The model consists of two ordinary differential equations. Simulation of the model
(i.e. solving these model equations) with an “input condition” yields the data along with some
percentage of error, which are otherwise expected, from the real-time process operation at

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 Mathematical Modeling

same “input condition”. Although equations are simple first order ODEs, the nonlinear terms
of those model equations may be hindrance against getting analytical solution of the model.
Numerical solution, on the other hand, is a popular approach for simulation of such model
equations. Various simulation software are available for easy use, e.g. MATLAB® and
SIMULINK® to name a few. Following subsection describes the model of stirred tank heater
developed in SIMULINK® domain.

Figure 3.2 Model of stirred tank heater developed in SIMULINK® domain

In order to solve the model equation one needs to specify the model parameters and satisfy
the degree of freedom. Let us consider the following numerical values for the said
parameters and variables: A = 10, c = 1;c p = 1, ρ = 1, Fi = 1, Ti = 29, Q = 1 . At steady state, left
hand side of equations (5) and (6) would be zero.
(7)
(8)

Solution of equations (7) and (8) yields the steady state values of the state
variables: h s = 1 and Ts = 30 . The values of h and T would stay at 1 and 30 respectively as
long as there is no change in the input condition.
Let us analyze what would happen if the temperature of inlet flow increases from 29 to 30.
Solution of equations (7) and (8) with Ti = 30 yields a new steady state condition of state
variables as h s = 1 and Ts = 31 . That means a disturbance in Ti would not change the height
of the liquid inside the tank however it would increase the temperature of the liquid to an
increased new steady state. The transition of Ts from 30 to 31 can be observed (Fig 3.3) by
simulating the model in SIMULINK® domain.

© Copyright Reserved Gateflix. No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission 14
 Mathematical Modeling

Figure 3.3 Transient response of temperature of liquid on giving a step disturbance to

inlet temp

It is observed from the figure that the process takes 70 s to reach the new steady state of the
liquid temperature inside the stirred tank heater.

3.4 Linearization of nonlinear model

From Eq (7), we observe that the steady state value of h = 1 when the inlet flow rate is
maintained at Fi = 1 .
Case I: Inlet flow rate undergoes a step change and new value is Fi = 2 . As a result
the h would attain a new steady state value of 4. The gain of the system is defined as the ratio
∆h s 4 − 1
of change in output to change in input. Hence, gain (K)= = = 3.
∆Fis 2 − 1
Case II: Inlet flow rate undergoes a step change and new value is Fi = 3 . As a result
∆h s 9 − 1
the h would attain a new steady state value of 9. Hence, gain (K)= = = 4.
∆Fis 3 − 1
It is observed that the gain of the system is not constant. The gain changes with various input
conditions of the system. This is the identity of a nonlinear process. In general, if a system
follows the principle of superposition then it is termed as linear process. Usually, a nonlinear
process is identified with existence of a nonlinear term in its model such as logarithmic,
power, exponential, product etc. Existence of square root term with h yields nonlinearity in
the stirred tank heater process.
Most of significant developments in the control theories have occurred for linear processes
as easy analytical solutions are available for them. Unfortunately, most of the chemical

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 Mathematical Modeling

processes are nonlinear in nature. Fig II.4 pictorially describes the effect of linearization of a
nonlinear process.

Figure 3.4 The domain of linearization

Suppose the blue line indicates the true dynamics of a nonlinear process. A steady state
point Fis , h s is identified on this line that represents the nominal point of operation of the
process. If the process is linearized in the neighborhood of the nominal operating point then
the resulting gradient can be indicated by the red line. It is evident from the figure that there
lies a considerable portion of domain in the neighborhood of the nominal point of operation
over which the dynamics of both nonlinear and linearized process match. Hence, it can be
argued that the basic aim of a control system is to maintain the operation of the process at a
predefined nominal point. Even if a disturbance takes the process away from this nominal
point, an ideal control system should ensure that the departure of the process from its
nominal point of operation remains within the limit of such neighborhood and the process
is eventually brought back at its nominal operating point within reasonable time. A
linearized form of the model is likely to cover sufficient domain around the nominal
operating point so that its dynamics reasonably matches with that of the actual nonlinear
model. In such situation, it is customary to design a linear controller on the basis of linearized
model and apply it on the nonlinear process.
The linearization of model is carried out by using Taylor series expansion. The expansion of
a function f ( x ) around x 0 is given as
(9)

When the value of x is very close to x 0 , then the power terms of ( x − x 0 ) are very small and
hence can be neglected. The resulting function will have the form:
(10a)

The equation (10a) is a linear function. The linearization of a

function f ( x, y,...) around {x 0 , y 0 ,...} is given as
(10b)

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 Mathematical Modeling

3.4.1 Linearization of stirred tank heater

Consider the equation (5) of the stirred tank heater. Only nonlinear term in the equation
is h . Linearization of this nonlinear term would yield the following:
(11)

Hence the linearized form of model equation II.6 would be

Or
(12)

3.5 Deviation variables

As the aim of the control system is to maintain the process at a nominal operating point, the
deviation or dislocation of the state from its nominal point is a crucial variable to observe.
The deviation variable of a state describes the departure of the state from its nominal point
of operation.
Let us consider the linearized model of the stirred tank heater as given by Eq.12. At steady
state,
(13)

Subtracting Eq. 13 from Eq. 12 we obtain,

Or,
(14)

Eq. (14) represents the deviation form of the model. The variables h and Fi represent the
deviation variables of the height of liquid in the stirred tank heater and that of the inlet flow
rate.

Questions and Answers

Question:Consider two tanks in series as shown in the figure. F, h and Arepresent the liquid
flow rate, height of liquid and cross sectional area of tank respectively. Assume that the flow
rate of an effluent stream from a tank is proportional to the cubic root of the liquid height.
(a) Starting from usual material balance, develop a time domain mathematical model for this
process.

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 Mathematical Modeling

(b) Identify all the state(s), manipulated input(s), disturbance input(s) and process
output(s).
(c) It is intended to control height of liquid in the second tank. Develop a Laplace transfer
function based model relating input-output variables.

Solution:It is understood that the outlet flow of a tank is proportional to the cubit root of the
height of the liquid in that tank. Hence the outlet flows of the tanks are written as:

(a) The material balance on the tanks would yield the following equations:

Hence the time domain model for the whole process can be written as:

(b) The process has two states viz., h1 and h 2 , two inputs viz. F1 and F4 and two
outputs viz., h1 and h 2 . One control valve is attached with input F1 and hence it can be
manipulated as and when desired. Whereas, F4 is not associated with any such tool and
hence it is a source of potential disturbance in the process. Thus F1 is the manipulated input
and F4 is the disturbance input.
(c) As h 2 is the output to be controlled and F1 is the only manipulated variable available
h2 (s)
with the process, the desired transfer function is .
F1 ( s )

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 Mathematical Modeling

The only nonlinear part in the above model is with F2 and F3 . Linearizing these portions, we
obtain

The models can be re-written as

Taking Laplace Transform,

Rearranging the above,

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 Mathematical Modeling

Hence the desired transfer function is

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 4 TRANSFER FUNCTION

4.1 Introduction to Transfer function

A transfer function relates inputs to outputs in the Laplace domain. In particular, the Laplace
domain relationship between a manipulated input and output is called a process transfer
function.
Consider an nth order differential equation,
dn y d n −1 y d n −1u
+ a n −1 + =
... + a y b n −1 + ... + b 0 u
dt n −1 dt n −1
0
dt n
Since we are assuming that the model is based on deviation variables, and that the system is
initially at steady state, the initial conditions are
d n −1 y d n −2 u ( 0 )
= =
... y ( 0 )
= = ...= u ( 0 )= 0
dt n −1 t =0 dt n − 2 t =0
Taking the Laplace transform of each term,
 dn y  n d n −1 y
L =  s Y ()
s − s n −1
y ( )
0 − ... − n −1
= sn Y ( s )
 dt n  dt t =0
.
.
.
L [ y] = Y ( s )
 d n −1u  n −1 d n −2 u
L = n −1 
s U ( s ) − s u ( 0 ) − ... − n −=
n −2
2
s n −1U ( s )
 dt  dt t =0

.
.
.
L [u] = U (s)
b n −1s n −1 + ... + b 0
Y (s) = n .U ( s )
s + a n −1s n −1 + ... + a 0
Solving for Y(s), we find
The ratio of polynomials is called the transfer function. When it relates a manipulated input
to an output it is commonly called a process transfer function. In general, we will use gp(s) to
represent the process transfer function.
Y (s) = gp (s) U (s)
In this case the process transfer function is
b s n −1 + ... + b 0
g p ( s ) = n n −1 n −1 .U ( s )
s + a n −1s + ... + a 0

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 Transfer Function

The roots of the numerator polynomial are known as zeros, and the roots of the denominator
polynomial are call poles. We have used capital letters to distinguish Laplace domain
variables from the time-domain variables. In the rest of this text we generally use lowercase
letters for all input and output variables. If the argument is s, then we assume that we are
referring to the Laplace domain.
Transfer functions are often used in block diagrams. For example, the relationship between
an input and output is shown as

In the rest of this chapter we study the dynamic behavior of some commonly used transfer
functions. Our focus is on Step Responses, since process engineers often apply step changes
to understand dynamic behavior.

4.2 First-Order Behavior

Many chemical processes can be modeled as first-order systems. The differential equation
for a linear first-order process is often written in the following form:
dy
τp +y= kpu
dt
This can also be written as
dy 1 kp
=− y+ u
dt τp τp
where the parameters (tp and kp) and variables (y and u) have the following names: tp is the
process time constant (units of time), kp the process gain (units of output/input), y the
output variable, and u the input variable. Taking the Laplace transform of each term (notice
that we are now using lower-case variables to represent the Laplace domain input and
output), and assuming that the initial condition is y (0) = 0,
 dy   dy 
L  τp  = τp L   = τp sy ( s ) − y ( 0 )  =
τp .sy ( s )
 dt   dt 
L [ y] = y ( s )
=
L  k p u ( t )  k=  u ( t )  k p .u ( s )
p .L 

So the Laplace transform of Equation can be written

( τps + 1) y ( s ) =k p u ( s )
or solving for y(s) we find a first-order transfer function
kp
y (s ) = u (s )
τps + 1

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 Transfer Function

Step Response

Consider the case where the output is initially zero (steady state in deviation variable form),
and the input is suddenly step changed by an amount Δu. The Laplace transform of the input
is
∆u
u (s) =
s
So Equation can be written
k p ∆u
y (s ) = .
τps + 1 s
Using a partial fraction expansion and inverting to the time domain,
y ( t ) =k p ∆u 1 − e p
−t/τ
( )
Here the notion of a process gain is clear. After a substantial amount of time (t>> tp), we find,
from Equation
y ( t → ∞ )= k p ∆u
That is,
y ( t → ∞)
kp =
∆u
and, since y(0) = 0, we can think of y ( t → ∞ ) as Dy, so
∆y long-term output change
=
kp =
∆u input change

We can think of the process time constant as the amount of time it takes for 63.2% of the
= tp ,
ultimate output change to occur, since when t  
y ( t =τp ) =k p ∆u 1 − e ( −τp / τp
) =k ∆u (1 − e ) =0.632k ∆u =0.632∆y
p
−1
p

Remember that this holds true only for first-order systems.

Impulse Response

Consider now an impulse input of magnitude P, which has units of the input*time; if the input
is a volumetric flow rate (volume/time), then the impulse input is a volume. The output
response is
kp
y (s) = .P
τps + 1
You should find that the time domain solution is
Pk p − t / τp
y(t) = e
τp
which has an immediate response of Pk p / t p followed by a first-order decay with time.

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 Transfer Function

Integrating System

We found in the previous chapter that material balances on liquid surge vessels or gas drums
often yielded models with the following form:
dy
= ku
dt
In the Laplace domain, this is
k
y (s) = u (s)
s
Consider an integrating process initially at steady state, with y ( 0 ) = 0 .

Step Response

If a step input change of ∆u is made at t = 0,

k ∆u k∆u
=y (s) = .
s s s2
and we find the time-domain value
y ( t=
) k.t.∆u
That is, the output ramps with a constant slope of k∆u .

Impulse Response

If an impulse input of magnitude P is made at t = 0,

k
y ( s ) = .P
s
then the output immediately changes to a new steady-state value of
y ( t ) = kP

4.3 Second-Order Behavior

Second-order models arise from systems that are modeled with two differential equations
(two states). In this section we separately consider transfer functions that do not have
"numerator" dynamics and those that do.

Pure Second-Order Systems

Consider a linear second-order ODE, with constant parameters

d2 y dy
a 2 2 + a1 b0 u ( t )
+ a0y =
dt dt
This is often written in the form
2
2 d y dy
τ 2
+ 2ζτ + y = ku ( t )
dt dt

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 Transfer Function

where (obviously a 0 ≠ 0 )
τ2 a 2 / a 0 , 2ζτ = α1 / a 0 , k = b 0 / a 0
and the parameters are as follows: kis the gain (units of output/input), zthe damping factor
(dimensionless), and t the natural period (units of time).
The second-order model shown in Equation generally arises by changing a set of two first-
order equations (state-space model) to a single second-order equation. For a given second-
order ODE, there are an infinite number of sets of two first-order (state-space) models that
are equivalent.
Taking the Laplace transform
τ2 s 2 y ( s ) − sy ( 0 ) − y ( 0 )  + 2ζτ sy ( s ) − y ( 0 )  + y ( s ) =
k.u ( s )
where y(s) indicates the Laplace transformed variable.
Assuming initial conditions are zero, that is dy / dt=
t =0
( 0 ) 0 , we find
y=
k
y (s) =
.u ( s )
τ s + 2ζτs + 1 2 2

The characteristic equation of the second-order transfer function is τ2s 2 + 2ζτs + 1 . We can
find the roots (known as the poles) by using the quadratic formula
−b ± ∆
α, β = , where ∆= b 2 − 4ac
2a
which yields the following values for the roots:
ζ ζ2 −1 ζ ζ2 −1
p1 =− + , p 2 =− −
τ τ τ τ
The following analysis assumes that z >0 and t > 0. This implies that the real portions
of p1 and p2 are negative and, therefore, the system is stable.

Step Responses

Now, we consider the dynamic response of second-order systems to step inputs

( u ( s ) = ∆u / s ) ,
k ∆u
y (s) = .
τ s + 2ζτs + 1 s
2 2

where ∆u represents the magnitude of the step change.

Case 1: Overdamped ( z > 1)

For z > 1 , the denominator polynomial, τ2s 2 + 2ζτs + 1 , can be factored into the form
τ2s 2 + 2ζτs + 1 = ( τ1s + 1)( τ2s + 1)
where the time constants are
τ τ
=τ1 = , τ2
ζ − ζ2 −1 ζ + ζ2 −1

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 Transfer Function

Table 4.1. Characteristic Behavior of Second-Order Transfer Functions

Case Damping factor Pole location Characteristic behavior
1 z>1 Two real, distinct roots Overdamped

2 z=1 Two real, equal roots Critically damped

3 z<1 Two complex conjugate roots Underdamped

We can derive the following solution for step responses of overdamped systems,
 τ e − t / τ2 − τ 2 e − t / τ2 
y ( t ) =∆
k u 1 + 1 
 τ2 − τ1 
Note that, as in the case of first-order systems, we can divide by k∆u to develop a
dimensionless output. Also, the dimensionless time is t / τ and we can plot curves for
dimensionless output as a function of z. This is done in Fig 4.1, which includes the critically
damped case, as discussed next. Most chemical processes exhibit overdamped behavior.

Figure: 4.1 Step response of a second-order overdamped system.

Case 2: Critically damped ( z = 1)

The transition between overdamped and under damped is known as critically damped. We
can derive the following for the step response of a critically damped system
  t 
y ( t ) =k∆u. 1 − 1 +  e − t / τ 
  τ 
Notice that the main difference between overdamped (or critically damped) step responses
and first-order step responses is that the second-order step responses have an S shape with
a maximum slope at an inflection point, whereas the first-order responses have their
maximum slope initially.
The initial behavior for a step change is really dictated by the relative order of the system.
The relative order is the difference between the orders of the numerator and denominator

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 Transfer Function

polynomials in the transfer function. If the relative order is 1, then output response has a
nonzero slope at the time of the step input; the step response of a system with a relative
order greater than 1 has a zero slope at the time of the step input.

Case 3: Underdamped ( z < 1)

For z < 1 , we find [from Equation] that the poles are complex,
ζ ζ2 −1
p1,2 =− ± or p1,2 =Re± jIm
τ τ
where the real and imaginary contributions are
ζ 1− ζ2
Re = − Im =
τ τ
We can derive the following step response for an underdamped system,
 1 
y ( t ) = k∆u. 1 − e −ζt / τ sin ( αt + φ ) 
 1− ζ2 
where
1− ζ2  1− ζ2 
= , φ tan −1 
=α 
τ  ζ 
 
Again, dividing the Equation by k∆u , we can produce the dimensionless plot shown in Fig.
4.2

Figure: 4.2Step response of a second-order underdamped system as a function of the damping

factor (z). Interpolate between the curves for the behavior of other damping factor values.

A number of insights can be obtained from Fig 4.2 and from an analysis of the step response
equations. For z < 1 , the ratio of the imaginary portion to the real portion of the pole is

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 Transfer Function

Im 1− ζ2
=
Re ζ
As the imaginary/real ratio gets larger, the response becomes more oscillatory (z becomes
smaller). We also notice that a decreasing ratio corresponds to a larger negative value for
the real portion. As the real portion becomes larger in magnitude (more negative), the
response becomes faster.

Underdamped Step Response Characteristics

The following common measures of underdamped second-order step responses are shown
in Fig. 4.3, and defined below: (1) rise time, (2) time to first peak, (3) overshoot, (4) decay
ratio, and (5) period of oscillation.

Figure: 4.3 Step response characteristics of underdamped second-order processes.

Rise time is the amount of time it takes to first reach the new steady-state value. Time to first
peak is the time required to reach the first peak. Overshoot is the distance between the first
peak and the new steady state. This is usually expressed as the overshoot ratio, as shown
in Fig. 4.3. Decay ratio is a measure of how rapidly the oscillations are decreasing. A b/a ratio
of 1/4 is commonly called "quarter wave damping." Period of oscillation is the time between
successive peaks.

Second-Order Systems with Numerator Dynamics

The previous discussion involved pure second-order systems, where the relative
order (difference between the denominator and numerator polynomial orders) was two.
Consider now a second-order system with numerator dynamics with the gain/time constant
form

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 Transfer Function

k p ( τn s + 1)
gp (s) =
( τ1s + 1)( τ2s + 1)
which is relative order one. The reader should show that the pole-zero form is
k pz ( s − z1 )
gp (s) =
( s − p1 )( s − p 2 )
where the parameters are
kτn 1 1 −1
k pz = , p1 =
− , p2 = − , z1 =
τ1τ2 τ1 τ2 τn
The gain/time constant form has the following time-domain response to a step input:
 τ −τ  τ −τ  
y ( t ) =k p ∆u. 1 +  n 1  e − t / τ1 +  n 1  e − t / τ2 
  τ1 − τ2   τ1 − τ2  
The reader should show that, if τn =τ2 , the response is the same as a first-order process.

Example 3.6: Illustration of Numerator Dynamics

Consider the following input-output relationship:

y (s) =
( τn s + 1) .u s
()
( 3s + 1)(15s + 1)
Notice that negative numerator time constants (corresponding to positive zeros) yield a step
response which initially decreases before increasing to the final steady state. This type of
response is known as inverse response and causes tough challenges for process control
systems. Positive zeros are often caused by two first-order transfer functions, with gains of
opposite sign, acting in parallel.

Figure:4.4 Step responses of a second-order system with numerator dynamics.

© Copyright Reserved Gateflix. No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission 29
 Transfer Function

Notice also that a numerator time constant that is greater than the denominator time
constant causes overshoot before settling to the final steady state. Also notice that the
inverse response becomes "deeper" as the numerator zero ( −1/ τn ) approaches a value of 0
from the positive side.

Lead-Lag Behavior

Lead-lag transfer functions have the same order numerator polynomial as denominator
polynomial. This occurs when the input has a direct effect on the output variable. In terms of
the state space model, this means that D ≠ 0.
Consider a lead-lag transfer function where the numerator and denominator polynomials
are first order:
τ s +1
gp (s) = k p . n
τp s + 1
For a step input of magnitude ∆u , the output response is
  τ  −t/τ 
y ( t ) = k p ∆u 1 − 1 − n  e p 
 
  τp  
A dimensionless output can be defined by dividing Equation by k p ∆u , and τ / τp is a natural
dimensionless time. The responses to a step input at t = 0 are shown in figure. Notice that
there is an immediate response that is equal to the τn / τp ratio. This can also be found by
applying the initial value theorem to Equation for a step input change.

Figure:4.5 Step responses of the lead-lag example.

It is rare for processes to exhibit lead-lag behavior, but many controllers exhibit such
behavior.

Poles and Zeros

There are a number of different ways to represent process transfer functions. The
"polynomial" form is
b s m + b m −1s m −1 + ... + b1s + b 0
g (s) = m n
a n s + a n −1s n −1 + ... + a1s + a 0

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 Transfer Function

The values of s that cause the numerator to equal zero are known as the "zeros" of the
transfer function. The values of s that cause the denominator of to equal zero are known as
the "poles" of the transfer function.
The "pole-zero" form is
k pz ( s − z1 )( s − z 2 ) ... ( s − z m )
g (s) =
( s − p1 )( s − p 2 ) ... ( s − p n )
and complex poles (or zeros) must occur in complex conjugate pairs.
The "gain-time constant" form is the one that we use most often for control system design.
k p ( τn1s + 1)( τn 2s + 1) ... ( τnms + 1)
g (s) =
( τp1s + 1)( τp2s + 1) ... ( τpns + 1)
where τni is a numerator time constant and τpi is a denominator time constant. This form is
normally used when the roots (poles) of the denominator polynomial are real.

Example 3.7: Comparison of Various Transfer Function Forms

Consider a transfer function with the following gain-time constant form

2 ( −10s + 1)
g (s) =
( 3s + 1)(15s + 1)
The polynomial form is
−20s + 2
g (s) =
45s 2 + 18s + 1
The gain-polynomial form is
2 ( −10s + 1)
g (s) =
( 3s + 1)(15s + 1)
and the pole-zero form is
 1
 s− 
 4  10 
g (s )=  − 
 9  s + 1 s + 1 
  
 3   15 
The zero is 1/10, and the poles are –1/3 and –1/15.
A positive zero is called a right-half-plane (RHP) zero, because it appears in the right half of
the complex plane (with real and imaginary axes). RHP zeros have a characteristic inverse
response, as shown in figure for τn =−10 (which corresponds to a zero of +0.1).
Also notice that the poles are negative (left-half-plane), indicating a stable
process. RHP (positive) poles are unstable. Recall that complex poles will yield an oscillatory
response. A pole-zero plot of the transfer function in Example 3.7 is shown in figure [the pole
locations are (-1/3,0) and (-1/15,0) and the zero location is (1/10,0), with the coordinates
(real, imaginary)]. For this system, there is no imaginary component and the poles and zeros
lie on the real axis.

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 Transfer Function

Figure:4.6 Pole-zero location plot for (x, poles; o, zero).

