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2
Scalars and
Vectors
Scalars
Those physical quantities which require only magnitude but no
direction for their complete representation are called scalars.
Distance, speed, work, mass, density etc are the examples of
scalars. Scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied or divided by
simple algebraic laws.
Tensors
Tensors are those physical quantities which have different values in
different directions at the same point.
Moment of inertia, radius of gyration, modulus of elasticity, pressure,
stress, conductivity, resistivity, refractive index, wave velocity and
density etc are the examples of tensors. Magnitude of tensor is not
unique.

Vectors
Those physical quantities which require magnitude as well as direction
for their complete representation and follows vector laws are called
vectors.
Vectors can be mainly classified into following two types
1. Polar Vectors
These vectors have a starting point or a point of application such as
displacement, force etc.

2. Axial Vectors
These vectors represent rotational effect and act along the axis of
rotation in accordance with right hand screw rule, such as angular
velocity, torque, angular momentum etc.
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10 Handbook of Physics

Other Types of Vectors

(i) Equal Vectors Two vectors of equal magnitude and
having same direction are called equal vectors. B
A

(ii) Negative Vectors Two vectors of equal

-A
magnitude but having opposite directions are
A
called negative vectors.
The negative vector of A is represented as - A .
(iii) Zero Vector or Null Vector A vector whose magnitude is
zero, known as a zero or null vector. Its direction is not defined.
It is denoted by 0.
Velocity of a stationary object, acceleration of an object moving
with uniform velocity and resultant of two equal and opposite
vectors are the examples of null vector.
(iv) Unit Vector A vector having unit magnitude is called a unit
vector.
A unit vector in the direction of vector A is given by
A$ = A
A
A unit vector is unitless and dimensionless vector and
represents direction only.
(v) Orthogonal Unit Vectors The unit vectors along the
direction of orthogonal axis, i.e. X-axis, Y -axis and Z-axis are
$
called orthogonal unit vectors. They are represented by i$ , $jand k.
Y

j
X
k O
i

(vi) Co-initial Vectors Vectors having a common initial point,

are called co-initial vectors.

O
A
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Scalars and Vectors 11

(vii) Collinear Vectors Vectors having equal or unequal
magnitudes but acting along the same or parallel lines are
called collinear vectors.

A B A
B
(a) (b)

(viii) Coplanar Vectors Vectors acting in the same plane are

called coplanar vectors.
(ix) Localised Vector A vector whose initial point is fixed, is
called a localised vector.
(x) Non-localised or Free Vector A vector whose initial point
is not fixed is called a non-localised or a free vector.
(xi) Position Vector A vector which gives position of an object
with reference to the origin of a coordinate system is called
position vector. It is represented by a symbol r.
Y

A
(r)
or
ct
ve
n
itio

A
s
of
Po

q
O X

(xii) Displacement Vector The vector which tells how much and
in which direction an object has changed its position in a given
interval of time is called displacement vector.
Displacement vector is the straight line joining the initial and
final positions and does not depend on the actual path
undertaken by the object between the two positions.
Y Displacement
B
r

vector (Dr)
at t vecto
2)
¢ (r
tion

A
tor
i

vec
Pos

s i tion r 1)
Po t t (
a
O X

The displacement vector for AB is

Dr = r2 – r1
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12 Handbook of Physics

Addition of Vectors
1. Triangle Law of Vectors Addition
If two vectors acting at a point are represented in magnitude and
direction by the two sides of a triangle taken in one order, then their
resultant is represented by the third side of the triangle taken in the
opposite order.

R
B sinq
B

b q
A B cosq

If two vectors A and B acting at a point are inclined at an angle q, then

their resultant
R = A2 + B2 + 2 AB cos q
If the resultant vector R subtends an angle b with vector A, then
B sin q
tan b =
A + B cos q

2. Parallelogram Law of Vectors Addition

If two vectors acting at a point are represented in magnitude and
direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram draw from a
point, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction
by the diagonal of the parallelogram drawn from the same point.

B R B sinq
B
q
b q
A B cosq

Resultant of vectors A and B is given by

R= A2 + B2 + 2 AB cos q
If the resultant vector R subtends an angle b with vector A, then
B sin q
tan b =
A + B cos q
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Scalars and Vectors 13

3. Polygon Law of Vectors Addition
It states that, if number of vectors acting on a D D C
particle at a time are represented in magnitude E C
and direction by the various sides of an open B
E
polygon taken in same order, then their resultant B
R
vector is represented in magnitude and direction A
O A
by the closing side of polygon taken in opposite
order. In fact, polygon law of vectors is the outcome
of triangle law of vectors.
R= A+B+C+D+E
OE = OA + AB + BC + CD + DE

Properties of Vector Addition

(i) Vector addition is commutative, i.e. A + B = B + A
(ii) Vector addition is associative, i.e.
A + ( B + C) = B + ( C + A ) = C + ( A + B)
(iii) Vector addition is distributive, i.e. m ( A + B) = m A + m B
(iv) A + 0 = A

Rotation of a Vector
(i) If a vector is rotated through an angle q, which is not an integral
multiple of 2 p, the vector changes.
(ii) If the frame of reference is rotated or translated, the given
vector does not change. The components of the vector may,
however, change.