As poles move further to the left they yield a faster response, and increasing the magnitude
of the imaginary portion makes the response more oscillatory. This behavior is summarized
in Fig. 4.7. Recall also that a process with a pole at the origin (and none in the RHP) is known
as an integrating system; that is, the system never settles to a steady state when a step input
change is made.

Figure: 4.7 Effect of pole-zero location on dynamic behavior (x, poles; o, zero). As poles
become more negative, the response is faster. As the imaginary/real ratio increases, the
response becomes more oscillatory.

Multiple RHP zeros cause multiple "changes in direction"; for example, with two RHP zeros,
the step response, initially going in one direction, switches direction, then switches back to
the initial direction.

4.4 Processes with Dead Time

Many processes have a delayed response to a process input, either due to transport lags
(such as flow through pipes) or high-order effects. In Section 3.3.4 we found that a time-delay
of q time units had a transfer function of e −θs .
A first-order process combined with a time-delay has the transfer function
k p e −θs
gp (s) =
τps + 1

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 Transfer Function

Consider a process with k p = 1 , τp =10 , and q = 5 . A unit step input change at t = 0 yields
the response shown in Figure 4.8. We see that the time-delay shifts the response of the
output.

Figure: 4.8 Response of a first-order + dead time process.

Questions and Answers

Question: A control system has the following transfer function,

(𝑠𝑠 − 1)(𝑠𝑠 + 1)
𝐹𝐹 (𝑠𝑠) =
𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 − 2)(𝑠𝑠 + 4)
The initial value of the corresponding time function is ?

Solution: From initial value theorem

(𝑠𝑠 − 1)(𝑠𝑠 + 1) 𝑠𝑠 2 − 1
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = lim [𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠)] = =
𝑡𝑡→0 𝑠𝑠→∞ (𝑠𝑠 − 2)(𝑠𝑠 + 4) 𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝑠𝑠 − 8
By L-Hospital rule:
(𝑠𝑠 − 1)(𝑠𝑠 + 1) 𝑠𝑠 2 − 1 2𝑠𝑠 2
lim [𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠)] = = 2 = = =1
𝑠𝑠→∞ (𝑠𝑠 − 2)(𝑠𝑠 + 4) 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑠 − 8 2𝑠𝑠 + 2 2

Question: The initial value ( t = 0+ ) of the unit step response of the transfer fucntion
( s + 1) / ( 2s + 1)  is?

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 Transfer Function

Solution:
1 𝑠𝑠 + 1
lim 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = lim [𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠)] = lim 𝑠𝑠
𝑡𝑡→0 𝑠𝑠→∞ 𝑠𝑠→∞ 𝑠𝑠 2𝑠𝑠 + 1
By L-Hospital rule:
(𝑠𝑠 + 1)
lim [𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠)] = = 1/2
𝑠𝑠→∞ (2𝑠𝑠 + 1)

Question: The transfer function of a system is given by, Y / X

= 1 / ( s2 + 5s + 6 ) . The
roots of the characteristic equation are located?
(a) to the left of the imaginary axis and on the real axis
(b) on the imaginary axis
(c) right of the imaginary axis and on the real axis
(d) at the origin

Solution: Answer is (a)

−5 ± √52 − 4 × 1 × 6 −5 ± 1
𝑠𝑠 = = = −3, −2
2×1 2

Question: For an input forcing function, X ( t ) = 2t 2 , the Laplace transform of this function
is ?

Solution:
𝑛𝑛!
𝐿𝐿(𝑡𝑡 𝑛𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑛+1
𝑠𝑠
4
= 3
𝑠𝑠

Question: A process is initially at steady state with its output y = 1 for an input u = 1 . The
input is suddenly changed to 2 at t = 0 . The output response is y ( t )= 1 + 2t . The transfer
function of the process is?

Solution:
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠)
𝐺𝐺𝑝𝑝 (𝑠𝑠) =
𝑈𝑈(𝑠𝑠)
Given: y ( t )= 1 + 2t and u ( t ) = 2 − 1 = 1
(s)
Y= L  y (=
t )  =
1 / s + 2 / s2 ; and U (s) u ( t ) 
L= 1 / s . Therefore
1 2
+ 2 2
𝐺𝐺𝑝𝑝 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 = 1 +
1 𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠

© Copyright Reserved Gateflix. No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission 34
 Transfer Function

Question: The transfer function of a pure dead time system with dead time τd is?
1
(a) (b) 𝜏𝜏𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠 + 1 (c) 𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠 (d) 𝑒𝑒 𝜏𝜏𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠
𝜏𝜏𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠+1

Answer: (c)

Question: A rectangular tank is filled with a valve at the bottom and is used for storing a
liquid. The area of cross-section of the tank is 10 m2 and the flow resistance of the valve
(assumed constant) is 0.1 s / m2 . The time constant of the tank will be?
(a) 1 (b) 100 (c) 10.1 (d) 9.9

Solution: (a) τ = storage capacitance × resistance to flow = A × R =10 × 0.1 = 1

Question: A certain thermocouple has a specific time constant of 2 sec. If the process
temperature changes abruptly from 800°C to 900°C , the temperature reading in an indicator
attached to the thermocouple after 6 sec will be approximately?
(a) 800°C (b) 900°C (c) 890°C (d) 895°C

Solution: Answer (d) 800 + ( 900 − 800 ) × (1 − e – t / τ )= 895°C

Question: The open loop transfer function of a control system is KR / (1 + τs ) . This

represents:
(a) a first order system
(b) dead time system
(c) a first order time lag
(d) a second order system

Answer: (a)

Question: The second order system with the transfer function 4 / ( s2 + 2s + 4 ) has a damping
ratio of
(a) 2.0 (b) 0.5 (c) 1.0 (d) 4.0

Solution: (b)

𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 4 = 𝜏𝜏 2 𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝜁𝜁𝜁𝜁 + 1
1 1 2
𝜏𝜏 = ; 𝜏𝜏 = ; 2𝜁𝜁𝜁𝜁 = = 1/2
4 2 4
2 1
𝜁𝜁 = = = 0.5
2×2 2

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 5 FEEDBACK CONTROLLER

5.1 INTRODUCTION TO FEEDBACK CONTROL

Consider a chemical process plant shown in the Fig 5.1. It has an output y that needs to be
maintained at a desired setpoint ysp . The process is subjected to unavoidable disturbance
(load) d . One input is available in the process that can be manipulated in order to steer the
process to its desired setpoint . Hence, in the event of process disturbance drifting the
process output away from its desired setpoint, the objective of feedback control is to steer
the process output at its setpoint by manipulating the process input.

Fig.5.1: A conceptual block diagram of feedback control loop of a chemical process

A feedback control law consists of the following steps of action:

• Measurement of process output ( y ) , such as pressure, temperature, flow, level,
composition, using a suitable measuring device.
• Comparison of process output and its desired setpoint ( ysp ) and calculation of the
deviation error=
ε (y sp − y)
• Feeding the value of deviation error to the controller, which calculates the appropriate
control action ( c ) to be taken.
• Feeding the value of the control action to the final control element, that translates the
control action into manipulated form of process input ( u ) .
As the name suggests, an open loop process does not have any feedback loop mechanism. It
consists of only the process along with its two inputs (u and d) and one output (y). Input u is
available for manual manipulation that is required for modeling exercise. On the other
hand closed loop process has a feedback loop mechanism that consists of measuring device,
controller and final control element. The process input is not available for manual
manipulation, rather the controller (and the final control element) ensures automatic

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 Feedback Controller

manipulation of u . However, a setpoint ( ysp ) for the process output is available for manual
manipulation in case the process objective demands so.
Fig. 5.2 demonstrates some typical feedback control systems which are often encountered in
a chemical process plant. This is an example of a distillation column. There are six control
loops in this example, one each for pressure, temperature, flow, level, reflux and
composition. The measurements are done through an appropriate measuring device cum
transmitter (denoted by PT, TT, FT, LT, RT and CT). The measured output is compared with
the respective setpoints (denoted by Psp , Tsp , Fsp , Lsp , R sp and Csp ) and errors are fed to
the respective controllers (denoted by PC, TC, FC, LC , RC and CC) and control actions are
subsequently initiated by their corresponding valves.

Fig.5.2: Schematic of a typical feedback control configuration of a distillation column

The feed is pumped into the column whose flow rate and composition are controlled. Feed
mainly comes through a major supply line where the feed composition may vary due to
various factors which are beyond the scope of the operator of the distillation column. An
auxiliary supply line with guaranteed purity of material can be mixed with the main supply
through a regulated dose in order to maintain the composition of the feed entering the
column. A flow controller at the entry point of the column maintains the feed flow rate. The
pressure of the top section of the column is maintained by regulating the flow of vapor going
out of the column. The vapor is condensed and collected in a tank. The outlet temperature of
distillate coming out the condenser (heat exchanger) is controlled by regulating the flow rate

© Copyright Reserved Gateflix. No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission 37
 Feedback Controller

of cooling water used in the heat exchanger. The liquid level inside the storage tank in the
downstream of condenser is controlled with a level controller by regulating the tank outlet.
The L/D ratio of a distillation column is very important and it needs to be controlled by a
ratio controller. The ratio transmitter is essentially a flow measuring device that sends the
ratio of the two flow rates rather than the flow rates themselves. In all the above examples,
only one type of final control element has been demonstrated viz .control valve.
Nevertheless, there are various other final control elements available such as variable speed
metering pump, heating regulators etc.
Note: The composition transmitter/controller is usually a high value delicate instrument
which is not used in a rugged process plant environment. On-line gas chromatograph is an
example of such sophisticated instrument. They are used only in a few critical operations
where tighter regulation of composition is mandatory, such as automated drug delivery.
The above example indicates that the basic hardware components of a feedback control
configuration are the following:
• Process
• Measuring devices
• Transmission lines
• Controllers
• Final Control Elements

5.1.1 Process

Any equipment that serves the targeted physical/chemical operation of the plant is termed
as a process. Reactors, separators, exchangers, pressure vessels, tanks, etc. are examples of
a process. Typically these processes are connected in a logical fashion and the output of one
process becomes input to the other. Any disturbance/malfunction of one process may affect
other processes in the downstream side (and upstream too, in case recycle streams are
used). Detailed discussions on these processes are not within the scope of this course,
however, the modeling techniques and related issues have already been discussed before.
Process variables are primarily pressure, temperature, flow rate, level, composition, etc.
From the process control perspective, it is crucial to study how the changes in one process
variable affect the other, so that an educated measure of control action on one variable can
be taken in order to maintain the other.

5.1.2 Measuring Instruments or Sensors

The success of any feedback control operation depends largely on accurate measurement of
process variables through appropriate sensors. There are a large number of commercial
sensors available in the market. They differ in their measuring principle(s) and/or their
construction characteristics. Module VII accounts of a few of such measuring instruments.
Details of such devices may be found in technical booklets dedicated for those individual
items.

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 Feedback Controller

5.1.3 Controllers

A controller is basically a mathematical function block that reads the error between desired
set point and the measured output and then computes the corrective action for the
manipulated input that would steer process towards the desired set point. There are three
basic types of feedback controllers which are widely used in the industry.
• Proportional (P) controller
• Proportional Integral (PI) controller
• Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) controller

5.1.3.1 Proportional Controllers

The actuating output of a P controller is proportional to the error between the set point and
process output. Higher the error, higher will be the control action. The control law is given
as:
c ( t ) = K c ε ( t ) + cs (1)
where K c is called the gain of the controller and cs is the bias signal. When error
signal ε ( t ) is zero (i.e., the process output reaches its desired setpoint), the control
signal c ( t ) stabilizes at its bias value cs . The deviation form of actuating signal is
c ( t ) = c ( t ) − cs = K c ε ( t ) (2)
Hence the transfer function of the proportional controller is
c (s) (3)
=Gc = Kc
ε (s)
In industrial lingo, the proportional controller is also termed as “Gain” controller. Equivalent
representation of proportional gain is proportional band. It is the amount of change in error
that will cause the control action to go from full OFF to full ON. The amount of change in error
is calculated as a percentage of full-scale error,
100 (4)
PB ( in% ) =
Kc
e.g., consider a level controller acting on a tank where we measure the level from bottom to
top as 0 to 100%. A control valve on the outlet of the tank maintains the level in the tank. The
PB is defined as the range of level over which the control valve will go from fully
closed to fully open. Let us take the example of a tank whose maximum level is 5 m. Suppose
we decide that if the tank level should fall to 20% (1 m) we want the control valve fully closed
(0% open) and if the tank level rises to 60% (3 m) we want the control valve to be fully open
(100% open). If the tank level is between 20% and 60% we want the control valve to be open
in pro rata basis. This controller would have a PB of 40% (60% - 20%). So if the tank level
were to rise to 2.5 m or 50% of the full tank (75% up the PB), the control valve should be set
to 75% open).

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 Feedback Controller

Fig. 5.3: Proportional Band of Feedback Controller

Usually, the workable range of PB is

1 ≤ PB ≤ 500 (5)
The condition of PB > 100 is a bit tricky to visualize. Since the level of the tank can only go
up to 100%, a PB of (say) 250% causes the valve to move only through a portion of its
available range as the tank goes from empty to 100% full. Let's assume that we set the lower
end of the proportional band at -75% and the upper end at 175%. That gives a PB of 250%.
Physically it means that the level would have to fall way below the bottom of the tank to fully
close the valve and way above to fully open the valve. Since the level of the tank cannot really
go that far, it means that the valve will never fully close or fully open. Tuning is the process
of finding the gain or PB that provides the optimal response of control valve for controlling
the process.

5.1.3.2 Proportional Integral Controllers

The actuating output of a PI controller is given as:

 1
t
 (6)
c ( t ) = K c ε ( t ) + ∫ ε ( t ) dt  + cs
 τ1 0 
where τ1 is the integral time constant (or the reset time) in minutes. The PI controller not
only actuates on the basis of current error, ε ( t ) but it also accounts for the history of all the
past errors that has been encountered since the control action has started. From eq.(6) the
transfer function of the PI controller is
c (s)  1  (7)
=G c = K c 1 + 
ε (s)  τ1s 
In industrial lingo, the PI Controller is also termed as “Gain-Reset” controller. The reset time
is a design parameter which usually varies within the range 0.1 ≤ τ1 ≤ 50

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 Feedback Controller

At this point, it is worth explaining the significance of the term reset . Suppose the error
between desired setpoint and process output changes by a constant step of magnitude ε .
The effect of integral term of eqn. (5.6) after every τ1 minutes is given as
1 t   ε τ1  ε  (8)
K c  ∫ ε ( t ) dt  = K c  ∫ dt  = K c  τ1  = K c ε
 τ1 0   τ1 0   τ1 
In other words, the integral action repeats the response of the proportional action every τ1
minutes and “resets” itself for an integral action. Sometimes the controllers are calibrated in
terms of reciprocal of reset time, 1/ τ1 (repeats per minute). This is known as reset rate.
The reset term causes the control action changing as long as there exists a non-zero error in
the system. Often this error cannot be eliminated quickly and given enough time, they
produce larger values for integral terms. Such situation is often observed when the system
undergoes a large change in set point (say a positive change) and the integral term
accumulates a significant error during the rise. This condition is termed as Integral Windup.
The control action in turn keeps on increasing until it reaches the control valve saturation
(i.e. control valve fully open or fully closed). Even if the error changes its sign (as the process
output overshoots the desired set point), this accumulated error has to unwind completely
before control action is reversed. Various measures can be taken to address the issue of
integral windup such as:
• Re-initializing the integral action to a desired value
• Increasing the set point in a suitable ramp (rather than a single step jump)
• Disabling the integral action until the process output enters the controllable region
• Preventing the integral term from accumulating above or below pre-determined bounds

5.1.3.3 Proportional Integral Differential Controllers

The actuating output of a PID controller is given as:

 1
t
dε ( t )  (9)
t ) K c ε ( t ) + ∫ ε ( t ) dt + τD
c (=  + cs
 τ1 0 dt 
where τD is the derivative time constant (or the preact time) in minutes. The PID controller
not only actuates on the basis of current and past errors but it also anticipates the error in
immediate future and applies an additional control action which is proportional to the
current rate of change of error. Hence the transfer function of the PID controller is
c (s)  1  (10)
=Gc = K c 1 + + τDs 
ε (s)  τ1s 
In industrial lingo, the PID Controller is also termed as “Gain-Reset-Preact” controller.
The major drawback of a PID controller is that for a noisy response in a process, the
controller can erroneously actuate a high derivative control action.

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 Feedback Controller

5.1.4 Transmission Lines

Measurement and/or control signals are carried through various transmission lines. Various
process piping, connection and transmission lines, as per the standard set by International
Society of Automation (ISA), are listed in the following figure.

Fig. 5.4: Representation of process piping, connection and transmission lines

A heavy solid line represents piping, a thin solid line represents process connections to
instruments, a dashed line represents electrical signals (e.g., 4–20 mA connections), a
slashed line represents pneumatic signal tubes, a line with circles on it represents data links.
Other connection symbols include capillary tubing for filled systems, (e.g., remote diaphragm
seals), hydraulic signal lines, and guided/unguided electromagnetic or sonic signals.
Electric/electromagnetic signals are instantaneous. Unless the process changes very fast
and/or the transmission lines are too long, the dynamic behaviors of
electric/electromagnetic transmissions are also usually ignored.

5.1.5 Final Control Element

The hardware component of a control loop that resides between the process and the
controller and implements the control action is called the Final Control Element (FCE). It
receives the control signal from the controller and regulates the value of the manipulated
variable accordingly. An ideal FCE should be an instantaneously operating hardware that
does not induce any time lag between process and controller. However, in reality it is
impossible to find such an instantaneously operating FCE. Nevertheless any FCE, whose time
constant is very small, is considered to be a good hardware for a control system.
Various types of FCEs are available in process industries that are widely used in control
applications. They can be largely classified based on their energy source, viz. Pneumatic,
Hydraulic and Electric, etc. .

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 Feedback Controller

5.2 DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF FEEDBACK CONTROLLER

Consider the generalized closed loop process given in the Fig 5.5.

Fig. 5.5: Generalized block diagram of feedback control loop of a chemical process

If we assume that the transmission line does not affect the signal flow, dynamics of the
transmission lines can be completely ignored. Hence the following sub-processes will
constitute the overall dynamics of the process:
Process (11a)
Measurement (11b)
Controller (11c)
(11d)
Final Control Element (11e)
Hence using eqs. (5.11 b-e) on eq. (5.11a), following algebraic manipulation will be useful.
(12)

Rearranging the above we obtain,

(13)

The eq. (5.13) represents the closed loop response of the process. The pictorial
representation is given in the Fig 5.6

Fig. 5.6: Simplified block diagram of feedback control loop of a chemical process

© Copyright Reserved Gateflix. No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission 43
 Feedback Controller

Where
(14)

(15)

G sp and G Load are the closed loop transfer functions (CLTF) of the process. G sp maps the
effect of change of setpoint on the process output whereas G Load maps the effect of change
of load (disturbance) on the process output.
Two types of control problems are encountered with the feedback control systems, viz .servo
and regulatory.
When setpoint of a process undergoes a change while the disturbance affecting the process
remains constant, i.e. d ( s ) = 0 , the objective of the control system would be to steer the
output as close as the setpoint trajectory. In such situation,
y ( s ) = G sp ysp (16)
However, when the setpoint remains constant, i.e. ysp = 0 , while the disturbance forces the
process output to move out of the track of the setpoint, the objective of the control system
would be to reject the effect of disturbance as soon as possible and steer the output back to
the setpoint trajectory. In such situation,
ysp = G Load d ( s ) (17)
Note that the CLTFs depend not only on the process transfer functions, but also on the
transfer functions of measuring element, controller and final control element.
To expedite the construction of overall closed loop transfer function of any feedback loop,
following rules may be applied:
1. The denominator of the overall transfer function is “the product of all transfer functions
in the feedback loop PLUS one” i.e ., {1 + G p ( s ) G f ( s ) G c ( s ) G m ( s )}
2. The numerator of the overall transfer function is “the product of all transfer functions in
the forward path between setpoint and the controlled output (for servo problem) or the load
and the controlled output (for regulatory problem)” i.e., {G p ( s ) G f ( s ) G c ( s )} or {G d ( s )}

5.2.1 Closed loop response of liquid level in a storage tank: A case study

Fig 5.7 represents the closed loop block diagram of a storage tank whose liquid level needs
to be controlled at a predefined setpoint.

© Copyright Reserved Gateflix. No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission 44
 Feedback Controller

Fig. 5.7: Schematic of closed loop block diagram of storage tank

We analyze various components of the above,

Process: The process has two inputs and one output. Input Fi can be manipulated whereas
input Fd is the source of disturbance. Output Fo varies proportionally with the square root
of the height of the liquid in the tank as, Fo ∝ h The material balance around the tank gives
the following model,
dh
A = Fi + Fd − Fo = Fi + Fd − c h (18)
dt
Where, c is the constant of proportion. Linearization of the model around its nominal
operating point {h s , Fi,s , Fd,s } , expressing it in its deviation form and converting it in Laplace
domain yields the following open loop transfer function:
(19)

Incidentally, in this example G p ( s ) = G d ( s ) . Needless to mention, this is a trivial case and

should not be generalized.

Measuring device: Differential Pressure (DP) cell is a measuring device that measures
differential pressure (ΔP) between two ends. Output of DP cell maps a second order behavior
with the differential pressure. In this example, DP cell measures the height of liquid level in
the tank by comparing pressure exerted by liquid at one end with that of atmospheric
pressure at the other. The pressure exerted by the liquid on the DP cell is linearly
proportional to height of the liquid. Hence,
K (20)
= hm (s) + h (s)
τ s + 2ξτs + 1
2 2

where h m = measured value of the height of the liquid, h = actual height of the
liquid, K, τ, ξ =constants.

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 Feedback Controller

Controller: As h sp is the setpoint, the error can be expressed as

ε ( s ) = h sp − h m ( s ) (21)
Let us assume that we use a PI controller, the control action can be expressed as
 1  (22)
c ( s ) = K c 1 +  ε (s )
 τ1s 

Control Valve: Let us assume that the control valve for this system follows a first order
dynamics, hence
Kv (23)
Fi ( s ) = c (s)
τvs + 1
The following figure is a representation of closed loop control configuration of liquid level in
a tank.

Fig. 5.8: Schematic of closed loop control configuration of liquid level in a storage tank

5.2.2 Effect of P controller on a process

Without losing the generality, let us assume G= m G=

f 1 for the following derivation. Let us
concentrate on servo problem only. Regulatory problem can be solved in an analogous
manner. We shall find closed loop response of first order and second order processes under
the influence of a P controller.
The uncontrolled responses of the processes are
Kp (24)
y FO,OL ( s ) = u (s )
τp s + 1
Kp (25)
ySO,OL ( s ) = u (s )
τ s + 2ξτps + 1
2 2
p

The controlled responses of the processes are

(26)

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 Feedback Controller

(27)

From the above equations, following conclusions can be arrived:

1. The order of the process does not change with a P controller.
2. Static gain of the processes are reduced.
3. The time constant of the first order process is reduced, i.e. the closed loop response is
faster. The natural period of oscillation and damping factor of the second order process are
also reduced, i.e., an overdamped process may become underdamped with P controller.

5.2.3 Offset in the output due to a P controller

The ultimate closed loop response at t → ∞ under P controller never reaches its desired
setpoint. There always remains a discrepancy between the final value of response and the
setpoint. This discrepancy is called the offset. Following derivation gives an account of the
offset shown by first order and second order processes.
The final values of the processes on unit step change in setpoint are
(28)

(29)

Hence,
(30)

On choosing K c → ∞ , a zero offset can theoretically be obtained. However, such a higher

value of Kc is neither practical nor possible. Note that, processes having integrator
term (1/ s ) in their transfer functions do not exhibit offsets.

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 Feedback Controller

The following figures show the offsets exhibited by a first and second order processes. In
both the cases, offset is {1/ (1 + 10 ×1)} =
0.0909

(a) First order process (b) second order process

Fig. 5.9: Offsets exhibited by first order and second order processes

Note that both natural period of oscillation and damping factor decreased in closed loop
response; more the value of controller gain less are the values of natural period of oscillation
and damping factor. As a result the closed loop response becomes more oscillatory than its
open loop counterpart.

5.2.4 Effect of integral control action on a process

We shall find closed loop response of first order process under the influence of an “integral
only” controller.
(31)

It indicates that the order of the dynamics for the closed loop response is increased when
integral control action is used. As a result, the response becomes sluggish.
Following derivation gives an account of the offset shown by first order closed loop process
with a PI controller. The final value of the process on unit step change in set point is
(32)

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 Feedback Controller

The offset = 1 - 1 = 0, indicates that the integral control action eliminates any offset. It also
indicates that the increase in controller gain K c and decrease in reset value τ1 reduce the
value of natural period of oscillation and damping factor of closed loop response. Hence, we
can improve the speed of the closed loop response at the expense of higher deviations and
longer oscillations. In other words, high K c and low τ1 makes the closed loop response more
sensitive and proportional action will be stronger. On the other hand, low K c and
high τ1 makes system sluggish but integral action would be stronger (no offset, no
overshoot).

5.2.5 Effect of derivative control action on a process

We shall find closed loop response of first order and second order processes under the
influence of a “derivative only” controller.
(33)

(34)

It indicates that the derivative control action does not change the order of the response. It
also indicates that time constant of the first order process is increased by a positive quantity
of K p K c τD , i.e ., the derivative control action makes a process sluggish. On the other hand,
natural period of oscillation of second order process remains same. Damping factor
increases with increase in K c and/or τ1 Increase in damping factor means less sensitivity of
process response and more robustness in the process behavior.

5.2.6 Insight into the cause of offset

The existence of offset in a proportionally controlled process indicates that the input
manipulation has reached some sort of saturation before the controlled output could even
reach the setpoint. As a result, manipulated input no longer changes even if the error
between setpoint and controlled output is non-zero. The above fact can be demonstrated
mathematically as follows.
The equations of P and PI controllers are:
u= K c ε (35)
 t  (36)
=u K c ε + ∫ εdt 
 0 
The gradient of the dynamics of above control actions can be derived by simple
differentiation,

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 Feedback Controller

du dε (37)
= Kc
dt dt
du  dε  (38)
= Kc  + ε
dt  dt 
The above equations show that in case of P controller gradient of control action becomes
zero if there is no change in the value of error. In other words, when the error dynamics
reaches a saturation point, the control action reaches saturation too. Mere existence of non-
zero error does not yield any change in control action. On the other hand, gradient of control
action in a PI controller not only depends upon the gradient of error dynamics but also upon
the absolute value of the error at that moment of time. Hence, until the error and its gradient
both are zero, the gradient of control action will not be zero. This fact ensures offset-free
control action by PI controller.

5.3 STABILITY OF A CLOSED LOOP PROCESS

The stability of a process is realized by the location of its poles. Existence of a positive pole
leads to the instability of the process. One of the main purpose of the controller is to ensure
stable closed loop process for the otherwise unstable open loop process.

5.3.1 Stabilization of unstable system with a P controller

Consider an unstable process with transfer function

3 (39)
Gp (s) =
5s − 1
Let us assume G= m G= f 1 . The closed loop transfer function will be
3 (40)
G cG p Kc
= G CLTF = =5s − 1 3K c
1 + G cG p 1 + K 3 5s − 1 + 3K c
5s − 1
c

It is evident from the above equation that one needs to set 3K c > 1 in order to make the
closed loop transfer function to be stable.

5.3.2 Destabilization of a stable system with a PI controller

Consider a stable process with transfer function

1 (41)
Gp (s) = 2
s + 3s + 10
Let us assume G= m G=f 1 and let us take a PI controller with gain 50 and reset 0.2, then the
closed loop transfer function will be

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 Feedback Controller

(42)

The roots of the denominator of the closed loop transfer function are {−3.93, 0.46 ± j7.96} .
The closed loop system has complex poles with positive real parts. Hence the open loop
stable system becomes unstable due to inappropriate choice of controller parameters. On
the other hand, if we choose a PI controller with gain 10 and reset 0.2, then the closed loop
transfer function will be
(43)

The roots of the denominator of the closed loop transfer function are {−2.63, −0.19 ± j4.36} .
The closed loop system has complex poles with negative real parts. Hence the system
remains stable.
Following observations are made from the above two exercises:
• Stability characteristics are determined by the poles of (1 + G c G p G f G m )
• An otherwise stable system can be destabilized by wrong choice of controller parameters

5.3.3 Routh Hurwitz Criterion for Stability

The Routh Hurwitz criterion does not calculate the actual values of closed loop poles, rather
it calculates whether any of the poles is on the left hand side of the imaginary axis of complex
plane. In other words, the Routh Hurwitz criterion find whether a closed loop transfer
function is stable. In this process, it also finds a limiting condition for controller parameters
which would ensure stability for closed loop system. The denominator of a closed loop
process transfer function is termed as characteristic equation. The Routh Hurwitz criterion
works on the characteristic equation as follows:
Step 1. Expand the characteristic equation into a polynomial
1 + G c G p G f G m= a 0s n + a1s n −1 + a 2s n − 2 + ... + a n −1s + a n (44)

Step 2. If is negative, multiply the whole polynomial with ( −1)

Step 3. If any of the coefficients a1 , a 2 , a 3 ,...a n −1 , a n is negative, then there exists at least one
unstable pole in the closed loop system. No further analysis is required.
Step 4. If all the coefficients a1 , a 2 , a 3 ,...a n −1 , a n are positive, then form the following table,
called Routh Array.

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 Feedback Controller

Table 5.1: Routh Array

Step 5. Examine the first column, a 0 , a1 , A1 , B1 , C1 ,...

a. A system is stable if all the above elements in the first column of the Routh Array are
positive
b. If any one of the elements of first column is negative, we have at least one pole at the right
hand side of the imaginary axis and the closed loop system is unstable
c. The number of times the sign changes (from positive to negative to positive again and so
on) indicates the number of unstable poles present in the closed loop system
The last example (Eq. 5.42) can be revisited with Routh Hurwitz criterion. The polynomial
coefficients, {0.2, 0.6,12,50} can be written in a Routh Array,

Table 5.2: Routh Array of eq. (5.42)

The first column of the Routh array is {0.2, 0.6, −4.667,50} . Hence the system has unstable
pole(s). The sign is changed twice in the column (positive to negative and then negative to
positive). Hence the closed loop system has two unstable poles {0.46 ± j7.96} .
The Routh Array can also be used for finding the stability limits of the controller parameters.
(45)

The Routh Array is

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 Feedback Controller

Table 5.3: Routh Array of eq. (5.45)

Only the third element of the first column is capable of being negative due to inappropriate
choice of controller parameters. The stability of the closed loop system will be ensured if
K
3 × (10 + K c ) > c
τ1

For example at τ1 =0.2 , then the condition of stability is ensured if K c < 15

5.3.4 Root Locus analysis

The root locus analysis is a useful tool for determining the stability characteristics through
graphical means. Root loci are plotted in complex plane as the gain varies from zero to
infinity.

Fig. 5.10: Root Locus diagram

The Fig. 5.10 demonstrates the root locus diagram of the said example. The loci of the
complex pair of poles cross the imaginary axis at K c = 15 .

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 Feedback Controller

Let us take a second example where transfer function of a process is

3 ( s + 2.3) (46)
Gp =
( s + 1.6 )( s + 2.9 ) ( s + 4.2 )
2

The characteristic equation is

3 ( s + 2.3) (47)
1 + Kc × =
0
( s + 1.6 )( s + 2.9 ) ( s + 4.2 )
2

The following table shows the values of roots of the characteristic equation as Kc changes
from 0 to ∞.

Table 5.4: Location of poles of process (5.46) as K c changes from 0 to∞ .

5.4 STABILITY OF FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM

Frequency response analysis is a useful tool for designing feedback controllers. It enables
the designer to study the stability characteristics of a closed loop system using Bode or
Nyquist plots and also to select the appropriate design values of controller parameters.

5.4.1 Bode Diagram of closed loop process

5.4.1.1 Bode diagram of PID controller

It is also worth to study the Bode diagram of PID controller in the following figure.

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 Feedback Controller

Fig. 5.12(a): Bode Diagram of PID controller

The PID controllers have the following characteristics:

And

It is left to the reader to exercise how to arrive at above eqs. Note that the PID controllers
ideally have three asymptotes.
• At ω → 0, AR → ∞ with a slope ( −1)
• At ω → 0, AR → ∞ with a slope ( +1)
• At =
ω 1/ τ1τD , AR / K=
c 1 with a zero slope.

5.4.1.2: Bode diagram of Processes in series

Let us have a control loop with two components, viz ., one PI controller and one first order
plus dead time model.
5e − s  1 
G= =
;G 3 1 + 
10s + 1
p c
 20s 
The open loop transfer function is
 1   5e −2s   1  1  −2s
G OL =G pGc = 3 1 +  = 15 1 +  e
 20s   10s + 1   20s  10s + 1 

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 Feedback Controller

The above open loop transfer function is a combination of four individual processes in series,
viz., pure gain, pure dead time, first order system and PI controller. Two time constants are
observed in the series that would yield the location of corner
frequencies viz ., ωco1
= 1/ 20; ωco2
= 1/10 or ωco1= 0.05; ωco2= 0.1

Fig. 5.12(b): Bode plot of processes in series given in example

The above figure shows the Bode plot of the open loop process indicated in this example. AR
and phase shift for all individual transfer functions as well as the overall transfer function
have been indicated along with the location of corner frequencies.

5.4.2: Bode Stability Criterion

Consider a simple first order plus dead time process to be controlled by a proportional
controller:

(a) Closed Loop (b) Opened Loop

Fig. 5.13: Example of first order system for studying Bode stability criterion

The open-loop transfer function for this system is given by

2K c e −0.3s (48)
G OL ( s ) =
4s + 1

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 Feedback Controller

The Bode plot of the above open loop transfer function is given by the following figure.

Fig. 5.14: Bode plot

We are interested to know the frequency where the phase shift is −180 . Numerically it can
be solved by the equation
= −π tan −1 ( −4ωco ) + ( −0.3ωco ) (49)
The frequency is ωco =5.39 and the value of AR / 2K c at ωco is observed to be 0.0463 which
can also be found numerically by,
(50)

The above exercise indicates that in order to obtain AR = 1 at this frequency ( ωco ) one
needs to set the value of K c as,
(51)

At this juncture, one needs to perform a thought experiment in order to understand the Bode
stability criterion. Let us set the value of controller gain, K c = 10.8 and let us “open up” the
feedback loop as indicated in the figure before. Suppose, we vary the setpoint as a sinusoidal
function y= sp ( t ) A sin ( ωco t ) . As the loop is open, the error will be equal to the
=
setpoint {ε A sin ( ωco t )} and thereby yield an output,
y ( t ) = ( AR × A ) sin {ωco t + ( −π )} = −A sin ( ωco t ) (52)
Now, suppose two events occur simultaneously
• Thesetpoint perturbation is stopped
• The feedback loop is reconnected
Then, the error signal will remain as ε ( t ) = 0 − {−A sin ( ωco t )} = A sin ( ωco t ) . In other words,
the response of the system will continue to oscillate with constant amplitude even when the
setpoint signal is withdrawn.
Alternatively, if we choose the value of controller gain less than 10.8 , (say K c = 8 ) then
AR = 2 × Κ c × 0.0463 =
2 × 8 × 0.0463 =0.74 (53)

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 Feedback Controller

If we repeat the above thought experiment, the output signal will take the form
y ( t ) = ( AR × A ) sin {ωco t + ( −π )} = −0.74A sin ( ωco ) t (54)
Upon closing the loop and withdrawing the setpoint perturbation, the new value for the error
=
for the next cycle will be ε 0.74A sin ( ωco t ) that will eventually yield an output response
of y ( t )
= ( 0.74 ) A sin ( ωco t ) and so on. It is evident that the amplitude of the error signal
2

would diminish at every cycle and eventually lead to zero.

In case we choose the value of controller gain greater than 10.8, (say K c = 12 ) then
AR = 2 × K c × 0.0463 = 2×12× 0.0463 = 1.19 (55)
The same thought experiment would lead to ever increasing error signal because the
amplitude ratio is greater than 1.
Hence the above thought experiment indicates that we have been able to find a combination
of frequency ( ωco = 5.39 ) and controller gain ( K u = 10.8 ) such that the AR of the process
becomes 1 and phase shift becomes −180 simultaneously at that combination ( ωco , K u ) . The
output response shows a sustained oscillation with a time period Pu = 2π / ωco at this
combination. Any frequency, ω > ωco , will lead to oscillation with increasing amplitude and
eventually will lead to instability. Hence, the frequency ωco is termed as the crossover
frequency, the gain value K u is termed as ultimate gain and Pu is called the ultimate period
of oscillation of the closed loop system.
The conclusion drawn from the above thought experiment is the Bode Stability Criterion and
can be stated as follows -A feedback control system is unstable if the amplitude ratio of the
corresponding open loop transfer function is greater than one at the crossover frequency.
The value of controller gain is the decisive factor in order to ensure its stability.
It is further understood that large dead time leads to smaller value crossover frequency. In
other words, even a low frequency signal will be able to destabilize such process.

5.4.3 Gain Margin and Phase Margin

The Bode stability criterion states that the maximum value of the controller gain that can be
chosen for stable closed loop response is called the ultimate gain Ku. In other words, the
value of controller gain must always be less than K u in order to ensure stability. The gain
margin (GM) is a design parameter such that
K (56)
Kc = u
GM
Gain margin should always be chosen as greater than one (GM>1) to ensure stability.
Gain margin acts as a safety factor for model uncertainty. Since process parameters such as
gain, time constant and dead time can never be estimated exactly, a safety factor of
magnitude more than one is necessary for stable operation. For relatively well modeled
processes, a low safety factor will be acceptable whereas poorly modeled processes need
higher safety factors. For an example, let us choose GM=2 for the process we have discussed
above (eq.48), the design value of the controller gain = =
is K c 10.8 / 2 5.4 ; suppose there

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 Feedback Controller

exists a modeling error of 50% in estimating the dead time of the process and the true value
of the dead time is 0.45 instead of 0.3, then the revised value of crossover frequency is
= −π tan −1 ( −4ωco ) + ( −0.45ωco ) (57)

or, ωco =3.64 , and the corresponding K u = 7.3 which is still higher than the designed value
of K c = 5.4 . The system is still stable despite the error by 50% we made in estimation of dead
time of the process.
Phase margin is another safety factor which is used for controller design. Here we are
interested to compute a frequency ωpm that satisfies the following expression,
−π
= + φ tan −1 ( −4ωpm ) + ( −0.3ωpm ) (58)

φ is called phase margin (PM) and it is the extra phase lag needed to destabilize a system.
For an example, let us choose PM = 30 ωpm . ωpm can be calculated from the following
expression
−150
= 
tan −1 ( −4ωpm ) + ( −0.3ωpm ) (59)
or, ωpm =
3.72 . The gain is designed from the expression
(60)

or, K c = 7.44 Suppose there exists a modeling error of 50% in estimating the dead time of the
process and the true value of the dead time is 0.45 instead of 0.3,then the phase lag encountered
by the process would be
tan −1 ( −4ωpm ) + ( 0.45ωpm ) =−182 (61)

which is 2 more than the safety limit for stability. Hence, the phase margin of 30 is not sufficient
for handling 50% error in dead time estimation. It is left to the reader to verify that a phase margin
of 45 will suffice for handling 50% error in dead time estimation.

5.4.4 Ziegler Nichols Tuning technique

Unlike process reaction curve method which uses open loop response data, Ziegler Nichols tuning
technique uses closed loop response data. The following settings are given by this technique for
feedback controllers:
Table IV.6: Controller settings through Ziegler-Nichols tuning technique
Controller
P
PI
PID

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 Feedback Controller

5.4.5 Nyquist Stability Criterion

The Bode stability criterion is valid for systems where amplitude ratio and phase shift decreases
monotonically with ω Nyquist stability criterion does not have any such limitation and is
applicable in more general sense. The criterion states that:
If open-loop Nyquist plot of a feedback system encircles the point (-1,0) as the frequency ω varies
from −∞ to +∞ the closed loop response is unstable.

(b) Unstable process

(a) Stable process
Fig. 5.15: Example of systems for studying Nyquist stability criterion

Questions and Answers

Question: An ideal PID controller has the transfer function 1 + 1 / ( 0.5s ) + 0.2s  . The
frequency at which the magnitude ratio of the controller is 1, is
(a) 0.5/0.2 (b) 0.2/0.5 (c) 0.2×0.5 (d) 1/√0.2 × 0.5

Solution: (d) 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 �(𝜏𝜏𝐷𝐷 𝜔𝜔 − 1/(𝜏𝜏𝐼𝐼 𝜔𝜔))2 + 1

𝜏𝜏𝐷𝐷 𝜔𝜔 = 1/𝜏𝜏𝐼𝐼 𝜔𝜔
𝜔𝜔2 = 1/𝜏𝜏𝐼𝐼 𝜏𝜏𝐷𝐷

Question: The characteristic equation of a process is

𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐺𝐺2
𝐶𝐶 = 𝑅𝑅 + 𝑈𝑈
1 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻 1 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻
The open-loop transfer function is:
𝐺𝐺 𝐺𝐺 𝐺𝐺
(a) 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻 (b) 1 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻 (c) 1+𝐺𝐺 2𝐺𝐺 𝐻𝐻 (d) 1+𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺2 𝐻𝐻
1 2 1 2

Solution: Characteristic equation:

1 + open loop transfer function = 0

Question: Which of the systems having the following transfer fucntions is stable?

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 Feedback Controller

(a) 1 / ( s2 + 2) (b) 1 / ( s2 – 2s + 3)
(c) 1 / ( s2 + 2s + 2) (d) e−20s / ( s2 + 2s − 1)

Solution: (c)

Linked data type questions 1 & 2: The response of a first order system with a
proportional controller K c has an offset to a step input. The offset can be eliminated by
which one of the following actions?
(a) Decreasing K c
(b) Adding an integral mode
(c) Adding a derivative mode
(d) No change needs to be done because offset cannot be eliminated
Answer: (a)

Q.2 By this action, what happens to the overall order of the system?
(a) Increased
(b) Decreased
(c) Does not change
Answer: (a) Decreasing K c increases offset.

Linked data type questions 3 & 4: Oscillations of a system may be reduced by one of the
following controllers
(a) Proportional controller
(b) Proportional-integral controller
(c) Proportional-derivative controller
(d) No controller can reduce
Answer: (c)

Q.4 For one of the following reasons

(e) Proportional part of the controller
(f) Derivative part of the controller
(g) Integral part of the controller
(h) Oscillations cannot be reduced
Answer: (f)

Question: For a feedback control system to be stable, the

(a) Roots of the characteristics equation should be real
(b) Poles of the closed loop transfer function should lie in the left half of the complex
(c) Bode plots of the corresponding open loop transfer function should monotonically
decrease
(d) Poles of the closed loop transfer function should lie in the right half of the complex
plane
Answer: (b)

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 Feedback Controller

Question: Bode diagrams are generated from output response of the system subjected to
which of the following input?
(a) Impulse (b) step (c) ramp (d) sinusoidal
Answer: (d)

Question: According to Bode stability criterion, a system is unstable if the open loop
frequency response exhibits amplitude ratio exceeding unity at frequency for which phase
lag is:
(a) 0° (b) 45° (c) 90° (d) 180°

Answer: (d) Bode stability criterion: A feedback control system is unstable if the
Amplitude Ratio of the corresponding open loop transfer function is larger than 1 at the
cross-over frequency (frequency at which phase lag is 180° )

Question:Design a PID controller for the following process using Ziegler-Nichols tuning
4e − s
=Gp = ; G =
0.25; Gv 2
( 5s + 1) m
Solution:
The overall transfer function is
4e − s 2e − s
=
G OL G p G m=
Gv × 0.25=
×2
( 5s + 1) ( 5s + 1)
If the crossover frequency is denoted by ωco , then we have
−π tan −1 ( −5ωco ) + ( −ωco )
=
or
ωco =
1.68841
Hence the amplitude ratio can be given as

Hence, the ultimate gain is calculated by putting AR=1,

The ultimate gain is calculated as

Finally, the PID setting for the desired controller is

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 Feedback Controller

Question:The following second order process is controlled by a proportional controller of

gain 1.6

For a unit step input in its setpoint, find the offset, overshoot, decay ratio, period of
oscillation, natural period of oscillation, damping coeffcient.
Solution:The closed loop transfer function is

(a) The final steady state value of step input is 0.8889, hence the offset is (1 -0.8889) =
0.1111
(b) The natural period of oscillation is, √0.2222 = 0.4714
0.3333
(c) The damping coefficient is = 0.3536
2×0.4714
(d) The overshoot is
𝜋𝜋×0.3536
− =0.305
𝑒𝑒 √1−0.35362
(e) The decay ratio is, 0.3052 = 0.093
(f) The period of oscillation is,
2 × 𝜋𝜋 × 0.4714
= 3.1664
√1 − 0.35362
Question: Consider the characteristic equation of a fourth-order system
s 4 + 8s3 + 18s 2 + 16s + 5 =0
Check the stability of the system using Routh - Hurwitz criteria
Solution:

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 Feedback Controller

Routh Table

The elements of the first column of Routh array are positive and hence the system the above
characteristics equation is stable.

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 6 FREQUENCY RESPONSE ANALYSIS

Frequency Response Analysis

When a linear system is subjected to sinusoidal input perturbation, its ultimate response
after a long time also becomes a sinusoidal wave, however with different amplitude and a
phase shift. This characteristic constitutes the basis of frequency response analysis. One
needs to study how the amplitude and phase shift change with the frequency of the input
perturbation.

6.1 Response of a First-Order System to a Sinusoidal Input

Consider a simple first order process,

(1)

Let the sinusoidal input u(t) = A sin ωt perturb the system. Then the output of the process
will be
(2)

Computing the constants C1 , C2 and C3 and taking inverse Laplace Transform of the above
equation we obtain,
(3)

After sufficiently long time ( t → ∞ ) , the first term disappears as Hence, using the identity
eq. we obtain,
(4)

Hence we observe that

• Sinusoidal output wave has the same frequency as that of input sinusoid
• Amplitude Ratio between the output wave and input wave is k / ω2 τ2 + 1
• Output wave lags behind the input wave with a phase difference of tan −1 ( −ωτ )
Fig. 6.1 shows the Input and Output wave profile for a frequency response analysis.