Resolution of Vectors into Two Components

If two component vectors of R are OP and PQ in the direction of A
and B, respectively, and suppose OP = lA and PQ = mB, where l and m
are two real numbers.

S Q
mB
R
mB
q
O lA P

Then, resultant vector, R = lA + mB

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14 Handbook of Physics

Resolution of a Vector into Rectangular Components

If any vector A subtends an angle q with X-axis, then its
horizontal component, Ax = A cos q
Vertical component, Ay = A sin q
Magnitude of vector, A = Ax2 + Ay2 Y

Ay
tan q =
Ax Ay
A
æ Ay ö
Angle, q = tan–1 ç ÷ q
X
è Ax ø O Ax

Direction Cosines of a Vector

If any vector A subtend angles a , b and g with X-axis, Y-axis and
Z-axis respectively and its components along these axes are Ax , Ay and
Az , then
A
cos a = x , Y
A A
Ay
cos b = , b
A
a
Az O X
cos g = Z
g
A
Then, cos2 a + cos2 b + cos2 g = 1

Subtraction of Vectors
Subtraction of a vector B from a vector A is defined as the addition of
vector -B (negative of vector B) to vector A.
Thus, A - B = A + ( - B)

Multiplication of a Vector
1. By a Real Number
When a vector A is multiplied by a real number n, then its magnitude
becomes n times but direction and unit remains unchanged.

2. By a Scalar
When a vector A is multiplied by a scalar S, then its magnitude
becomes S times and unit is the product of units of A and S but
direction remains same as that of vector A.
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Scalars and Vectors 15

Scalar or Dot Product of Two Vectors
The scalar product of two vectors is equal to the product of their
magnitudes and the cosine of the smaller angle between them. It is
denoted by × (dot).

q
A

A × B = AB cos q
The scalar or dot product of two vectors is a scalar.

Properties of Scalar Product

(i) Scalar product is commutative,
i.e. A× B = B× A
(ii) Scalar product is distributive,
i.e. A × ( B + C) = A × B + A × C
(iii) Scalar product of two perpendicular vectors is zero.
A × B = AB cos 90° = 0
(iv) Scalar product of two parallel vectors or anti-parallel vectors is
equal to the product of their magnitudes, i.e.
A × B = AB cos 0° = AB (for parallel)
A × B = AB cos 180° = – AB (for anti-parallel)
(v) Scalar product of a vector with itself is equal to the square of its
magnitude,
i.e. A × A = AA cos 0° = A2
(vi) Scalar product of orthogonal unit vectors
$ ×k
$i × $i = $j × $j = k $ =1

and $ =k
i$ × $j = $j × k $ × $i = 0

(vii) Scalar product in cartesian coordinates

$ ) × ( B $i + B $j + B k
A × B = ( Ax $i + Ay $j + Az k $
x y z )

= Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
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16 Handbook of Physics

Vector or Cross Product of Two Vectors

The vector product of two vectors is equal to the product of their
magnitudes and the sine of the smaller angle between them. It is
denoted by ´ (cross).
A ´ B = AB sin q n
$

C=A´B

B
n

Properties of Vector Product

(i) Vector product is not commutative, i.e.
A´B¹B´ A [\ ( A ´ B) = - ( B ´ A )]
(ii) Vector product is distributive, i.e.
A ´ ( B + C) = A ´ B + A ´ C
(iii) Vector product of two parallel vectors is zero, i.e.
A ´ B = AB sin 0° = 0
(iv) Vector product of any vector with itself is zero.
A ´ A = AA sin 0° = 0
(v) Vector product of orthogonal unit vectors
$ ´k
i$ ´ i$ = $j ´ $j = k $ =0

and $
i$ ´ $j = - $j ´ i$ = k
$ = -k
$j ´ k $ ´ $j = $i

k$ ´ $i = - $i ´ k$ = $j

Ù Ù
i i

Plus Minus
Ù Ù Ù Ù
k j k j
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Scalars and Vectors 17

(vi) Vector product in cartesian coordinates
$ ) ´ ( B $i + B $j + B k
A ´ B = ( Ax $i + Ay $j + Az k $
x y z )

$i $j k$
= Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
$
= ( Ay Bz - Az By ) i$ - ( Ax Bz - Bx Az ) $j + ( Ax By - Ay Bx ) k

Direction of Vector Cross Product

When C = A ´ B, the direction of C is at right angles to the plane
containing the vectors A and B. The direction is determined by the
right hand screw rule and right hand thumb rule.

A´B

A´B

A B A B
q q

(a) (b)

(i) Right Hand Screw Rule Rotate a right handed screw from
first vector ( A ) towards second vector ( B). The direction in
which the right handed screw moves gives the direction of
vector ( C).
(ii) Right Hand Thumb Rule Curl the fingers of your right hand
from A to B. Then, the direction of the erect thumb will point in
the direction of A ´ B.

Division of Vectors by Scalars

The division of vector A by a non-zero scalar m is defined as the
1
multiplication of A by . In this, the unit of resultant vector is the
m
division of unit A and m.