© Copyright Reserved Gateflix. No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission 65
 Frequency Response Analysis

Fig.6.1: Input and Output wave profile for a frequency response analysis

6.2 Complex Plane and Frequency Response Analysis

Consider a complex number W= a + jb

Fig. 6.2: Complex Plane of number W= a +jb

The modulus (or absolute value or magnitude) of W is a 2 + b 2 and the argument (or phase
angle) is tan−1 𝑏𝑏�𝑎𝑎. Let us put 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 in the transfer function of the first order process as
(5)

As 𝐺𝐺(𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗) is now a complex number, the modulus and argument can be calculated as,

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 Frequency Response Analysis

(6)

The last two relationships indicate the amplitude ratio and phase lag for the ultimate
response of the first order process. Hence the observations in the last subsection can also be
stated in the light of the above results as follows:
• Sinusoidal output wave has the same frequency as that of input sinusoid
• Amplitude Ratio between the output wave and input wave is AR = G ( jω )
• Output wave lags behind the input wave with a phase difference of =
arg {G ( jω)}
6.3 Example of frequency response of a second order system

The process is
(7)

Put and s = jω calculate

Then,
(8)

and,
(9)

Questions and Answers

Question: A first order system with a time constant of 1 min is subjected to frequency
response analysis. At an input frequency of 1 radian/min, the phase shift is?
(a) 45° (b) −90° (c) −180° (d) −45°

lag φ tan −1 (=
Answer: (d) Phase = −τω) tan −1=
( −1) 45° i.e, phase shift = − 45°
Question: Derive analytical expression for the amplitude ratio and phase shift of the
ultimate frequency response of sinusoidal input for two first order systems in series.

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 Frequency Response Analysis

Solution: Two first order processes in series will have an overall transfer function block:

Similarly,

Hence the overall amplitude ratio is

Now,

=
Similarly, φ2 tan −1 ( −τ2 ω)
Hence the overall phase shift is

Thus, the amplitude ratio and phase lag are given as:

Question: Refer the figure.

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 Frequency Response Analysis

This is the response of a process under unit step change in its input. Find the transfer
function of the process and its response time.

Solution:It is evident from the transient behavior of the process that this is a second order
plus time delay underdamped system. Hence it has a transfer function of the form,

We have to find out four unknown parameters viz. , K, t d , τ  

and ξ .
From the figure it can be concluded that the time delay is 5 sec.
For a unit step input, the process stabilizes at an elevation of 3. Hence the gain of the system
is (3 / 1) = 3 .
Overshoot is ( 4.86 − 3) / 3 =
0.62 and hence by recalling the formula of overshoot we obtain,

Hence, ξ =0.15
The period of oscillation, i.e. the time elapsed between which the transient attains two
successive peaks, is 12.7, hence recall the formula

Hence, the natural period of oscillation is 2.

Hence the overall system stands as

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 Frequency Response Analysis

The response time is defined as the time when the transient reaches within ±5% of its final
steady state value and stays within that band. The visual observation shows the response
time to be 45 sec.

Question: Select the correct statement from the following:

(a) The frequency response of a pure capacity process is unbounded
(b) The phase lag of a pure time delay system decreases with increasing frequency
(c) The amplitude ratio of a pure capacity process is inversely proportional to the
frequency
(d) The amplitude ratio of a pure time delay system increases with frequency.
𝐾𝐾
Answer: (c) For a pure capacitive process 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑃𝑃�𝜔𝜔 ; ∅ = −90

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 7 INSTRUMENTATION

7.1 Introduction

The instrumentation part refers mainly to the hardware of a control systems that includes
various measuring instruments, transmitters, valves etc . In this module, some basic
knowledge on instrumentation symbols as well as process drawings will be discussed.

7.2 Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID)

The P&ID refers to the detailed drawing of plant layout that includes pictorial representation
of entire piping and instrumentation blocks used in a plant. It has been standardized by
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and Instrument Society of America (ISA).
Equivalent Indian Standard is also available, e.g. “IEC/PAS 62424 Ed. 1.0 en - Representation
of process control engineering requests in P&I diagrams and data exchange between P&ID
tools and PCE-CAE tools”. It describes and specifies how process control engineering
requests are represented in a P&I diagram. It also defines the exchange of process control
engineering request relevant data between a process control engineering tool and a P&I tool
by means of a data transfer language (called CAEX). These provisions apply to the
export/import applications of such tools. Following are the components of P&ID:
• Plant equipment and vessels showing location, capacity, pressure, liquid level operating
range, usage and so on
• All interconnection lines distinguishing between the types of interconnection, i.e. gas or
electrical and operating range of line
• All motors giving voltage and power and other relevant information
• Instrumentation showing location of instrument, its major function, process control loop
number, and range
• Control valves giving type of control, type of valve, type of valve action, fail save features,
and flow plus pressure information
• The ranges for all safety valves, pressure regulators, temperatures, and operating ranges
• All sensing devices, recorders, and transmitters with control loop numbers
P&ID can run into multiple sheets as it is not always possible to code them all in a single
sheet. Each drawing should have a part list and that should be properly numbered. It should
also have an area for revisions, notes and approval signature. More importantly they should
always be up-to-date.

7.2.1 Instrumentation symbols

The symbols of transmission lines have already been discussed in the lecture 3 of Module 4
(Introduction to Feedback Controller). Symbols of standardized instruments are given in the
following figure.

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 Instrumentation

Fig. 7.1: Standardized Instruments Symbols

Each instrument is identified with a letter of English alphabet. Table. 7.1 refers to the
identification letters
Table 7.1: Instruments Identification Letters

Fig 7.2 represents a few examples of the letters and numbering code that can be used to refer
the instruments. Consider the example TY178 which has two letters T & Y. Table 7.1 refers
to the first letter T as temperature and second letter Y as converter. Hence it is a temperature

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 Instrumentation

transducer which converts a 4-20 mA current signal into a 3-15 psi pressure signal. The
number 178 refers to the location of the transducer such as “zone 1, equipment number. 7,
transducer number. 8”. From Fig 7.1, we can further infer that transducer is a discrete
instrument located in the field itself.

Fig. 7.2: Examples of the letters and numbering code

Symbols can be broadly classified into four types depending on their functions:
• Actuator
• Primary elements
• Regulators and safety valves
• Math function
Following are the examples of those categories

Fig. 7.3: Actuators

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 Instrumentation

Fig. 7.4: Primary elements

Fig. 7.5: Regulators and safety valves

Fig. 7.6: Math function

7.2.2 An example of P&ID of a small process plant

Following is an example of P&ID of a mixing station:

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 Instrumentation

Fig. 7.7: P&ID of a mixing station

A P&ID should not include the following:
• Instrument root valves
• Control relays
• Manual switches
• Equipment rating or capacity
• Primary instrument tubing and valves
• Pressure temperature and flow data
• Elbow, tees and similar standard fittings
• Extensive explanatory notes

7.3 Process Flow Diagram (PFD)

Process Flow Diagram, on the other hand, shows the relationships between the major
components in the system. PFD also tabulates process design values for the components in
different operating modes, typical minimum, normal and maximum. Following figure shows
a typical PFD.

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 Instrumentation

Fig. 7.8: A typical process flow diagram

A PFD should include

• Major equipment symbols, names and identification numbers
• Control, valves and valves that affect operation of the system
• Interconnection with other systems
• Major bypass and recirculation lines
• System ratings and operational values as minimum, normal and maximum flow,
temperature and pressure
• Composition of fluids
However it should never include
• Pipe class
• Pipe line numbers
• Minor bypass lines
• Isolation and shutoff valves
• Maintenance vents and drains
• Relief and safety valve
• Code class information
• Seismic class information
In other words, PFD has those information which are not contained in P&ID.

7.4 Actuators

Few types of such actuators will be discussed in the following subsections.

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 Instrumentation

7.4.1 Pneumatic Valve

Pneumatic valves are air-operated valves that are used for regulating fluid flow through a
pipeline (Fig 7.9). Varying air pressure (3 to 15 psig) is used as an actuating signal for the
pneumatic valves. Usually control signal is generated and transmitted in electrical form (4 to
20 mA) from the controller. Hence, a current to pressure converter (I/P) converts an analog
signal (4-20 mA) to a proportional linear pneumatic output (3-15 psig). Its purpose is to
translate the analog output from a controller into a precise, repeatable pressure value to
control pneumatic actuators/operators, pneumatic valves, dampers, vanes, etc. .

(a) Fail Open (b) Fail Closed

Fig. 7.9: Pneumatics Valves

The bottom portion of the pneumatic valve has an orifice that separates the upstream and
downstream flows. A tapered plug, capable of blocking the orifice in varying proportion, is
attached to a stem that is connected to a diaphragm in the top portion of the valve. A spring
restricts the movement of the stem. When air pressure above the diaphragm forces the stem
to move downwards, the plug starts reducing the aperture of the orifice and eventually
blocks the orifice at high air pressure. As a result the flow of fluid through the orifice is
gradually decreased from “FULL FLOW” to “NO FLOW” condition. As the air pressure at the
top of the diaphragm is released, the plug moves back to its original position resulting in full
flow of fluid. This is called “FAIL OPEN” valve (Fig. 7.9 (a)) because when the control signal
fails to provide enough air pressure, the valve remains in fully open condition. Similarly the
“FAIL CLOSED” valve is shown in Fig 7.9 (b) where the shape of the plug is opposite.
The dynamics of a typical pneumatic valve is usually second order in nature. The position of
stem (or plug) determines the size of the aperture of the orifice that consequently
determines the fluid flow rate. The position of the stem is determined by balancing all the
forces acting on it. These forces are:
• Force exerted by the compressed air at the top of the diaphragm
• Force exerted by the spring
• Force exerted due to friction between stem and the valve packing
Hence,
(1)

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 Instrumentation

Where, p = pressure exerted by the compressed air, A= area of the diaphragm, x

=displacement of stem, K = Hooke's constant of the spring, C = coefficient of friction between
stem and the packing, M= mass of stem and its attachments. Rearranging the eq. (1), we
obtain

(2)

The transfer function between stem position and the actuating pressure is
(3)

which is indeed a second order dynamics. However, the movement of stem is always aided
by proper lubrication which eventually reduces its coefficient of friction. Moreover, mass of
the stem and its attachments are very small compared to the Hooke's constant
( M << K and C << K ) . Hence the dynamics of pneumatic valve can be neglected and
movement of stem x can be regarded as instantaneous in response to change of air pressure.
(4)

Flow rate of non-flashing liquid is given by

(5)

Where, F =flow rate of liquid, ∆P = pressure drop across the upstream and downstream side
of the valve, ρ = density of liquid, Cv =flow coefficient that depends on valve size, f(x) = flow
characteristic curve of the valve which is a function of the stem position x.
The shape of the flow characteristic curve depends on the shape of plug of the valve. There
are five major types of flow characteristics used for designing the valve:
• Linear, f ( x ) = x
• Square root, f ( x ) = x
• Equal percentage, f ( x ) = α x −1

{α − ( α − 1) x}
−1
• Hyperbolic, f ( x ) =
• Quick opening, f ( x ) = x1/ α
Where, α =design constant. The types of plug are given in Figs. (7.10).

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 Instrumentation

Fig. 7.10: Types of plugs of a pneumatic valve

The typical flow characteristics curves are given in Fig. (7.11)

Fig. 7.11: Flow capacity characteristics of various pneumatic valves

7.4.2 Hydraulic actuator

Hydraulic actuators employ hydraulic pressure to move a target device. These are used
where high speed and large forces are required. Pressure applied to a confined
incompressible fluid at any point is transmitted throughout the fluid in all directions and acts
upon every part of the confining vessel at its interior surfaces. Fig. 7.12 represents the
schematic of a hydraulic actuator.

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 Instrumentation

Fig. 7.12: Hydraulic Actuator

According to Pascal's Law, since pressure P applied on an area A yields a force F, given
as, F= P × A , if a force is applied over a small area to cause a pressure P in a confined fluid,
the force generated on a larger area can be made many times larger than the applied force
that created the pressure.

7.4.3 Electric actuator

Electric actuators can be of the following forms: Electric current/voltage, Solenoid, Stepping
Motor and DC/AC Motor.Current or voltage can easily be regulated to adjust the flow of
energy into the process, e.g. heater, fan speed regulator etc. Energy supplied by the heater
element is W = I2Rt , where I =current, R =resistance, t =time of heating. The current/voltage
can be regulated usingpotentiometer (or rheostat), amplifier or a switch.

Fig. 7.13: A schematic of Rheostat

A rheostat is a device that has variable resistance to current flow (Fig. 7.13). The current
=
flowing through the circuit is I V / ( R1 + R 2 ) , where R1 can be varied by suitably sliding

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 Instrumentation

the pointer. The power transmitted to the heater would be P = I 2 R 2 . As the pointer slides
towards a lesser value of R1 , heater receives more power for heating.

Fig.7.14: A schematic of Switch

A switch (Fig. 7.14) is a device which has two states of operation viz ON and OFF. The
duration of the switch to remain in either state can be modulated as per requirement.
If TON and TOFF are the switch on and switch off time respectively, then duty cycle of the
switch is defined as TON / ( TON + TOFF ) ×100% where ( TON + TOFF ) is kept constant for any
operation. This methods is often called as Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). Transistor and
Thyristor are the examples of switches.
A solenoid is a coil wound into a tightly packed helix which produces a controlled magnetic
field when an electric current is passed through it. Solenoids can be used as electromagnets
which convert electromagnetic energy into linear motion of some mechanical part. It is often
used as a valve which actuates a piston to restrict a flow in a pneumatic/hydraulic pipeline.

Fig. 7.15: A schematic of Solenoid

Fig. 7.15 shows a schematic of a solenoid valve. The blue bar indicates an electromagnet that
gets energized on flowing current through the helix. The red colored piston is a metallic
object whose movement is controlled by the duration of energization of electromagnet. In
normal situation the spring forces the piston to move far and block the fluid flow in the
pipeline. As the electromagnet gets energized, the piston is pulled back yielding the fluid to
flow unrestricted.

7.5 Sensors

Few types of such sensors will be discussed in the following subsections.

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 Instrumentation

7.5.1 Temperature Measuring Devices

Most common devices for relatively low temperature measurement are thermocouples and
resistance thermometers. Radiation pyrometers are used for high temperature
measurements. Other temperature measurement devices are filled system thermometers,
bimetal thermometers, oscillating quartz crystals, etc.

7.5.1.1 Thermocouple

Thermocouples are the most popular temperature sensors. They are inexpensive,
interchangeable, have standard connectors and can measure a wide range of temperatures.
Their main limitation is accuracy as the system errors of less than 1°C can be difficult to
achieve. Following figure represents internal construction of thermocouple and its circuitry.

(b) Circuit
(a) Internal Construction
Fig. 7.16: Thermocouple

A thermocouple is constructed of two dissimilar metal wires joined at one end. It works on
the principle of “Seabeck effect” whereby electromagnetic force is generated when two
dissimilar metals are joined at two different temperature ends. When one end of each wire
is connected to a measuring instrument, the thermocouple becomes a sensitive and highly
accurate measuring device. Heating the measuring junction of the thermocouple produces a
voltage which is greater than the voltage across the reference junction. The difference
between the two voltages is proportional to the difference in temperature and can be
measured on the voltmeter (in mV). Thermocouples may be constructed of several different
combinations of materials. The most important factor to be considered when selecting a pair
of materials is the "thermoelectric difference" between the two materials. A significant
difference between the two materials will result in better thermocouple performance.

7.5.1.2 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

The RTD incorporates pure metals or certain alloys that increase in resistance as
temperature increases and, conversely, decrease in resistance as temperature decreases.
RTDs act somewhat like an electrical transducer, converting changes in temperature to

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 Instrumentation

voltage signals by the measurement of resistance. The metals that are best suited for use as
RTD sensors are pure, of uniform quality, stable within a given range of temperature, and
able to give reproducible resistance-temperature readings. RTD elements are normally
constructed of platinum, copper, or nickel. These metals are best suited for RTD applications
because of their linear resistance-temperature characteristics.
(6)
The above equation represents the Resistance vs. Temperature relationship where R is the
resistance and temperature T, with reference Resistance R 0 and coefficient of resistance
as α The coefficient of resistance is the change in resistance per degree change in
temperature, usually expressed as a percentage per degree of temperature.

7.5.2 Pressure Measuring Devices

Most common devices for pressure measurement are differential pressure transducer.

7.5.2.1 Differential Pressure Cell

The differential pressure cell (DPC) measures the difference between two or more pressures
introduced as inputs to its sensing unit. The sensing unit consists of a diaphragm and a
pressure cavity to create a variable capacitor which detects strain due to applied pressure.
The following figure presents a schematic of the sensing unit of the DPC.

Fig. 7.17: Schematic of a Differential Pressure Cell

The cell contains two compartments separated by a diaphragm. The differential pressure
acting on the diaphragm, due to pressures exerted on its two sides, results in displacement
of the diaphragm. This displacement of diaphragm is transduced to electrical signal which is
transmitted and recorded through appropriate instrumentation. The displacement of
diaphragm is usually linearly calibrated to the differential pressure acting on it. The ends of
the DPC are capillary tubes. Compartment is filled with some liquid ( e.g . silicone oil) of
mass m. The ends are connected to processing units of which the differential pressure needs
to be measured. Often the End 2 is left open to the atmosphere when the pressure at only
one end needs to be measured. The following force balance will be in place:
Force due to pressure p1 at End 1- Force due to pressure p2 at End 2 - Resistance exerted by
the diaphragm - Viscous frictional force exerted by the capillary liquid = Mass of capillary
liquid x Acceleration of capillary liquid towards the direction of motion

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 Instrumentation

We consider the capillary liquid to be incompressible so that the displacement of capillary

liquid is same as the displacement of diaphragm. Now the above force balance can be
expressed through the following equation:
(7)

where A= cross-sectional area of the capillary tube, K= Hooke's constant of diaphragm which
acts like a spring, x= displacement of diaphragm/capillary liquid, C= damping coefficient of
capillary liquid.
Rearranging the above, we obtain
(8)

In Laplace domain,
(9)

The value of x is linearly transduced to electrical signal that indicates the actual
measurement variable. Hence the output of DP cell maps a second order behavior with the
differential pressure.

7.5.2.2 Bellows Resistance Transducer

Bellows Resistance Transducer is resistance type transducers which has moving contacts
(slide wire variable resistors). The pressure change causes a resistance change due to the
distortion of the wire. The value of the pressure can be found by measuring the change in
resistance of the wire grid. Eq.(10) shows the resistance relationship.
(10)

Where R is resistance of the wire grid (in ohms) K is resistivity constant for the particular
type of wire grid, L is the length of wire grid and A is the cross sectional area of wire grid.

Fig. 7.18: Schematic of a Bellows Resistance Transducer

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 Instrumentation

Fig. 7.18 shows the schematic of a Bellows Resistance Transducer. As pressure changes, the
bellows will either expand or contract. This expansion and contraction causes the attached
slider to move along the slide wire, increasing or decreasing the resistance, and thereby
indicating an increase or decrease in pressure.

7.5.3 Flow Measuring Devices

Various flow measurement devices are already taught in the relevant course of Fluid
Mechanics such as Orificemeter, Venturimeter, pitot tube, rotameter etc. . A few other types
of flow meters are discussed here.

7.5.3.1 Hot-wire anemometer

The hot-wire anemometer, consists of an electrically heated, fine platinum wire which is
immersed into the flow. As the fluid velocity increases, the rate of heat flow from the heated
wire to the flow stream increases. Thus, a cooling effect on the wire electrode occurs, causing
its electrical resistance to change.

Fig. 7.19: Schematic of a Hot-wire anemometer

In a constant-current anemometer, the fluid velocity is determined from a measurement of
the resulting change in wire resistance. In a constant-resistance anemometer, fluid velocity
is determined from the current needed to maintain a constant wire temperature and, thus,
the resistance constant. Typically, the anemometer wire is made of platinum or tungsten and
is 4 µ in diameter and 1 mm in length. Typical commercially available hot-wire anemometers
have a flat frequency (< 3 dB) up to 17 kHz at the average velocity of 30 ft/s, 30 kHz at 100
ft/s, or 50 kHz at 300 ft/s. Due to the tiny size of the wire, it is fragile and thus suitable only
for clean fluid. In liquid flow or rugged gas flow, a platinum hot-film coated on a 25 ~ 150
mm diameter quartz fiber or hollow glass tube can be used instead, as shown in the
schematic. Another alternative is a pyrex glass wedge coated with a thin platinum hot-film
edge tip, as shown schematically.

7.5.3.2 Nutating Disc displacement meter

In a displacement flowmeter, all of the fluid passes through the meter in almost completely
isolated quantities. The number of these quantities is counted and indicated in terms of
volume or weight units by a register. The most common type of displacement flowmeter is
the nutating disk, or wobble plate meter. A typical nutating disk is shown in Fig.7.20.

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 Instrumentation

Fig. 7.20: Schematic of a Nutating disk displacement meter

The movable element is a circular disk which is attached to a central ball. A shaft is fastened
to the ball and held in an inclined position by a cam or roller. The disk is mounted in a
chamber which has spherical side walls and conical top and bottom surfaces. The fluid enters
an opening in the spherical wall on one side of the partition and leaves through the other
side. As the fluid flows through the chamber, the disk wobbles, or executes a nutating motion.
Since the volume of fluid required to make the disc complete one revolution is known, the
total flow through a nutating disc can be calculated by multiplying the number of disc
rotations by the known volume of fluid. To measure this flow, the motion of the shaft
generates a cone with the point, or apex, down. The top of the shaft operates a revolution
counter, through a crank and set of gears, which is calibrated to indicate total system flow.

7.5.4 Level Measuring Devices

The differential pressure (P) detector method is also used for liquid level measurement
which uses a P detector connected to the bottom of the tank being monitored. The higher
pressure, caused by the fluid in the tank, is compared to a lower reference pressure (usually
atmospheric). This comparison takes place in the P detector. In addition to this a couple of
other level detectors are discussed below.

7.5.4.1 Ball float

The ball float method is a direct reading liquid level mechanism. The most practical design
for the float is a hollow metal ball or sphere. However, there are no restrictions to the size,
shape, or material used. The design consists of a ball float attached to a rod, which in turn is
connected to a rotating shaft which indicates level on a calibrated scale (Fig.7.21).

Fig. 7.21: Schematic of a ball float level mechanism

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 Instrumentation

The operation of the ball float is simple. The ball floats on top of the liquid in the tank. If the
liquid level changes, the float will follow and change the position of the pointer attached to
the rotating shaft.

7.5.4.2 Magnetic Bond Level Indicator

The magnetic bond mechanism consists of a magnetic float which rises and falls with changes
in level. The float travels outside of an on-magnetic tube which houses an inner magnet
connected to a level indicator.

Fig. 7.22: Schematic of a magnetic bond level indicator

When the float rises and falls, the outer magnet will attract the inner magnet, causing the
inner magnet to follow the level within the vessel (Fig.7.22).

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 8 ADVANCE CONTROL

8.1: Feedforward control

A feedback controller responds only after it detects a deviation in the value of the controlled
output from its desired set point. On the other hand, a feedforward controller detects the
disturbance directly and takes an appropriate control action in order to eliminate its effect
on the process output.
Consider the distillation column shown in Fig (8.1) The control objective is to keep the
distillate concentration at a desired set point despite any changes in the inlet feed stream.

Fig 8.1: Feedback and Feedforward control configuration of a distillation column

Fig.8.1(a) shows the conventional feedback loop, which measures the distillate
concentration and after comparing it with the desired setpoint, increases or decreases the
reflux ratio. A feedforward control system uses a different approach. It measures the changes
in the inlet feed stream (disturbance) and adjusts the reflux ratio appropriately. Fig 8.1(b)
shows the feedforward control configuration.

Fig 8.2: The comparative schematic of feedback and feedforward control structure

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 Advance Control

Fig 8.2 shows the general form of a feedforward control system. It directly measures the
disturbance to the process and anticipates its effect on the process output. Eventually it
alters the manipulated input in such a way that the impact of the disturbance on the process
output gets eliminated. In other words, where the feedback control action starts after the
disturbance is “felt” through the changes in process output, the feedforward control action
starts immediately after the disturbance is “measured” directly. Hence, feedback controller
acts in a compensatory manner whereas the feedforward controller acts in
an anticipatory manner.

8.1.1 Design of feedforward controller

Let us consider the block diagram of a process shown in Fig 8.3. The Fig 8.3(a) presents the
open-loop diagram of the process. The process and disturbance transfer functions are
represented by G p and G d respectively. The controlled output, manipulated input and the
disturbance variable are indicated as y, u and d respectively.

(c) Process diagram with feedforward controller, sensor and valve

Fig 8.3: The schematic of a feedforward
The process output is represented by

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 Advance Control

(1)
The control objective is to maintain y at the desired setpoint ysp . Hence the eq (1) can be
rewritten as
(2)
The eq. (2) can be rearranged in the following manner:

or

.....................................................(3)
For the sake of simplicity, measuring element and final control element were not considered
as parts of the feedforward control configuration as shown in Fig 8.3(b). In a more
generalized case, when such elements are added in the controller configuration, the resulting
control structure takes the form of Fig 8.3(c). A generalized form of controller equation can
be written as
..............................................................................................(4)
And

In case of regulatory problem (disturbance rejection) i.e. when ysp = 0 , the controller should
be able to reject the effect of disturbance and ensure no deviation in the output, i.e. y = 0 . In
other words,
G d − G pG cG f G m =0 (5)
Or
Gd
Gc = (6)
G mG f G p
In case of servo problem (setpoint tracking), i.e. when d = 0 , the controller should be able to
ensure that output tracks the setpoint, i.e. y = ysp . In other words,
G p G c G f G sp = 1 (7)
Or
1 1Gm
=G sp = = (8)
G pG cG f  Gd  Gd
Gp   Gf
G G G 
 m f p

8.1.2 Example of design of feedforward controller

Consider an overflow type continuous stirred tank heater shown in Fig 8.4. The fluid inside
the tank is heated with steam whose flow rate is Fst and supplying heat at a rate of Q to the
fluid. Temperatures of the inlet and outlet streams are Ti and T respectively. V is the volume
of liquid which is practically constant in an overflow type reactor. A control valve in the
steam line indicates that the steam flow rate can be manipulated in order to keep the liquid

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 Advance Control

temperature at a desired setpoint. Temperature of the inlet stream flow is the source of
disturbance (change in Ti ) to the process.

Fig 8.4: Feedforward control configuration of an overflow type continuous stirred tank heater

A simple energy balance exercise will yield the model equation of the above process as:
(9)

All the variables are assumed to be in the deviation form. Hence, taking Laplace transform
on both sides we obtain:
(10)

or, (11)

or, (12)

or,
(13)

The feedforward controller is meant for ensuring T = Tsp . Hence,

(14)

Or
(15)

Hence, one needs to set Fst in such a way that Q amount of heat as given in eq. (15) is
transferred to the process. Fig 8.4(b) represents the feedforward structure of the controller.

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 Advance Control

Remarks:
• The feedforward controller ideally does not get any feedback from the process output.
Hence, it solely works on the merit of the model(s). The better a model represents the
behavior of a process,the better would be the performance of a feedforward controller
designed on the basis of that model. Perfect control necessitates perfect knowledge of
process and disturbance models and this is practically impossible. This inturn is the main
drawback of a feedforward controller.
• The feedforward control configuration can be developed for more than one disturbance in
multi-controller configuration. Any controller in that configuration would act according to
the disturbance for which it is designed.
• External characteristics of a feedforward loop are same as that of a feedback loop. The
primary measurement (disturbance in case of feedforward control and process output in
case of feedback control) is compared to a setpoint and the result of the comparison is used
as the actuating signal for the controller. Except the controller, all other hardware elements
of the feedforward control configuration such as sensor, transducer, transmitter, valves are
same as that of an equivalent feedback control configuration.
• Feedforward controller cannot be expressed in the feedback form such as P, PI and PID
controllers. It is regarded as a special purpose computing machine.
• Let us consider a system where process delay is higher than disturbance delay, eg.
5e −0.1s 5e −0.02s Gd
Gp = and G d = =
; in such case, G = e0.08s . That means one needs to know
s +1 s +1
c
Gp
the future values of disturbance in order to decide present control action. This is physically
unrealizable controller.

8.1.3 Combination of Feedforward-Feedback Controller

The following table provides a comparative assessment of feedforward and feedback

controllers.
Table 5.1: Merits and demerits of feedforward and feedback controllers
Merits Demerits
Feedforward controllers
Takes corrective action before the process Requires measurement of all disturbances
“feels” the disturbance affecting the system
Good for sluggish systems and/or system Sensitive to variation in process
with large deadtime parameters
Does not affect the stability of the process Requires a “near perfect” model of the
process
Feedback controllers
Does not require disturbance Acts to take corrective action after the
measurement process “feels” the disturbance

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 Advance Control

Insensitive to mild errors in modeling Bad for sluggish systems and/or system
with large deadtime
Insensitive to mild changes in process May affect the stability of the process
parameters

Let us now explore how a combination of feedforward and feedback controller would
perform when they are designed to act simultaneously. The schematic of a feedforward-
feedback controller is shown in Fig 8.5.

Fig 8.5. The schematic of a feedforward-feedback controller

Without losing the generality we shall ignore the transfer functions of the measuring element
and the final control element.
Now the closed loop transfer function of feedforward-feedback controller can be derived in
the following manner:
(16)

Rearranging the above we get,

(17)

It is observed that the stability of the closed loop response is determined by the roots of the
characteristic equation: 1 + G p G cFB =0 . Hence, the stability characteristics of a process does
not change with the addition of a feedforward loop.
The following numerical example demonstrates the efficacy of a feedforward-feedback
controller. Consider a process having process and disturbance transfer functions as
(18)

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 Advance Control

A feedback PID controller,with K c= 10; τ1= 1 , is used to control the process for disturbance
rejection purpose. A feedforward controller has also been designed for the process however
it has been assumed that the time constant of the process has been measured erroneously as
2.1 instead of 2. A first order filter with time constant 0.1 has been augmented to the transfer
function of G sp in order to make it causal.
A Simulink code (Fig 8.6) has been generated to simulate the process under the three types
of controllers as said above.

Fig 8.6: Block diagram of Simulink code for closed-loop process under three controllers

The performance of three controllers, viz., feedforward, feedback and feedforward-feedback,

are presented in Fig 8.7

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 Advance Control

Fig 8.7: Comparative performance analysis of three controllers.

It is clearly observed that the performance of feedforward-feedback controller is far better

than the other two individual controllers.

8.2 Cascade Control

The primary disadvantage of conventional feedback control is that the corrective action for
disturbances does not begin until after the controlled variable deviates from the setpoint. In
other words, the disturbance must be “felt” by the process before the control system
responds. Feedforward control offers large improvements over feedback control for
processes that have large time constant and/or delay. However, feedforward control
requires that the disturbances be measured explicitly and that a model be available to
calculate the controller output. Cascade control is an alternative approach that can
significantly improve the dynamic response to disturbances by employing a secondary
measurement and a secondary feedback controller. The secondary measurement point is
located so that it recognizes the upset condition sooner than the controlled variable, but the
disturbance is not necessarily measured.

Fig 8.8: Cascade Control Structure

Let us consider the following block diagram of cascade control structure. The outer loop and
its controller are called master loop and master controller whereas the inner loop and its
controller are called slave loop and slave controller respectively.

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 Advance Control

= + d 2 G p2 G c2 ( Ysp2 − Y2 ) + d 2
Y2 G p2 G c2 e 2= 19
Simplifying
G p2 G c2 1 20
=Y2 Ysp2 + d
(1 + G p2 G c2 ) (1 + G p2G c2 ) 2
Similarly
=
Y1 G p1Y2 + d1
 G G 1 
=
Y1 G p1  p2 c2 Ysp2 + d 2  + d1
1 + G p2 G c2 1 + G p2 G c2 
 G G 1 
=
Y1 G p1  p2 c2 G c1e1 + d 2  + d1
1 + G p2 G c2 1 + G p2 G c2 
 G G 
Y1 G p1  p2 c2 G c1 ( Ysp1 − Y1 ) +
1
= d 2  + d1
1 + G p2 G c2 1 + G p2 G c2 
Again simplifying the above eqn:
G p1G p2 G c2 G c1 G p1 1 + G p2 G c2 (21)
Y1 = Ysp1 + d2 + d1
1 + G p2 G c2 + G p1G p2 G c2 G c1 1 + G p2 G c2 + G p1G p2 G c2 G c1 1 + G p2 G c2 + G p1G p2 G c2 G c1
Now see what happens if the secondary loop is absent. In that case:
Y2 = G p2 Ysp2 (22)
And
=
Y1 G p1Y2 + d1
(23)
=Y1 G p1 G p2 Ysp2 + d 2  + d1
=Y1 G p1 G p2 G c1e1 + d 2  + d1

=Y1 G p1 G p2 G c1 ( Ysp1 − Y1 ) + d 2  + d1

Simplifying
G p1G p2 G c1 G p1 1 (24)
Y1 = Ysp1 + d2 + d
(1 + G p1 G p2 G c1 ) (1 + G p1 G p2 G c1 ) (1 + G p1G p2G c1 ) 1
8.2.1 Response time of a cascade Controller

First analyze the secondary loop:

In absence of the secondary loop and the slave controller
Y2 K p2
= G= ; Time constant = τp2
τp2s + 1
p2
Ysp2
In presence of the secondary loop and the slave controller (say a pure gain controller)

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K p2  K p2 K c2 
K c2   (25)
Y2 G p2 G c2 τp2s + 1 K p2 K c2  1 + K p2 K c2 
= = =
Ysp2 1 + G p2 G c2 K p2 τp2s + 1 + K p2 K c2  τp2 
1+ K c2  s +1
τp2s + 1  1 + K K 
 p2 c2 
τp2
Time constant =
1 + K p2 K c2
Clearly there is a decrease in time constant in presence of slave loop. This will guarantee that
the time constant of the overall process decreases when a secondary loop is introduced to
the system. Eventually that decreases the overall response time.

8.2.2 Stability of a Cascade Controller

The stability part can also be explained in general derivation, but it will become too
cumbersome. So let us take a simple example.
1 1
=
Let us take, G p1 = ;G p2 . Thus overall system is third order.
( s + 1) s +1
2

In absence of the secondary loop the characteristic equation of the overall process is:
1 1 ( s + 1) + K
3 (26)
1 + G p1G p2 G c1 =
1+ K c1 =3 c1
( s + 1) s + 1 ( s + 1)
2

In presence of the secondary loop the characteristic equation of the overall process is:
( s + 1) + ( s + 1) K c2 + K c1K c2 (27)
3 2
1 1 1
1 + G p2 G c2 + G p1G p2 G c1G c2 =
1+ K c2 + K c1K c2 =
s +1 ( s + 1) s + 1 ( s + 1)
2 3

Now apply Routh-Hurwitz criteria to find the limits of both these cases:

8.2.2.1: First case: ( s + 1) + K c1 = 0 = s3 + 3s 2 + 3s + 1 + K c1 (In absence of secondary loop)

3

Routh table:
 
1 3 
 
3 1 + K c1  .
 
 9 − (1 + K c1 ) 
 3 
For a stable closed loop process, 9 > 1 + K c1 . Thus the upper limit of K c1 is 8.

8.2.2.2: Second case: (In presence of secondary loop)

( s + 1) + ( s + 1) K c2 + K c1K c2 = 0 = ( s3 + 3s 2 + 3s + 1) + ( s 2 + 2s + 1) K c2 + K c1K c2 (28)
3 2

= s3 + ( 3 + K c2 ) s 2 + ( 3 + 2K c2 ) s + (1 + K c2 + K c1K c2 )

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 Advance Control

Routh table:
 
 
1 3 + 2K c2 
 3 + K c2 1 + K c2 + K c1K c2  .
 
 ( 3 + K c2 )( 3 + 2K c2 ) − (1 + K c2 + K c1K c2 ) 
 3 + K c2 
 
For a stable closed loop process, ( 3 + K c2 )( 3 + 2K c2 ) > (1 + K c2 + K c1K c2 ) . With further
 8 
simplification, we get: 8 +  K c2 +  > K c1
 K c2 
Thus the upper limit of
8
K c1 increases by a positive quantity of K c2 + . In other words, the stability limits of the
K c2
process increases by introducing a secondary loop.
One may put some reasonable values to the controller gain and simulate the system.
However it will generate some offset for obvious reasons. To get an offset free control action,
one needs to assign the master controller with a Gain-Reset setting.

8.3 Ratio Control

A ratio controller is a special type of feedforward controller where disturbances are

measured and their ratio is held at a desired set point by controlling one of the streams. The
other uncontrolled stream is called wild stream. Fig 8.9 shows the schematic of a ratio
controller. The ratio of flow rates of two streams are being held at a desired ratio by
controlling the flow rate of one stream. The flow rates are measured through flow
transmitters (FTs).

Fig 8.9The schematic of a ratio control structure

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 Advance Control

The chemical process industries have various applications for ratio controllers. Following
are a few such examples:
• Reflux ratio and reboiler feed ratio in a distillation column
• Maintaining the stoichiometric ratio of reactants in a reactor
• Keeping air/fuel ratio in a combustion process

8.4 Override Control

During the operation of a process plant it is possible that a dangerous situation may arise
due to unacceptable process conditions which may destruct the process or its personnel. In
such case the normal operation should temporarily be stopped and preventive measures
should be initiated to avert the unacceptable situation. In order to facilitate such measures,
a single-purpose “switch” can be used that can take preferential instruction from one
controller over the others to manipulate the final control element in such a way that the
dangerous situation can be averted. This is called override control. The technique can be
illustrated with the following example.

Fig. 8.10 Override control of a boiler

Consider a boiler shown in the Fig 8.10. It has one water inlet and one steam outlet. The
steam outlet is regulated by the valve in the discharge line that takes the control signal from
the control mechanism in Loop1 (pressure transducer and pressure controller). In other
words, the discharge of steam is regulated on the basis of its pressure desired in the supply
line elsewhere. However, the water is boiled using a heating coil that needs to be always
submerged below the water level so that the heating coil does not burn out. Hence, in order
to ensure a certain minimum level of water inside the boiler, the control Loop 2 is set in place
that contains a level transducer and a level controller. Both level controller and pressure
controller give the control signal to the valve through an intermediate switch LSS (Low
Selection Switch) that takes the preferential signal from the level controller. In other words,
Loop 2 remains inactive during the normal operation and the Loop 1 regulates the process.
Nevertheless, at critical situation when the water level drops below the minimum allowable
limit, the Loop 2 takes over and takes corrective measures.

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 Advance Control

8.5 Auctioneering Control

There are conditions in process plant where multiple process measurements are available
for a particular variable that needs to be regulated through a single control action. Thus it is
evident that the said control action should be given based on the most critical measurement
condition for the process variable. This is termed as Auctioneering Control. The technique
can be illustrated with the following example.

Fig.8.11 Auctioneering control of a tubular reactor

Consider a tubular reactor shown in the Fig 8.11. The reaction is exothermic and hence the
temperature inside the reactor needs to be regulated. However, the temperature varies along
the length of the tube and if the corrective action, i.e. the coolant flow rate, is taken on the
basis of highest temperature measurement, it will ensure that the other temperature zones
are also guarded against overheating.

8.6 Split Range Control

When there are more than one manipulated inputs available for one single controlled output
then Split Range Control scheme can be implemented. The technique can be illustrated with
the following example.

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 Advance Control

Fig. 8.12 Split Range control

Consider a reactor shown in the Fig 8.12. The pressure inside the reactor needs to be
controlled. The control valve is available in both inlet and outlet lines. Hence the control
action can be coordination between two valves. When the pressure is low, inlet valve should
be FULLY OPEN and when the pressure is high, outlet vale should be FULLY OPEN. In either
care the other valve needs to be PARTIALLY OPEN/CLOSED depending upon the
requirement of control action.

8.7 Adaptive Control

It is understood in the previous chapters that task of controller design for a process is very
much domain specific. First the model of the process is linearized around a certain nominal
point and the controller is designed on the basis of that linearized model and finally
implemented on the process. Hence, the controller is applicable for certain domain around
the nominal operating point around which the model has been linearized. However, if the
process deviates from the nominal point of operation, controller will lose its efficiency. In
such cases, the parameters of the controller need to be re-tuned in order to retain the
efficiency of the controller. When such retuning of controller is done through some
“automatic updating scheme”, the controller is termed as adaptive controller. The technique
can be illustrated with the following figure.

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 Advance Control

Fig. 8.13 Adaptive control

One of the most popular adaptive control techniques is gain scheduling technique. The
overall gain of an open loop process is usually given as
K overall = K c K p K m K f (29)
It is customary to keep the overall gain constant. In case of changes in the process (or valve
characteristics or measuring element), K c should be tuned in such a manner that overall
gain remains constant.
K overall (30)
Kc =
KpKmKf
The above is called the gain scheduling control law.
When the process is poorly known, one cannot rely much on the correctness of the value
of K p In such cases, the self-adaptive control may be helpful. A self-adaptive controller
optimizes the value of certain objective function (criterion) in order to obtain updated
controller parameters. Two examples of self-adaptive controllers are Model Reference
Adaptive Control (MRAC) and Self-Tuning Regulator (STR)

8.7.1 Model Reference Adaptive Control

The following figure shows the schematic of a Model Reference Adaptive Controller.

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 Advance Control

Fig. 8.14 Model Reference Adaptive control

It contains of two loops. The inner loop contains the regular feedback mechanism whereas
the outer loop contains an ideal reference model which the process needs to follow. The
process and model outputs are compared and the error function is minimized through a
suitable optimization routine in order to arrive at the re-tuned controller parameters.

8.7.2 Self Tuning Regulator

Self-Tuning Regulator on the other hand estimates the model parameters by measuring
process inputs and outputs. The re-tuned model eventually guides the controller parameter
adjustment mechanism. Figure 8.15 shows the schematic of Self Tuning Regulator.

Fig. 8.15 Self Tuning Regulator

8.8 Inferential Control

Often the process plant has certain variables that cannot be measured on-line, however,
needs to be controlled on-line. In such cases, the unmeasured variables to be controlled can
be estimated by using other measurements available from the process. Consider the
following example:

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 Advance Control

Fig. 8.16 Inferential Control

The process has two outputs y1 (unmeasured) and y 2 (measured). The

disturbance d affects the process adversely that needs to be nullified by manipulating
input u. The open loop model equations can be written as
= y1 G y1u u + G y1d d (31)
=
y 2 G y2u u + G y2d d (32)
In this case disturbance, which is usually not measured can be expressed in terms of two
measurable quantities
 1   G yzu 
= d   y2 − 
 G 
u
G 
 yzd   yzd 
And hence,
 1   G yzu    G y1d    G y1d  
y1 = G y1u u + G y1d   y2 −   u =   y 2 + G y1u −   G yzu  u
  G    G 
 G yzd   yzd    G yzd    yzd  
In other words, the variable y1 is estimated through two measurable quantities y 2 and u.
The rest is similar to regular feedback control. This control mechanism is termed as
inferential control because here the controlled variable y1 is never measured, rather it has
been estimated through the inference drawn from measurement of other variables (
y 2 and u in this case).

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 GATE QUESTIONS

Q.1 The transfer function of a PD Q.6 The response of two tanks of same
controller is size and resistance in series is
(a) 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 (1 + 𝜏𝜏𝐷𝐷 𝑆𝑆) (b) 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 (1 + 1�𝜏𝜏 𝑆𝑆) (a) Under damped
𝐷𝐷
(b) Critically damped
(c) 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 (𝜏𝜏𝐷𝐷 𝑆𝑆) (d) 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 /𝜏𝜏𝐷𝐷 𝑆𝑆
(c) Over damped
[GATE-1995]
(d) None of the above
[GATE-1995]
Q.2 The offset introduced by proportional
controller with gain K c in response of first
Q.7 The transfer function of a pure
order system can be reduced by dead time system 𝜏𝜏𝐷𝐷 is
(a) Reducing value of K c 1
(a) (b) 1 + 𝜏𝜏𝐷𝐷 𝑆𝑆
(b) Introducing integral control 1+𝜏𝜏𝐷𝐷 𝑆𝑆
(c) Introducing derivative control (c) 𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏𝐷𝐷 𝑆𝑆 (d) 𝑒𝑒 𝜏𝜏𝐷𝐷 𝑆𝑆
(d) None of the above [GATE-1995]
[GATE-1995]
Q.8 The time constant of a first order
Q.3 Bode diagrams are generated from process with resistance r and capacitance
output response of the system subjected to C is
which of the following input (a) 𝑅𝑅 + 𝐶𝐶 (b) 𝑅𝑅 − 𝐶𝐶
(a) Impulse (b) step 1
(c) ramp (d) sinusoidal (c) 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (d)
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
[GATE-1995] [GATE-1995]

Q.4 The root locus method, a pole of a Q.9 When a thermometer at 30°C is
transfer function G(s) is the value of s for placed in a water bath at 90°C , the initial
which G(s) approaches rate of rise in thermometer temperature is
(a) -1 (b) 0 found to be 2°C / sec . What is the time
(c) 1 (d) ∞ constant of the temperature, assuming it is
[GATE-1995] a first order device with unity steady state
gain? What will thermometer read after
Q.5 According to Bode stability one minute?
criterion, a system is unstable if the open [GATE-1995]
loop frequency response exhibits an
amplitude ratio exceeding unity at Q.10 A first order system with transfer
frequency for which phase lag is function 𝐺𝐺𝑃𝑃 = 𝑌𝑌(𝑆𝑆)⁄𝑋𝑋(𝑆𝑆) = 1(𝑆𝑆 + 1) is
(a) 0° (b) 45° subjected to input X(t) = t. Derive the
(c) 90° (d) 180° expression for change in output Y(t) as a
[GATE-1995] function of time. What is the maximum and
minimum difference between input and

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 Gate Questions

output? At what time does these Q.15 The transfer function for an ideal
differences occur? proportional plus reset controller (Reset
[GATE-1995] time T) is
1
(a) 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 �1 + � (b) 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 [1 + 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇]
Q.11 Amplitude ratio corresponding to 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇
crossover frequency of 10 rad/sec for a 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
(c) (d) 𝑠𝑠
process is found to be 0.01. (a) What is the [1+𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇] �1+𝑇𝑇�
ultimate gain? (b) What is the period of [GATE-1996]
sustained oscillations corresponding to
ultimate gain? (c) If a proportional Q.16 The transfer function of a PID
controller is to be used, what is the value controller is
of proportional gain you would (a) 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 (1 + 𝜏𝜏1 𝑠𝑠 + 𝜏𝜏𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠)
recommend? 1
[GATE-1995] (b) 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 �1 + + 𝜏𝜏𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠�
𝜏𝜏1 𝑠𝑠
1
Q.12 In a feed-back control system G (c) 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 �1 + 𝜏𝜏1 𝑠𝑠 + �
𝜏𝜏𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠
and H denote open loop and closed loop 1 1
transfer functions respectively. The (d) 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 �1 + + �
𝜏𝜏1 𝑠𝑠 𝜏𝜏𝐷𝐷 𝑠𝑠
output-input relationship is [GATE-1997]
𝐺𝐺 𝐻𝐻
(a) (b)
1+𝐻𝐻 1+𝐺𝐺 Q.17 The transfer function for a first-
𝐺𝐺 𝐻𝐻 order process with time delay is
(c) (d)
𝐻𝐻 𝐺𝐺 𝑒𝑒 𝜏𝜏 𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠 𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏 𝑑𝑑𝑠𝑠
[GATE-1996] (a) (b)
𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏+1 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏+1
1 𝜏𝜏𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠
Q.13 The open loop transfer function of (c) (d)
(𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏+1)(𝜏𝜏𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠+1) 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏+1
KR [GATE-1997]
a control system is this represents
1 + τs '
(a) A first order system Q.18 The open-loop transfer function of
(b) Dead time system (𝑠𝑠+1)(𝑠𝑠+4)
(c) A first order time lag a process is 𝐾𝐾 . In the root
(𝑠𝑠+2)(𝑠𝑠+3)
(d) A second order system locus diagram, the poles will be at
[GATE-1996] (a) -1, -4 (b) 1, 4
(c) -2,-3 (d) 2, 3
Q.14 The Laplace transform of a [GATE-1997]
staircase function s (b, t) formed by
successive addition of unit step functions Q.19 For an input forcing function,
at 0, b, 2b, 3b, etc.is
1 1 X ( t ) = 2t 2 , the Laplace transform of this
(a) (b) function is
𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
1 2 4
(c) 𝑠𝑠(1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 ) (d) (a) 2 (b)
𝑠𝑠(1−𝑒𝑒 −𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏) 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 2
2 4
[GATE-1996] (c) 3 (d)
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 3
[GATE-1997]

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 Gate Questions

Q.20 A proportional controller with a function

𝐾𝐾(𝑠𝑠+1)
will have a definite
gain of K c is used to control a first-order 𝑆𝑆(2𝑠𝑠+1)(3𝑠𝑠+1)
process. The offset will increase if number of loci for variation of K from 0 to
∞ . The number of loci is
(a) K c is reduced
(a) 1 (b) 3
(b) K c is increased (c) 4 (d) 2
(c) integral control action is introduced [GATE-1998]
(d) derivative controlled action is
introduced Q.26 The frequency reasons of a
[GATE-1997] dynamic element show a constant
magnitude ratio at all frequencies. The
Q.21 The transfer function of a process is element exhibits a negative phase shift at
1 all frequencies. The absolute values of the
. If a step change is introduced
16𝑠𝑠 2 +8𝑠𝑠+4 phase shift increases linearly with
into the system, then the response will be frequency. The element has the transfer
(a) underdamped (b) critically damped function
(c) overdamped (d) none of the above 𝜏𝜏1 𝑆𝑆+1
[GATE-1997] (a) 𝑒𝑒 −𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 (b)
𝜏𝜏2 𝑆𝑆+1
𝜏𝜏1 𝑆𝑆 𝜏𝜏1 𝑆𝑆−1
Q.22 The open loop transfer function for (c) (d)
𝜏𝜏2 𝑆𝑆+1 𝜏𝜏2 𝑆𝑆
1
a process is , where the time [GATE-1998]
4(3𝑠𝑠+1)4
constant is in minutes. Determine (a) the Q.27 A proportional integral controller
crossover frequency and (b) the ultimate with proportional sensitivity K c = 1
gain.
mA/mA and integral time T1 = 1 min is
[GATE-1997]
initially at steady state with error signal e
Q. 23 The Laplace transform of the =0 and controller output 1 at 10 mA. At
function 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 has the form: time t =0, a step change of 1 mA is given in
1 1 the error signal. The controller output will
(a) (b) show one of the following responses.
𝑠𝑠+𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠+𝑎𝑎)
𝑎𝑎 Identify the correct one.
(c) (d) 𝑠𝑠 + 𝑎𝑎
𝑠𝑠
[GATE-1998] (a) I jumps instantaneously to 11 mA and
remains at that value thereafter
Q.24 A first order system with a time (b) I increase as a linear rate of 1 mA/min
constant of 1 min is subjected to frequency (c) I jumps to IS mA and then falls
response analysis. At an input frequency of exponentially at the rate 𝑒𝑒 −𝑇𝑇
1 radian/min, the phase shift is (d) I jumps instantaneously to 11 mA and
(a) 45º (b) −90º then increases linearly at the rate of 1
(c) −180º (d) −45º mA/min.
[GATE-1998] [GATE-1998]

Q.25 The Root locus plot of the roots of

the characteristic equation of a closed loop
system having the open loop transfer

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 Gate Questions

Q.28 The second order system with the (a) becomes more oscillatory (frequency
4 increases)
transfer function 2 has a damping
𝑆𝑆 +2𝑆𝑆+4 (b) becomes less oscillatory (frequency
ratio of decreases)
(a) 2.0 (b) 0.5 (c) gets amplified (magnitude increases)
(c) 1.0 (d) 4.0 (d) gets attenuated (magnitude decreases)
[GATE-1998] [GATE-1999]
Q.29 In a closed loop system, the process
to be controlled is an integrating process Q.33 A typical example of a physical
1 system with under-damped
with transfer function . The controller
2𝑠𝑠 characteristics is a
proposed to be used is an integral (a) U-tube manometer
1 (b) spring-loaded diaphragm valve
controller with transfer function .
𝑇𝑇1 𝑠𝑠 (c) CSTR with first-order reaction
When a step change in set point is applied (d) thermocouple kept immersed in a
to such a closed loop system, the liquid-filled thermowell
controlled variable will exhibit [GATE-1999]
(a) overdamped response
(b) underdamped response Q.34 A control system has the following
(c) undamped system transfer function,
(d) unstable response (𝑠𝑠 − 1)(𝑠𝑠 + 1)
[GATE-1998] 𝐹𝐹(𝑆𝑆) =
𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 − 2)(𝑠𝑠 + 4)
The initial value of the corresponding time
Q.30 The Laplace transform integral of function is
exp(at), where a >0, is defined only for the (a) 1 (b) 1/8
Laplace parameter, s>a, since (c) 7/8 (d) -1
(a) the function is exponential [GATE-1999]
(b) the Laplace-transform integral of
exp(at) has finite values only for s>a Q.35 Which of the systems having the
(c) the Laplace-transform integral of following transfer functions is stable?
exp(at) has initial values only for s>a 1 1
(d) the function exp(at) is piece-wise (a) 2 (b) 2
𝑠𝑠 +2 𝑠𝑠 −2𝑠𝑠+3
continuous only for s>a 1 exp(−20𝑠𝑠)
[GATE-1999] (c) 2 (d) 2
𝑠𝑠 +2𝑠𝑠+2 𝑠𝑠 +2𝑠𝑠−1
[GATE-1999]
Q.31 A system with a double pole at the
origin is unstable since the corresponding Q.36 A proportional controller is used
term in the time for the control of a first-order system. If
(a) is a constant the dynamics of all the other units in the
(b) grows exponentially with time control loop are negligible and their
(c) grows linearly with time steady-state gains are all equal to unity,
(d) decays linearly with time show that
[GATE-1999] (a) The response of the controlled process
is faster than that of the uncontrolled
Q.32 A sinusoidal variation in the input process, and
passing through a linear first-order system

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 Gate Questions

(b) Then offset, both for changes in the set (c) The amplitude ratio of a pure capacity
point and in the load variable, decreases as process is inversely proportional to the
the parameter of the controller is frequency
increased. (d) The amplitude ratio of a pure time
[GATE-1999] delay system increases with frequency
[GATE-2000]
Q.37 A second- order process with the
transfer function Q.41 For a feedback control system to be
1 stable, the
𝐾𝐾𝑃𝑃 𝐺𝐺𝑃𝑃 (𝑠𝑠) = 2
𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 3 (a) Roots of the characteristics equation
Is controlled with a proportional-integral should be real
controller. If all the other lags in the (b) Poles of the closed loop transfer
control loop are negligible and their function should lie in the left half of the
steady-state gains are all equal to unity, complex plane
find the relation between the parameters (c) Bode plots of the corresponding open
to the controller that should be satisfied loop transfer function should
for the control system to be stable. monotonically decrease
[GATE-1999] (d) Poles of the closed loop transfer
function should lie in the right half of the
Q.38 The unit step response of the complex plane
2𝑠𝑠−1 [GATE-2000]
transfer function reaches
(3𝑠𝑠+1)(4𝑠𝑠+1)
its final steady state asymptotically after Q.42 The initial value (t = 0+ ) of the
(a) A monotonic increase
unit step response of the transfer function
(b) A monotonic decrease
(c) Initially increasing and then decreasing ( s + 1) / ( 2s + 1)  is
(d)Initially decreasing and then increasing (a) 0 (b) ½
[GATE-2000] (c) 1 (d) 2
[GATE-2000]
Q.39 The unit step response of the
1 Q.43 The time constant of a unity gain,
transfer function 2
𝑠𝑠 +2𝑠𝑠+3 first order plus time delay process is 5 min.
(a) Has a non-zero slope at the origin If the phase lag at frequency of 0.2 rad/min
(b) Has a damped oscillatory is 60° , then the dead time (in minutes) is
characteristic (a) 5π /12 (b) π / 6
(c) Is overdamped (c) π /12 (d) π / 3
(d) Is unstable [GATE-2000]
[GATE-2000]
Q.44 An ideal PID controller has the
Q.40 Select the correct statement from transfer function 1 + 1 / ( 0.5s ) + 0.2s  .
the following
(a) The frequency response of a pure The frequency at which the magnitude
capacity process is unbounded ratio of the controller is 1 is
(b) The phase lag of a pure time delay (a) 0.5 / 0.2 (b) 0.2 / 0.5
system decreases with increasing (c) 0.2 × 0.5 (d) 1/ 0.2 × 0.5
frequency [GATE-2001]

© Copyright Reserved Gateflix. No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission 109
 Gate Questions

(c) 1/√2 (d) 0.25

Q.45 A second order system can be [GATE-2002]
obtained by connecting two first order
systems 1⁄(𝜏𝜏1 𝑠𝑠 + 1) and 1⁄(𝜏𝜏2 𝑠𝑠 + 1) in Q.49 The frequency response of a first
series. The damping ratio of the resultant order system, has a phase shift with lower
second order system for the case 𝜏𝜏1 ≠ 𝜏𝜏2 and upper bounds given by
will be 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
(a) �−∞, � (b) �− , �
(a) > 1 (b) = 1 2 2 2
(c) < 1 (d) = 𝜏𝜏2 ⁄𝜏𝜏1 𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋
(c) �− , 0� (d) �0, �
[GATE-2001] 2 2
[GATE-2002]
Q.46 The transfer function of a system
consisting of a thermal process, value and Q.50 Suppose that the gain, time
measuring system is given by constant, and dead time of a process with
∆𝑇𝑇(𝑠𝑠) 5 the following transfer function
= 𝐺𝐺𝑐𝑐 (𝑠𝑠) = 10 exp(−0.1𝑠𝑠)⁄(0.5𝑠𝑠 + 1)
∆𝐼𝐼(𝑠𝑠) (5𝑠𝑠 + 1)(0.5𝑠𝑠 + 1)(0.1𝑠𝑠 + 1)
are known with a possible error of ±20%
Initially a proportional controller with
of their values. The largest permissible
proportional sensitivity K c is used. The
gain Kc of a proportional controller needs
controller equation
is ∆𝐼𝐼 (𝑠𝑠) = to be calculated by taking the values of
𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 (∆𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (𝑠𝑠) − ∆T(s)) where 𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 is the process gain, time constant and dead time
set point. Find the value of 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 = 𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 as
above which the closed loop will be (a) 8, 0.6, 0.08 (b) 12, 0.6, 0.12
unstable. Can you use the results of the (c) 8, 0.6, 0.12 (d) 12, 0.4, 0.08
closed loop response at 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 = 𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 to [GATE-2003]
tune a PID controller to be used in place of
the proportional controller? If so, calculate Q.51 Find the ultimate gain and
the tuning parameters of the controller. frequency for a proportional controller in
[GATE-2001] the case of a process having the following
transfer function
1
Q.47 The closed loop poles of a stable 𝐺𝐺𝑝𝑝 (𝑠𝑠) =
second order system could be (4𝑠𝑠 + 1)(2𝑠𝑠 + 1)(𝑠𝑠 + 1)
1 45
(a) Both real and positive (a) 𝜔𝜔 = ; 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 =
(b) Complex conjugate with positive real √14 7√14
parts 7 46
(b) 𝜔𝜔 = � ; 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 =
(c) Both real and negative 6 3
(d) One real positive and the other real (c) 𝜔𝜔 = 1; 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 = 13
negative 7 45
[GATE-2002] (d) 𝜔𝜔 = � ; 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 =
8 4
[GATE-2003]
Q.48 A first order system with unity gain
and time constant 𝜏𝜏 is subjected to
Q.52 The inverse Laplace transform of
sinusoidal input of frequency 𝜔𝜔 = 1⁄𝜏𝜏 . the function
The amplitude ratio for this system is 1
(a) 1 (b) 0.5 𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠) = is
𝑠𝑠(1 + 𝑠𝑠)

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 Gate Questions

(a) 1 + 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 (b) 1 − 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡 1
(c) (1 + 𝑒𝑒 +2𝑠𝑠 )
(c) 1 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 (d) 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 𝑠𝑠 2
1
[GATE-2004] (d) (1 − 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑠𝑠 )
𝑠𝑠 2
[GATE-2006]
Q.53 For the time domain function
f ( t ) = t , the Laplace transform of Q.56 A liquid level control system is
𝑡𝑡 configured as shown in the figure below. If
∫0 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is given by
3 the level transmitter (LT) is direct acting
(a) 1 / 2s (b) 2 / s3 and the pneumatic control valve is air-to-
(c) 1 / s3 (d) 2 / s2 open, what kind of control action should
[GATE-2004] the controller (LC) have and why?

Q.54 Consider a system with open loop

transfer function
1
𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠) =
(𝑠𝑠 + 1)(2𝑠𝑠 + 1)(5𝑠𝑠 + 1)
Match the range of frequency in Group I
with the slope of the asymptote of the log
AR (amplitude ratio) versus log 𝜔𝜔 plot in (a) Direct acting since the control valve is
Group II. direct acting
(b) Reverse acting since the control valve
is reverse acting
(c) Direct acting since the control valve is
reverse acting
(d) Reverse acting since the control valve
is direct acting
[GATE-2006]
(a) P‒5, Q‒2 (b) P‒4, Q‒2
(c) P‒5, Q‒3 (d) P‒4, Q‒1 Q.57 A 2-input, 2-output can be
[GATE-2004] described in the Laplace transform
domain as given below:
Q.55 The Laplace transform of the input (𝜏𝜏1 𝑠𝑠 + 1)𝑌𝑌1 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝐾𝐾1 𝑈𝑈1 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝐾𝐾2 𝑈𝑈2 (𝑠𝑠)
function, X(t), given in the figure below is (𝜏𝜏1 𝑠𝑠 + 1)𝑌𝑌2 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝐾𝐾3 𝑈𝑈2 (𝑠𝑠) + 𝐾𝐾4 𝑈𝑈1 (𝑠𝑠)
given by Where U1 and U2 are the inputs and Y1
and Y2are the outputs. The gains of the
𝑌𝑌1 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑌𝑌2 (𝑠𝑠)
transfer functions and ,
𝑈𝑈2 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑈𝑈2 (𝑠𝑠)
respectively are
(a) K 2and K3
(b) K 1and K 3 + K 2K 4
(c) K 2and K 3 + K1K 4
1
(a) (1 − 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑠𝑠 ) (d) K 2and K3 + K 2K 4
2𝑠𝑠 2
1
(b) (1 + 𝑒𝑒 −2𝑠𝑠 ) [GATE-2006]
2𝑠𝑠 2

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 Gate Questions

Q.58 A process is perturbed by a YSP is the set point, G1 , G2 , and G3 are

sinusoidal input, u (=
t) Asinωt . The transfer functions, and K c is the
resulting process output is 𝑌𝑌 (𝑠𝑠) = proportional controller
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾
. If y(0) = 0, the differential
(𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡+1)(𝑠𝑠 2 +𝜔𝜔2 )
equation representing the process is
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
(a) + 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾(𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
(b) 𝜏𝜏 + 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾(𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
(c) 𝜏𝜏 + 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾(𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
(d) 𝜏𝜏 � + 𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡)� = 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾(𝑡𝑡)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
[GATE-2006]
Q. 60 The closed loop transfer function
Q.59 The control valve characteristics Y(s) D(s) is given by
for three types of control valves (P, Q, and 𝐺𝐺3 𝐺𝐺1
(a)
R) are given in the figure below. Match the 1+(𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺3 +𝐺𝐺2 )𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
control valve with its characteristics. 𝐺𝐺1
(b)
1+(𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺3 +𝐺𝐺2 )𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
𝐺𝐺1
(c)
1+(𝐺𝐺1 +𝐺𝐺2 )𝐺𝐺3 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
𝐺𝐺3
(d)
1+(𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺3 +𝐺𝐺2 )𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
[GATE-2006]

Q.61 Let G1 ( s ) = 1 and

(s)
G2= (s)
G3= 1 / ( s + 1) . A step
change of magnitude M is made in the set
point. The steady state offset of the closed-
(a) P-Quick opening, Q-Linear, R-Equal
loop response Y is
percentage 𝑀𝑀 𝑀𝑀
(b) P-Linear, Q-Square root, R-Equal (a) (b)
percentage 1+2𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 1+𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
𝑀𝑀(𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 −1)
(c) P-Equal percentage, Q-Linear, R-Quick (c) (d) None
opening 1+2𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
(d) P-Square root, Q-Quick opening, R- [GATE-2006]
Linear
[GATE-2006] Linked Question 62 and 63
For the system shown below, 𝐺𝐺1 (𝑠𝑠) =
Linked questions 60 and 61 1 1
The block diagram of a closed-loop control , 𝐺𝐺2 (𝑠𝑠) = and 𝜏𝜏2 = 2𝜏𝜏1
𝜏𝜏1 𝑠𝑠+1 𝜏𝜏2 𝑠𝑠+1
system is shown in the figure below. Y is
the controlled variable, D is disturbance,

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 Gate Questions

When the system is excited by the

sinusoidal input X (=
t ) sinωt , the
intermediate response Y is given by,
=Y A sin ( ωt + φ )

Q.62 If the frequency of Y lags behind the

input X by 45° and 𝜏𝜏1 = 1, then the
frequency ω is
(a) 1 (b) π/4 (a) i-e, ii-c, iii-a, iv-d, v-b
(c) zero (d) ‒1 (b) i-a, ii-b, iii-c, iv-d, v-e
[GATE-2006] (c) i-b, ii-a, iii-c, iv-e, v-d
(d) i-e, ii-a, iii-c, iv-b, v-d
Q.63 For the same input, the amplitude [GATE-2007]
of the output Z will be
(a) 1.00 (b) 0.62 Q.65 Consider the following
(c) 0.42 (d) 0.32 instrumentation diagram for a chemical
[GATE-2006] reactor. Csprepresents a concentration set
point.
Q.64 Match the transfer functions with Match the items in column A with the
responses to a unit step input shown in the concentration items given in column B.
figure.

Column-A
P- Control Strategy
Q- Primary Control Variable
R- Slowest Controller
S- Fastest Controller

Column-B
1-Feed Forward Control

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 Gate Questions

2-Cascade Control control valve has linear characteristics and

3-Concentration in the reactor is fall-open (air to close). Error, set point
4-Reactor temperature and control variable are expressed in
5-Jacket temperature percentage transmitter output (% TO).
6-Concentration Controller Proportional gain is expressed in the units
7-Reaction Temperature Controller of per cent controller output (CO% TO).
8-Jacket temperature controller
9-Flow controller
10-Selective controller

(a) P-2, Q-3, R-6, S-9

(b) P-1, Q-4, R-8, S-7
(c) P-10, Q-7, R-9, S-6
(d) P-1, Q-8, R-5, S-9
[GATE-2007]

Q.66 The first two rows of Routh’s Q.67 The types of action for the two
tabulation of a third order equation are controllers are
s3 2 2 (a) direct acting for the pressure control
s2 4 4 and direct acting for the flow control
Select the correct answer from the (b) indirect acting for the pressure control
following choices and indirect acting for the flow control
(a) The equation has one root in the right (c) direct acting for the pressure control
half s-plane and indirect acting for the flow control
(b) The equation has two roots on the axis (d) indirect acting for the pressure
at s = j and ‒j. The third root is in the left control and direct acting for the flow
half plane. control
(c) The equation has two roots on the axis [GATE-2007]
at s = 2j and s = ‒2j. The third root is in the
right half plane. Q.68 The bias values for the two
(d) The equation two roots on the j-axis at controllers, so that no offset occurs in
s = 2j and s = ‒2j. The third root is in the either controller are
right half plane. (a) Pressure controller: 40%; Flow
[GATE-2007] controller: 60%
(b) Pressure controller: 33%; Flow
Linked Questions 67 & 68 & 69 controller: 67%
A cascade control system for pressure (c) Pressure controller: 67%; Flow
control is shown in the figure given below. controller: 33%
Thepressure transmitter has a range of 0 (d) Pressure controller: 60%; Flow
to 6 bar (g) and the flow transmitter range controller: 30%
is 0 to 81 nm3 / h . The normal flow rate [GATE-2007]
through the valve is 32.4 nm3 / h
corresponding to the value of set point for Q.69 Given that the actual tank pressure
pressure = 1 bar (g) and to give the flow, is 4 bar(g) and a proportional controller is
the valve must be 40% opened. The employed for pressure control, the

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 Gate Questions

proportional band setting of the pressure Q.74 Match the following

controller required to obtain a set point to
the flow controller equal to 54nm3 / hr is
(a) 50% (b) 100%
(c) 150% (d) 187%
[GATE-2007]

Q.70 The Laplace transform of the

function f(t) = t sin t is
2𝑠𝑠 1
(a) 2 (b)
(𝑠𝑠 +1)2 𝑠𝑠 2 (𝑠𝑠+1)
1 1 1
(c) 2 + 2 (d) (a) P-1, Q-2, R-3 (b) P-1, Q-2, R-4
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 +1 (𝑠𝑠−1)2 +1
[GATE-2008] (c) P-3, Q-4, R-2 (d) P-1, Q-4, R-2
[GATE-2008]
Q.71 The unit impulse response of a first
order process is given by 2e−0.5t . The gain Linked question 75 & 76
and time constant are The cross-over frequency associated with
(a) 4 and 2 (b) 2 and 2 a feedback loop employing a proportional
(c) 2 and 0.5 (d) 1 and 0.5 controller to control the process
[GATE-2008] represented by the transfer function
𝐺𝐺𝑃𝑃 (𝑆𝑆)
2𝑒𝑒 −𝑠𝑠
Q.72 A unit step input is given to a = , (units of time in minutes)
process that is represented by the transfer (𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 1)2
is found to be 0.6rad/min. Assume that the
. The initial value ( t = 0+ ) of
𝑠𝑠+2
function
𝑠𝑠+5 measurement and valve transfer functions
the response of the process to the step are unity.
input is
(a) 0 (b) 2/5 Q.75 The time constant, τ (in minutes) is
(c) 1 (d) ∞ (a) 1.14 (b) 1.92
[GATE-2008] (c) 3.23 (d) 5.39
[GATE-2008]
Q.73 Which one of the following transfer
functions corresponds to an inverse Q.76 If the control loop is to operate at a
response process with a positive gain? gain margin of 2.0, the gain of the
1 2 proportional controller must equal
(a) −
2𝑠𝑠+1 3𝑠𝑠+1 (a) 0.85 (b) 2.87
2 5 (c) 3.39 (d) 11.50
(b) −
𝑠𝑠+1 𝑠𝑠+10 [GATE-2008]
3(0.5𝑠𝑠−1)
(c)
(2𝑠𝑠+1)(𝑠𝑠+1) Q.77 The inverse Laplace transform of
5 3 1
(d) − 2
is
𝑠𝑠+1 2𝑠𝑠+1 2𝑠𝑠 +3𝑠𝑠+1
[GATE-2008] 𝑡𝑡
−2
(a) 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡

© Copyright Reserved Gateflix. No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission 115
 Gate Questions

𝑡𝑡
−
(b) 2𝑒𝑒 2 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡
⁄
(c) 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 − 2𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 2
(d) 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡⁄2
[GATE-2009]

Q.78 The characteristic equation of a

closed loop system using a proportional
controller with gain Kc is
12s3 + 19s2 + 8s + 1 + K c =
0. At the
onset of instability, the value of K c is (a) P-I, Q-II, R-III
35 (b) P-III, Q-IV, R-I
(a) (b) 10 (c) P-III, Q-II, R-IV
3
25 20 (d) P-I, Q-IV, R-III
(c) (d) [GATE-2010]
3 3
[GATE-2009]
Q.81 The Laplace transform of the
Q.79 The block diagram for the control function shown in the figure below is
system is shown below:

For a unit change in the set point, R(s), the

steady state offset in the output Y(s) is
(a) 0.2 (b) 0.3 𝑉𝑉𝑒𝑒 (𝑎𝑎−𝑏𝑏)𝑠𝑠
(c) 0.4 (d) 0.5 (a)
𝑠𝑠
[GATE-2009] 𝑉𝑉
(b) (𝑒𝑒 −𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 )
𝑠𝑠
Q.80 Match the location of poles/ zeros 𝑉𝑉
in the s-plane, listed in Group I, with the (c) (𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 )
𝑠𝑠
system response characteristics in Group 𝑉𝑉
II. (d) (𝑒𝑒 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 − 𝑒𝑒 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 )
𝑠𝑠 2
[GATE-2010]

Q.82 The Transfer function, G(s), whose

asymptotic bode diagram is shown below,
is

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 Gate Questions

A PID controller output p(t), in domain, is

given by
𝑝𝑝(𝑡𝑡) = 30 + 5𝑒𝑒(𝑡𝑡)
𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
+ 1.25 � 𝑒𝑒(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 15
0 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Where e(t) is the error at time t. The
transfer function of the process to be
controlled is
10
𝐺𝐺𝑝𝑝 (𝑠𝑠) =
(200𝑠𝑠 + 1)
(a) 10s+1 (b) s-10 The measurement of the controlled
(c) s+10 (d) 10s-1 variable is instantaneous and accurate.
[GATE-2010]
Q.85 The transfer function of the
Q.83 Block diagram for a control system controller is
is shown below: 5(12𝑠𝑠 2+4𝑠𝑠+1)
(a)
3𝑠𝑠
5(12𝑠𝑠2 +3𝑠𝑠+1)
(b)
3𝑠𝑠
5(12𝑠𝑠 2 +4𝑠𝑠+1)
(c)
4𝑠𝑠
The steady state gain of the closed loop 5(12𝑠𝑠 2+3𝑠𝑠+1)
(d)
system, between output Y(s) and set point 4𝑠𝑠
R(s), is [GATE-2011]
(a) 5/9 (b) 4/9
(c) 1/3 (d) 2/9 Q.86 The characteristic equation of the
[GATE-2010] closed loop is
(a) 6𝑠𝑠 2 + 102𝑠𝑠 + 1 = 0
Q.84 Consider the cascade control (b) 700𝑠𝑠 2 + 102𝑠𝑠 + 25 = 0
configuration shown in the figure below: (c) 100𝑠𝑠 2 − 196𝑠𝑠 − 25 = 0
(d) 240𝑠𝑠 3 + 812𝑠𝑠 2 + 204𝑠𝑠 + 1 = 0
[GATE-2011]

Q.87 For the function f ( t ) = e− t / τ ; the

Taylor series approximation for t << τ is
𝑡𝑡
(a) 1 +
𝜏𝜏
The system is stable when K c,2 is 𝑡𝑡
(b) 1 −
(a) ¾ (b) 1 𝜏𝜏
𝑡𝑡
(c) 5/4 (d) 3/2 (c) 1 − 2
[GATE-2010] 2𝜏𝜏
(d) 1+ t
[GATE-2012]
Linked questions 85 & 86

© Copyright Reserved Gateflix. No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission 117
 Gate Questions

Q.88 The Bode stability criterion is oscillation 1 second and decay ratio 0.25.
applicable when The transfer function of the process is
(a) Gain and phase curves decreases 1
(a)
continuously with frequency 2
0.024𝑠𝑠 +0.067𝑠𝑠+1
(b) Gain curve increases and phase curve 1
(b) 2
decreases with frequency 0.67𝑠𝑠 +0.024𝑠𝑠+1
(c) Gain curve and phase curve both 1
(c)
increase with frequency 0.021𝑠𝑠 2+0.1176𝑠𝑠+1
(d) Gain curve decreases and phase curve 1
(d)
increases with frequency 0.1176𝑠𝑠 2 +0.021𝑠𝑠+1
[GATE-2012] [GATE-2012]

Q.89 The characteristic equation for the Q.92 A control valve, with a turndown
system is ratio of 50, follows equal percentage
𝑠𝑠 3 + 9𝑠𝑠 2 + 26𝑠𝑠 + 12(2 + 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 ) = 0 characteristics. The flow rate of a liquid
Using Routh test, the value of K c that will through the valve at 40% stem position is
1 m3 / h . What will be the flow rate in
keep the system on the verge of instability
is m3 / h at 50% stem position, if the
(a) 20.9 (b) 18.4 pressure drop across the valve remains
(c) 17.5 (d) 15.3 unchanged? (Up to 2 digits after the
[GATE-2012] decimal point) _______?
[GATE-2012]
Q.90 The block diagram of a system
with proportional controller is shown Q.93 Consider the following transfer
below function
5
𝐺𝐺𝑝𝑝 (𝑠𝑠) =
(2𝑠𝑠 + 1)4
(Note: The unit of the process time
constant is in seconds.)
The crossover frequency (in rad/s) of the
process is
(a) 20 (b) 0.1
(c) 0.5 (d) 0.05
[GATE-2012]

A unit step input is introduced in the set Q.94 For the computation of Zeigler-
point. The value of K c to provide a Nichols settings, the ultimate period (in
critically damped response for U = 0 , s/cycle) and the ultimate gain are
τp =8 and τm = 1 is (a) π and 0.8, respectively
(b) 4π and 0.8, respectively
(a) 3.34 (b) 2.58 (c) 4π and 1.25, respectively
(c) 1.53 (d) 1.12 (d) π and 1.25, respectively
[GATE-2012] [GATE-2012]

Q.91 A unit gain 2nd order

underdamped process has a period of

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 Gate Questions

Q.95 For the time domain function Q.99 A step change of magnitude 2 is
f ( t ) = t 2 , which one of the following is introduced into a system having the
𝑡𝑡 following transfer function
the Laplace transform of ∫0 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ? 2
3 1 𝐺𝐺𝑝𝑝 = 2
(a) 4 (b) 2 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 4
𝑠𝑠 4𝑠𝑠 The percent overshoot is __________?
2 2 [GATE-2014]
(c) 3 (d) 4
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠
[GATE-2014] Q.100 Given below is a simplified block
diagram of a feed forward control system.

Q.96 Integral of the time-weighted

absolute error (ITAE) is expressed as
∞ |𝜀𝜀(𝑡𝑡)|
(a) ∫ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0 𝑡𝑡 2
∞ |𝜀𝜀(𝑡𝑡)|
(b) ∫
0
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑡𝑡
∞
(c) ∫ 𝑡𝑡|𝜀𝜀(𝑡𝑡)| 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0
∞
(d) ∫ 𝑡𝑡 2 |𝜀𝜀(𝑡𝑡)| 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0
[GATE-2014]

Q.97 A unit impulse response of a first

order system with time constant τ and The transfer function of the process is
2
steady state gain Kp is given by 𝐺𝐺𝑝𝑝 = 2 , and the disturbance
1 𝑠𝑠 +2𝑠𝑠+4
(a) 𝑒𝑒 𝑡𝑡⁄𝜏𝜏 ⁄
(b) 𝐾𝐾𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 𝜏𝜏 1
𝐾𝐾𝑝𝑝 𝜏𝜏 transfer function is 𝐺𝐺𝑑𝑑 = 2 . The
𝐾𝐾𝑝𝑝 −𝑡𝑡⁄𝜏𝜏 𝑠𝑠 +2𝑠𝑠+1
⁄
(c) 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏𝑝𝑝 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 𝜏𝜏 (d) 𝑒𝑒 transfer function of the perfect feed
𝜏𝜏 forward controller, 𝐺𝐺𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠) is
[GATE-2014] −5 −5
(a) 3 (b)
(𝑠𝑠+1) (𝑠𝑠+1)
Q.98 Assume that an ordinary mercury- −1
in-glass thermometer follows first order (c) (d) −5(𝑠𝑠 + 1)
dynamics with a time constant of 10 s. It is 5(𝑠𝑠+1)
at a steady state temperature of 0 °C . At [GATE-2014]
time t = 0, the thermometer is suddenly
immersed in a constant temperature bath Q.101 Consider the following block
at 100 °C . The time required (in s) for the diagram for a closed-loop feedback
thermometer to read control system
95 °C ,
approximately is
(a) 60 (b) 40
(c) 30 (d) 20
[GATE-2014]

© Copyright Reserved Gateflix. No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission 119
 Gate Questions

A proportional controller is being used (a) P-IV, Q-III, R-II, S-I

with K c = −4 . If a step change in (b) P-III, Q-I, R-II, S-IV
disturbance of magnitude 2 affects the (c) P-IV, Q-I, R-II, S-III
system, then the value of the offset is (d) P-II, Q-IV, R-III, S-I
_________? [GATE-2015]
[GATE-2014]
Q.104 The transfer function for the
Q.102 A process with transfer function, disturbance response in an open-loop
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
𝐺𝐺𝑝𝑝 =
2
is to be controlled by a feedback process is given by 𝐺𝐺𝑑𝑑 (𝑠𝑠). The
𝑠𝑠−1 corresponding transfer function for the
proportional controller with a gain K c . If disturbance response in a closed loop
the transfer functions of all other feedback control system with
elements in the control loop are unity, proportional controller is given by
then which one of the following 𝐺𝐺𝑑𝑑𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝑠𝑠). Select the option that is always
conditions produces a stable closed loop correct {O[G(s)] represents order of
response? transfer function G(s)}.
(a) K c = 0.25 (a) 𝑂𝑂�𝐺𝐺𝑑𝑑
𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
(𝑠𝑠)� = 𝑂𝑂�𝐺𝐺𝑑𝑑𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝑠𝑠)�
(b) 0 < K c < 0.25 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
(b) 𝑂𝑂�𝐺𝐺𝑑𝑑 (𝑠𝑠)� ≠ 𝑂𝑂�𝐺𝐺𝑑𝑑𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝑠𝑠)�
(c) 0.25 < K c 0.5 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
(c) 𝑂𝑂�𝐺𝐺𝑑𝑑 (𝑠𝑠)� ≥ 𝑂𝑂�𝐺𝐺𝑑𝑑𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝑠𝑠)�
(d) K c > 0.5 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜
(d) 𝑂𝑂�𝐺𝐺𝑑𝑑 (𝑠𝑠)� ≤ 𝑂𝑂�𝐺𝐺𝑑𝑑𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 (𝑠𝑠)�
[GATE-2014]
[GATE-2015]
Q.103 Match the output signals as
Q.105 The schematic diagram of a steady
obtained from four measuring devices in
state process is shown below. The fresh
response to a unit step change in the
feed (F) to the reactor consists of 96 mol%
input signal.
reactant A and 4 mol% inert I. The
P: Gas chromatograph, with a long
stoichiometry of the reaction is A → C . A
capillary tube
part of the reactor effluent is recycled. The
Q: Venturi tube
molar flow rate of the recycle steam is 0.3
R: Thermocouple with first order
F. The product steam P contains 50 mol%
dynamics
C. The percentage conversion of A in the
S: Pressure transducer with second order
reactor based on A entering the reactor at
dynamics
point 1 in the figure (up to one decimal
place) is _______.

[GATE-2015]

Q.106 Which one of the following transfer

functions, upon a unit step change in

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 Gate Questions

disturbance at t = 0, will show a stable time 𝑏𝑏 𝑠𝑠−𝑎𝑎

(a) (b)
domain response with a negative initial (𝑠𝑠−𝑎𝑎)2 +𝑏𝑏2 (𝑠𝑠−𝑎𝑎)2 +𝑏𝑏2
slope (i.e., slope at t = 0): 𝑠𝑠−𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏
1 2 (c) (d)
(a) 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠) = − (𝑠𝑠−𝑎𝑎)2 −𝑏𝑏2 (𝑠𝑠−𝑎𝑎)2 −𝑏𝑏2
𝑠𝑠+1 𝑠𝑠+4
1 2 [GATE-2016]
(b) 𝐺𝐺 (𝑠𝑠) = +
𝑠𝑠+1 𝑠𝑠+4
1 2 Q.110 What is the order of response
(c) 𝐺𝐺 (𝑠𝑠) = +
𝑠𝑠+1 𝑠𝑠−4 exhibited by a U-tube manometer?
1 2
(d) 𝐺𝐺 (𝑠𝑠) = + (a) Zero order
𝑠𝑠−1 𝑠𝑠−4 (b) First order
[GATE-2015]
(c) Second order
(d) Third order
Q.107 The block diagram for a process
[GATE-2016]
with feedback control for output deviation
variable h is shown in the figure below. All
Q.111 A system exhibits inverse response
transfer functions are given with pre-
for a unit step change in the input. Which
factor of s in minutes. A unit step change is
one of the following statement must
made in the set-point at t = 0. The time
necessarily be satisfied?
required for h to reach 50% of its ultimate
(a) The transfer function of the system has
value, in minutes (up to two decimal
at least one negative pole
places), is: _______.
(b) The transfer function of the system has
at least one positive pole
(c) The transfer function of the system has
at least one negative zero
(d) The transfer function of the system has
at least one positive zero
[GATE-2016]
[GATE-2015]
Q.112 Liquid flows through an “equal
Q.108 Consider a control system with the percentage” valve at a rate of 2 m3/h when
open loop transfer function given by: the valve is 10% open. When the valve
𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 𝑒𝑒 −0.3𝑠𝑠 opens to 20% the flowrate increases to 3
𝐺𝐺𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 (𝑠𝑠) = m3/h. Assume that the pressure drop
1.5𝑠𝑠 + 1 across the valve and the density of the
In the above function, pre-factor of s is in
liquid remain constant. When the valve
minutes and K c is the gain of proportional
opens to 50%, the flowrate (in m3/h,
controller. The frequency for phase rounded off to the second decimal place)
margin of 30º is 4.04 rad/min. The value is_______?
of K c for a gain margin of 1.7 (up to one [GATE-2016]
decimal place) is _______?
[GATE-2015] Q.113 A PI controller with integral time
constant of 0.1 min is to be designed to
Q.109 The Laplace transform of control a process with transfer function
eat sin ( bt ) is 10
𝐺𝐺𝑝𝑝 (𝑠𝑠) = 2
𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 100

© Copyright Reserved Gateflix. No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission 121
 Gate Questions

Assume the transfer functions of the Q.115 The number of positive roots of
measuring element and the final control the function f(x) shown below in the range
(Gm 1=
element are both unity= , Gf 1) . of 0 < x < 6 is ________?
The gain (rounded off to the first decimal
place) of the controller that will constitute
the critical condition for stability of the PI
feedback control system is _______?
[GATE-2016]
Q.114 For a unit step input, the response
of a second order system is
𝑦𝑦(𝑡𝑡)

= 𝐾𝐾𝑝𝑝 �1

1 �1 − 𝜁𝜁 2
𝜁𝜁𝜁𝜁
− 𝑒𝑒 − 𝜏𝜏 sin �
𝑡𝑡 + 𝜙𝜙��
�1 − 𝜁𝜁 2 𝜏𝜏
where, is the steady state gain, is the
damping coefficient, is the natural period [GATE-2017]
of oscillation and is the phase lag. The
 πζ  Q.116 The transfer function of a system
overshoot of the system is exp  −  is
 1− ζ2 
  1
. For a unit step input, the response of the 4𝑠𝑠 2 + 1.2𝑠𝑠 + 1
system from an initial steady state For a unit step increase in the input, the
condition at t = 0 is shown in the figure fractional overshoot, rounded to 2
below. decimal places is_________?
[GATE-2017]

Q.117 The characteristic equation of a

closed-loop system is
6𝑠𝑠 2 + 11𝑠𝑠 2 + 6𝑠𝑠 + (1 + 𝐾𝐾 ) = 0, where 𝐾𝐾
>0
The value of K beyond which the system
just becomes unstable, rounded to the
nearest integer is ________?
[GATE-2017]

What is the natural period of oscillation (in Q.118 The Laplace Transform of a
seconds) of the system? function is
(a) 15.9 (b) 50 𝑠𝑠+1
(c) 63.2 (d) 100 𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠+2)
[GATE-2016] The initial and final values respectively, of
the function are
1
(a) 0 and 1 (b) 1 and
2

© Copyright Reserved Gateflix. No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission 122
 Gate Questions

1 1
(c) and 1 (d) and 0
2 2
[GATE-2017]

Q.119 The open loop transfer function

of a process with a proportional
controller (gain K C ) is
𝑒𝑒 −2𝑠𝑠
𝐺𝐺𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
𝑠𝑠
Based on the Bode criterion for closed
loop-stability, the ultimate gain of the
controller rounded to 2 decimal places,
is________?
[GATE-2017]
(a) P–II, Q–III, R–IV, S–I
Q.120 A first–order process having a (b) P–III, Q–II, R–IV, S–I
2 (c) P–I, Q–IV, R–II, S–III
transfer function,𝐺𝐺𝑝𝑝 = is controlled
7𝑠𝑠+1 (d) P–IV, Q–I, R–II, S–III
by a proportional controller with gain of [GATE-2018]
3.2. The process time constant is in Q.123 Consider the following transfer
minutes. Addition of the integral control function:
action with an integral time constant of 5 3
minutes leads to increase in 𝐺𝐺𝑝𝑝 (𝑠𝑠) =
(5𝑠𝑠 + 1)2
(a) offset Where, the natural period of oscillation is
(b) speed of response in mm. The amplitude ratio at a frequency
(c) order of the closed loop system of 0.5rad/min is____________ (rounded off
(d) proportional band to second decimal place).
[GATE-2018] [GATE-2018]
Q.121 For a closed – loop system, consider Q.124 Consider two non-interacting
the following transfer functions: tanks-in-series as shown in figure. Water
Process Gp ( s ) , controller Gc ( s ) , enters TANK 1 at q cm3 / s and drains
measuring device Gm ( s ) , and final down to TANK 2 by gravity at a rate k h1
control element Gf ( s ) cm3 / s . Similarly, water drains from TANK
2 2 by gravity at a rate of k h 2 cm3 / s
𝐺𝐺𝑝𝑝 (𝑠𝑠) = ; 𝐺𝐺 (𝑠𝑠) = 2; 𝐺𝐺𝑚𝑚 (𝑠𝑠)
7𝑠𝑠 + 1 𝑐𝑐
= 1; 𝐺𝐺𝑓𝑓 (𝑠𝑠) = 1 where h1 and h2 represent levels of TANK
The offset in the closed loop response due 1 and TANK 2, respectively (see figure).
to a unit step change introduced in the set Drain valve constant 4 cm2.5 / s and cross
point of the output variable is __________. sectional areas of the two tanks are
[GATE-2018] A=1 A=
2 28 cm2 .

Q.122 Match the items in Column A with

the items in Column B

© Copyright Reserved Gateflix. No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission 123
 Gate Questions

At steady state operation, the water inlet

flow rate is qss = 16cm3 / s . The transfer
function relating the deviation variables
h2 ( cm ) to flow rate q ( cm3 / s ) is
2 2 (a) P‒III, Q‒IV, R‒ II, S‒I
(a) (b) (b) P‒III, Q‒I, R‒IV, S‒II
( 56s + 1) ( 62s + 1)
2 2
(c) P‒IV, Q ‒III, R‒II, S‒I
2 2 (d) P‒ III, Q‒II, R‒IV, S‒I
(c) (d)
( 36s + 1)
2
( 49s + 1)
2 [GATE-2019]
[GATE-2019]

Q.125 For the closed loop system shown

in figure, the phase margin in degrees) is
___________ (rounded off to one decimal
place).

[GATE-2019]

Q.126 Choose the option that correctly

matches the step response curves on the
left with the appropriate transfer
functions on the right. The step input
change occurs at time t= 0.

© Copyright Reserved Gateflix. No part of this material should be copied or reproduced without permission 124
 ANSWER KEY:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
a b d d d a c c 81.70- 1, 0
81.90
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
* b a d a b b c a a
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
a * a d b a a b c b
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
c d a b a * * b b c
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
b b a d a * c c d d
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60
d d c c a a d c a d
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
b a d d a b d d b a
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
a c d a d b a a a b
81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
b c b d c b b a c c
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
a 1.47- c b d c d c 16.0- c
1.49 16.8
101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
0.49- d c d 44-47 a 0.85- 3.5-3.7 a c
0.51 0.9
111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
d 10.00- 2.49- a 3 0.3725 10 b 0.785 c
10.25 2.51
121 122 123 124 125 126
0.2 d 0.4137 a 43.375 b

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 EXPLANATIONS

Q.1 (a) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)

= 2℃/𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Q.2 (b) Hence,
60
=2
Q.3 (d) 𝜏𝜏
τ =30sec
Q.4 (d) At t = 60 sec,
𝑌𝑌(𝑡𝑡) = 60�1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 ⁄𝜏𝜏 � = 51.879℃
Q.5 (d) After 1 minute thermometer reading will
(30 + 51.879) C

=
be
Q.6 (a)
The constant is 30 second after 1 minute
the thermometer reading will be
Q.7 (c)
81 . 879C
Q.8 (c)
Q.10 1, 0
Q.9 81.70-81.90 Given,
Given, x (=
t) 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) 1
( 90 − 30 ) u ( t ) 𝐺𝐺𝑃𝑃 = =
𝑋𝑋𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠) 𝑠𝑠 + 1
i.e.
90 − 30 60 𝑥𝑥 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑡𝑡
𝑥𝑥(𝑠𝑠) = = 1
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 𝑥𝑥(𝑠𝑠) = 2
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) 1 𝑠𝑠
= 1 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 𝐶𝐶
𝑥𝑥(𝑠𝑠) 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 1 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = 2 = + + 2
𝑠𝑠 (𝑠𝑠 + 1) 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 1 𝑠𝑠
60 60⁄𝜏𝜏
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = = 𝑌𝑌(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑠𝑠(𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 1) 𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 + 1⁄𝜏𝜏) 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 𝐶𝐶 1
𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 + + 2= 2
= + 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 1 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 (𝑠𝑠 + 1)
𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 1⁄𝜏𝜏 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠 + 1) + 𝐵𝐵𝑠𝑠 2 + 𝐶𝐶 (𝑠𝑠 + 1) = 1
𝑌𝑌(𝑡𝑡) = 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵𝑒𝑒 ⁄𝜏𝜏−𝑡𝑡
C=1, A= ‒1, B=1
From equation (1) 𝑌𝑌(𝑡𝑡) = −1 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 + 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡 − 1 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡
60⁄𝜏𝜏 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 Now,
= +
𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠 + 1⁄𝜏𝜏) 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 1⁄𝜏𝜏 𝑌𝑌(𝑡𝑡) = −1 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 + 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡 − 1 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡
𝐴𝐴(𝑠𝑠 + 1⁄𝜏𝜏) + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 60⁄𝜏𝜏 𝑋𝑋(𝑡𝑡) − 𝑌𝑌 (𝑡𝑡) = 𝑡𝑡 − 𝑡𝑡 + 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 = 1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡
1
𝑠𝑠(𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵) + (𝐴𝐴 − 60) = 0 When t = ∞ , X ( t ) − Y ( t ) = 1
𝜏𝜏
i.e. A = 60, B = -60 i.e. maximum
From equation (2), When t = 0 , X (t ) − Y (t ) =
0
𝑌𝑌(𝑡𝑡) = 60 − 60𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 ⁄𝜏𝜏 = 60(1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 ⁄𝜏𝜏 ) i.e. minimum
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡) 60 −𝑡𝑡 ⁄𝜏𝜏
= 𝑒𝑒
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜏𝜏 Q.11 (*)
Given, at t =0 Given,

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 Gate Questions

10𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 −180º = −4 tan−1 (3𝑤𝑤)

𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐 = , 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 0.1
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 or, 45 = tan−1 (3𝑤𝑤)
1 1
(a) 𝐾𝐾ultimate = = = 10 w = 29.5 rad/min
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 0.1
2𝜋𝜋 therefore cross over frequency w = 29.5
(b) Ultimate period =
𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐 rad/min
(c) 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔, 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 = (b) Now
𝐾𝐾ultimate 10
= =5 1⁄4
2 2 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = = 2.479 × 108
((3 × 29.5)2 + 1)2
1 1
Ultimate gain = 𝐾𝐾𝑢𝑢 = = 8 =
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 2.479×10
Q.12 (b) 4.03 × 10−9

Q.13 (a) Q.23 (a)

Q.14 (d) Q.24 (d)

Q.15 (a) Q.25 (b)

Q.16 (b) Q.26 (a)

Q.17 (b) Q.27 (a)

Q.18 (c) Q.28 (b)

Q.19 (a) Q.29 (c)

Q.20 (a) Q.30 (b)

Q.21 (a) Q.31 (c)

1 1
𝑎𝑎(𝑠𝑠) = 2
= 2
16𝑠𝑠 + 8𝑠𝑠 + 4 4(4𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 1) Q.32 (d)
1
Compare with 2𝑠𝑠 2+2𝜁𝜁𝜁𝜁𝜁𝜁+1
𝜏𝜏
We have τ= 2, ζ= 1 / 2 (underdamped) Q.33 (a)

Q.34 (b)
Q.22 (*)
Open loop transfer function for the Q.35 (a)
1
process is
4(3𝑠𝑠+1)4 Q.36 (*)
Amplitude ratio for this system AR (a) The response of the uncontrolled first
1⁄4
= order process
�(3𝑤𝑤)2 + 1�(3𝑤𝑤)2 + 1�(3𝑤𝑤)2 + 1�(3𝑤𝑤)2 + 1 𝑦𝑦�(𝑠𝑠) 𝐾𝐾𝑃𝑃
1⁄4 │uc =
(a) AR = (3𝑤𝑤)2+12 𝑥𝑥̅ (𝑠𝑠) 𝜏𝜏1 𝑠𝑠 + 1
Phase lag, ϕ = −4 tan−1 (3𝑤𝑤) Now, the response of the controlled
Putting φ = −180º , we have process

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 Gate Questions

𝑦𝑦�(3) 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 𝐾𝐾1 1 1

│c = 𝐺𝐺𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 (𝑠𝑠) = 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 �1 + �× 2
𝑥𝑥̅ (3) 𝜏𝜏1 𝑠𝑠 + 1 𝜏𝜏1 𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 3
(dynamics of all other units of the control ∴ Characteristic equation
loop being negligible) 1 + 𝐺𝐺𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 (𝑠𝑠) = 0
where𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 is the gain of the proportional 1
𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 �1 +
controller 𝜏𝜏1 𝑠𝑠�
1+ 2 =0
∴ 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 is always positive 𝑠𝑠 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 3
𝑦𝑦�(3) 𝑦𝑦�(𝑠𝑠) 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
│c > │ 𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 3 + 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 + =0
𝑥𝑥̅ (3) 𝑥𝑥̅ (𝑠𝑠) uc 𝜏𝜏1 𝑠𝑠
𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
Or in other words, response of the 𝑠𝑠 3 + 2𝑠𝑠 2 + (3 + 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 )𝑠𝑠 + =0
controlled process is faster. 𝜏𝜏1
(b) The offset of the changes in set point ∴ Writing the Routh array
is defined as
Offset = 1 − lim 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝑠𝑠)
𝑠𝑠→0

𝐾𝐾𝑃𝑃 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 ⁄1 + 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏

= 1 − lim
𝑠𝑠→0 𝐾𝐾𝑃𝑃 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
1+1+ 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏
𝐾𝐾𝑃𝑃 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
= 1 − lim
𝑠𝑠→0 1 + 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 𝐾𝐾𝑃𝑃 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
𝐾𝐾𝑃𝑃 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
=1−
1 + 𝐾𝐾𝑃𝑃 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
𝐾𝐾𝑃𝑃 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
=1−
1 + 𝐾𝐾𝑃𝑃 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
𝐾𝐾𝑃𝑃 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
= Now from Routh’s stability criteria
1 + 𝐾𝐾𝑃𝑃 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
𝐾𝐾
Thus offset decreases as 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 increases. 6 + 2𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 − 𝑐𝑐
𝜏𝜏1
Similarly, the offset for the changes in the >0
load variable is obtained by 2
1
1 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜, 6 > 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 � − 2�
Offset = 0 − lim 𝜏𝜏1
𝑠𝑠→0 𝑥𝑥𝑃𝑃 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
1+1+ 𝜏𝜏1 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜, � �>
1 + 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 1 − 2𝜏𝜏1 6
= 0 − lim The above relation should be satisfied for
𝑠𝑠→0 1 + 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 𝐾𝐾𝑃𝑃 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
1 the control system to be stable.
=
1 + 𝐾𝐾𝑃𝑃 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
Thus offset decreases as the parameter of Q.38 (b)
the controller is increased.
Q.39 (b)
Q.37 (*)
1 Q.40 (c)
𝐺𝐺𝑃𝑃 (𝑠𝑠) =
𝑠𝑠 2 + 2𝑠𝑠 + 3
With a PI controller, the open loop Q.41 (b)
transfer function becomes
Q.42 (b)

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 Gate Questions

Q.54 (c)
Q.43 (a)
Q.55 (a)
Q.44 (d)
Q.56 (a)
Q.45 (a)
Q.57 (d)
Q.46 (*)
(a) Yes Q.58 (c)
(b) Plot the open loop bode diagram Q.59 (a)
individually for all components in control
loop. Q.60 (d)
Then draw am overall cross frequency 𝑋𝑋1 = (𝑌𝑌𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑦𝑦)𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
(𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐 ) and its corresponding amplitude (𝐺𝐺1 𝑋𝑋1 + 𝐷𝐷)𝐺𝐺3 + 𝑋𝑋1 𝐺𝐺2 = 𝑦𝑦
ratio. 𝑋𝑋1 (𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺3 + 𝐺𝐺2 ) + 𝐷𝐷𝐺𝐺3 = 𝑦𝑦
If α is the amplitude ratio then �𝑌𝑌𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑦𝑦�𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 (𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺3 + 𝐺𝐺2 ) + 𝐷𝐷𝐺𝐺3 = 𝑦𝑦
1 𝑌𝑌𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺3 + 𝐺𝐺2 )𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 + 𝐷𝐷𝐺𝐺3
𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 max =
𝛼𝛼 = 𝑦𝑦(1
Based on Ziegler Nicholas controller + 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 (𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺3 + 𝐺𝐺2 ))
setting for a PID controller 𝑦𝑦(𝑠𝑠) 𝐺𝐺3
𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜋⁄𝜔𝜔𝑐𝑐 =
𝐷𝐷(𝑠𝑠) (1 + 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 (𝐺𝐺1 𝐺𝐺3 + 𝐺𝐺2 ))
𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 = 0.6𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐,𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ; 𝜏𝜏1 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇⁄2
𝜏𝜏𝐷𝐷 = 𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇⁄8
Q.61 (b)
Q.47 (c)
Q.62 (a)
1
Q.48 (c) 𝐺𝐺1 (𝑠𝑠) = , 𝐺𝐺2 (𝑠𝑠)
𝜏𝜏1 𝑠𝑠 + 1
1
Q.49 (d) =
𝜏𝜏2 𝑠𝑠 + 1
Q.50 (d) 𝜏𝜏2 = 2𝜏𝜏1
1
𝐺𝐺2 (𝑠𝑠) =
Q.51 (d) 2𝜏𝜏1 𝑠𝑠 + 1
The closed loop transfer function is X (=
t) sinωt and
𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐
𝐺𝐺 = 1 + =Y A sin ( ωt + φ )
(4𝑠𝑠 + 1)(2𝑠𝑠 + 1)(𝑠𝑠 + 1)
ϕ = tan−1 (−𝜔𝜔𝜏𝜏1 ), 𝜏𝜏1 = 1
The characteristic equation is
(4𝑠𝑠 + 1)(2𝑠𝑠 + 1)(𝑠𝑠 + 1) + 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 = 0 ϕ = tan−1 (−𝜔𝜔)
ϕ = 45, ω=1
Put 𝑠𝑠 = 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 and equate real and imaginary
part to solve for 𝜔𝜔 and𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐 .
Q.63 (d)
1 1
Q.52 (d) 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴1 = =
�1 + 𝜏𝜏12 𝜔𝜔 2 √1 + 12 12
Q.53 (c) 1
=
√2

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 Gate Questions

1 1
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴2 = =
�1 + 𝜏𝜏22 𝜔𝜔 2 �1 + (2𝜏𝜏1 )2 𝜔𝜔 2 Q.74 (a)
1
= Q.75 (d)
�1 + (2.1)2 + 12
1
= Q.76 (b)
√5
1
Amplitude ratio for L = AR1. AR2= Q.77 (a)
√2
1 1 1 1
. = = 0.32 2
=
√5 √10 2𝑠𝑠 + 3𝑠𝑠 + 1 (2𝑠𝑠 + 1)(𝑠𝑠 + 1)
2 1
Q.64 (d) = −
2𝑠𝑠 + 1 𝑠𝑠 + 1
1
Q.65 (a) 𝐿𝐿 � 2 �
2𝑠𝑠 + 3𝑠𝑠 + 1
2 1
Q.66 (b) = 𝐿𝐿 � � − 𝐿𝐿 � �
2𝑠𝑠 + 1 𝑠𝑠 + 1
Characteristic equation correspond to the = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 ⁄2 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡
above criteria is 2s2 + 4s2 + 2s + 4 =
0
(2s + 2) ( s + 2) =
2
0 Q.78 (a)
s2 + 1 = 0, s + 2 = 0 Q.79 (a)
s = ± j, s = -2 R ( s ) = Y ( s ) = E ( s ) ;  2 × E ( s ) = 2U ( s )
So the equation has two roots on the axis
2
at s = j and ‒j. The third root is in the left 𝑈𝑈(𝑠𝑠) ∙
half plane. (2𝑠𝑠 + 1)(3𝑠𝑠 + 1)
𝑈𝑈 (𝑠𝑠)
= 𝑌𝑌 (𝑠𝑠), 𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) − 𝑌𝑌 (𝑠𝑠) =
Q.67 (d) 2
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠)
=
Q.68 (d) 2
2×(
2𝑠𝑠 + 1 3𝑠𝑠 + 1)
)(
Q.69 (b) 𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 + 𝐶𝐶
𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥 ) = 0 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝐶𝐶 = 0
Q.70 (a) 𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥 ) = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
𝑄𝑄(𝑥𝑥)
� = 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆
Q.71 (a) 𝐴𝐴 𝑥𝑥=𝐿𝐿
𝑦𝑦(𝑠𝑠) 𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝
= , 𝑋𝑋 (𝑠𝑠) = 1.0, 𝑌𝑌(𝑡𝑡) Q.80 (b)
𝑥𝑥(𝑠𝑠) 𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 + 1
𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 −𝑡𝑡
= 𝑒𝑒 𝜏𝜏 , 𝑌𝑌(𝑡𝑡) Q.81 (b)
𝑧𝑧
The given function can be written in the
= 2𝑒𝑒 −0.5𝑡𝑡 ,
𝜏𝜏 = 2, 𝑘𝑘𝑝𝑝 = 4 unit step functions
F ( t=) V (U(t − a) − U(t − b))
Q.72 (c) 1
𝐿𝐿�𝑈𝑈(𝑡𝑡 − 𝑎𝑎)� = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑠𝑠
Q.73 (d) 𝑉𝑉 −𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝐿𝐿�𝑓𝑓 (𝑡𝑡)� = (𝑒𝑒 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 )
𝑠𝑠

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 Gate Questions

𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐,2 + 1.5
� , For the system to be stable,
Q.82 (c) 2𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐,2 − 6
From the figure, the transfer function is of 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐,2 = 3⁄2
the type 𝐴𝐴(𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 + 1)
For the above, the amplitude ratio is Q.85 (c)
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙(𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴/𝐴𝐴) = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙√𝜏𝜏 2 𝜔𝜔 2 + 1 𝑝𝑝(𝑡𝑡) = 30 + 5𝑒𝑒(𝑡𝑡)
𝑡𝑡
We will get the values of A and T by
plotting Ar vs ω curve for τω < 1 and > + 1.25 � 𝑒𝑒(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0
1. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 15
When τω < 1 , 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 � � = 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙√1, 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐴𝐴
𝑝𝑝(𝑡𝑡) − 30 = 𝑂𝑂(𝑡𝑡)
constant part of the figure which is 10.
→ 𝑝𝑝(𝑡𝑡) = 5𝑒𝑒(𝑡𝑡)
τ =1 / 10 because till ω = 10 it is having 𝑡𝑡
Ar =10. + 1.25 � 𝑒𝑒(𝑡𝑡)𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
0
Q.83 (b) 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑(𝑡𝑡)
+ 15
Given range is on the scale, 𝑈𝑈(𝑠𝑠) = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
2(1+0.2𝑠𝑠) 1.25
𝐸𝐸(𝑠𝑠) 𝑝𝑝(𝑠𝑠) = 5𝑒𝑒(𝑠𝑠) + 𝑒𝑒(𝑠𝑠)15𝑠𝑠. 𝑒𝑒(𝑠𝑠)
1+0.02𝑠𝑠 5
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) 𝑃𝑃(𝑠𝑠) 5 12𝑠𝑠 2 + 4𝑠𝑠 + 1
2 𝐺𝐺(𝑐𝑐) = = � �
= 2 𝑈𝑈(𝑠𝑠), at the junction, 𝑅𝑅 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑒𝑒(𝑠𝑠) 4 𝑠𝑠
𝑠𝑠 + 11𝑠𝑠 + 1
∗ 0.2 − 0.2𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = 𝐸𝐸(𝑠𝑠)
Q.86 (b)
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) ∗ 0.2 − 0.2𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠)
Characteristic equation
2
=� 2 1 + 𝐺𝐺(𝑐𝑐) . 𝐺𝐺(𝑠𝑠)
𝑠𝑠 + 11𝑠𝑠 + 1
−1
10 5 12𝑠𝑠 2 + 45𝑠𝑠 + 1
2(1 + 0.2𝑠𝑠) 1+ . � �
∗ � 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) (200𝑠𝑠 + 1) 4 𝑠𝑠
1 + 0.02𝑠𝑠 = 700𝑠𝑠 2 + 102𝑠𝑠 + 25 = 0
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) 0.8(1+0.2𝑠𝑠)
On solving → = =
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 0.2𝑠𝑠 3+3.2𝑠𝑠 2+11.36𝑠𝑠+1.8
0.8⁄1.8(1+0.2𝑠𝑠) Q.87 (b)
0.2⁄1.8𝑠𝑠 3+3.2⁄1.8𝑠𝑠 2+11.36⁄1.8𝑠𝑠+1 𝑓𝑓(𝑡𝑡) = 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 ⁄𝜏𝜏
Steady state gain = 0.8/1.8 = 4/9 By Taylor’s expansion, 𝑒𝑒 𝑥𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥𝑥 +
𝑥𝑥 2
+
2!
𝑥𝑥 3
Q.84 (d) 3!
+⋯
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) − 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = 0.5𝑈𝑈1 (𝑠𝑠), 𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡 2 𝑡𝑡 3
𝑈𝑈1 (𝑠𝑠) − 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 ⁄𝜏𝜏 = 1 − + 2 − 3 + ⋯ 𝑡𝑡 ≪ 𝜏𝜏
𝜏𝜏 2𝜏𝜏 6𝜏𝜏
= 𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐,2 𝑈𝑈2 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑈𝑈2 (𝑠𝑠) 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡 ⁄𝜏𝜏
𝑆𝑆 + 2 =1
= 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠)
𝑆𝑆 − 3 𝑡𝑡
Substituting U2(s) in equation 2 and − , as all higher expressions of τ can be ignored
𝜏𝜏
U1 ( s ) in equation 1
𝑅𝑅(𝑠𝑠) 0.5 ∗ (𝑠𝑠 − 4) Q.88 (a)
=
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) (𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐,2 + 1.5)𝑠𝑠 + (2𝐾𝐾𝑐𝑐,2 − 6)
Q.89 (c)
Routh Stability Criteria

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 Gate Questions

Routh array 5𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐

=1
1 26 ((2) 𝑤𝑤 2 +
2 1)2
9 12(2+ Kc) 4
𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 = = 0.8
9×26-12(2+ Kc) 5
9 Q.95 (d)
Q.96 (c)
9×26−12(2+ K )
c
For stability > 0 → Kc >
a
17.5 Q.97 (d)
∴ On the verge of stability K c = 17.5
Q.98 (c)
Q.90 (c)
Q.99 16.0-16.8
Q.91 (a)
Period oscillation = 1 second Q.100 (c)
Decay ratio = 0.25
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 Q.101 0.49-0.51
Period of oscillation = 2 √1−𝛼𝛼
−2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
Decay ratio = exp Q.102 (d)
√1−𝛼𝛼2
1
Comparing each option with 2+2𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏+1
𝜏𝜏𝑠𝑠 Q.103 (c)
𝜏𝜏 = 0.024, 𝑇𝑇 = 0.1549
2𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 = 0.067, 𝛼𝛼 = 0.2162 Q.104 (d)
2𝜋𝜋(0.1549)
Period of oscillation = =
√1−0.21622
0.9963 = 1 Q.105 44-47
−2𝜋𝜋(0.2162)
Decay ratio = 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 � �=
√1−0.21622 Q.106 (a)
0.2489 = 0.25
Q.107 0.85-0.89
Q.92 1.47-1.49
Q.108 3.5-3.7
Q.93 (c)
5 Q.109 (a)
𝐺𝐺𝑝𝑝 (𝑠𝑠) =
(2𝑠𝑠 + 1)4
At crossover frequency phase log is Q.110 (c)
−170º
−180 = 4 cos−1 (−2𝑤𝑤𝑐𝑐 ) Q.111 (d)
we get, tan−1 (−2𝑤𝑤𝑐𝑐 ) = −45
𝑤𝑤𝑐𝑐 = 0.5 rad/s Q.112 10.00-10.25

Q.94 (b) Q.113 2.49-2.51

2𝜋𝜋 2𝜋𝜋
Ultimate period = = = 40
𝑤𝑤 0.5
Amplitude ratio at crossover frequency is Q.114 (a)
1
Q.115 3-3

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 Gate Questions

Q.116 0.3725 4 1
1 𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) = ×
7𝑠𝑠 + 5 𝑠𝑠
⇒ 𝜏𝜏 2 = 4 ⇒ 𝜏𝜏 = 2 4
4𝑠𝑠 2 + 1.2𝑠𝑠 + 1 𝑌𝑌(∞) = lim 𝑌𝑌(𝑡𝑡) = lim 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 (𝑠𝑠) =
1.2 1.2 𝑡𝑡→∞ 𝑠𝑠→0 5
2𝜏𝜏𝜏𝜏 = 1.2 ⇒ 𝜀𝜀 = = = 0.3 𝑋𝑋(∞) = 1
2𝜏𝜏 2 × 2
−𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 4 1
Fractional overshoot, = exp � � = 1 − = = 0.2
√1 − 𝜀𝜀 2 5 5
−𝜋𝜋(0.3)
= exp � � = 0.3725 Q.122 (d)
√1 − 0.32

Q.117 10-10 Q.123 0.4137

For marginal stable condition 3 3
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 2 = 52 𝜔𝜔 2 + 1
6 (1 + K ) = 11 × 6 �√52 𝜔𝜔 2 + 1�
6 + 6K =66 3
=
6K = 60 (5) × (0.5)2 + 1
2

K = 10 = 0.4137

Q.118 (b) Q.124 (a)

Q.119 0.785 Q.125 43.375

180 Open loop transfer function
𝜙𝜙 = −180° = (−2𝜔𝜔) − 90°
𝜋𝜋 𝑒𝑒 −0.1𝑠𝑠
𝜔𝜔 = 𝜔𝜔𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 0.785 𝑟𝑟/𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐺𝐺𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 5 ×
0.5𝑠𝑠 + 1
At ultimate gain condition Dead time of the system, t d = 0.1
𝜔𝜔𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = 𝜔𝜔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 = 0.785
Zp = 0.5 (1st order system )
Since at 𝜔𝜔𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 , AR = 1
𝑘𝑘𝑒𝑒 Phase margin PM = 180° − φ’
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = =1 ( φ’ is the value of phase at gain cross
𝜔𝜔
𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 = 𝜔𝜔 = 0.785 over frequency)
𝑘𝑘𝑢𝑢 = 0.785 At gain cross over frequency AR = 1
AR of the system
Q.120 (c) 1
= 5×1×
�1 + (0.5𝜔𝜔)2
Q.121 0.2-0.2 At AR = 1, ω =9.7979 rad/time
180°
𝜙𝜙 ′ = −𝑡𝑡𝑑𝑑 𝜔𝜔 × + tan−1 �−𝜔𝜔𝑧𝑧𝑝𝑝 � + 𝜃𝜃
𝜋𝜋
At ω =9.7979 rad / time ,
φ’ = − 56.16156° − 78.46297° = − 134.6245°
′
PM = 180° − |𝜙𝜙 | = 45.37546°
2
𝑌𝑌(𝑠𝑠) 7𝑠𝑠 + 1 4 Q.126 (b)
= =
𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠) 1 + 2 × 2 7𝑠𝑠 + 5
7𝑠𝑠 + 1
1
𝑋𝑋(𝑠𝑠) =
𝑠𝑠

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