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29
Electrons, Photons
and X-rays
Cathode Rays
Cathode rays are the stream of fast moving electrons. These rays are
produced in a discharge tube at a pressure below 0.01 mm of mercury.

Properties of Cathode Rays

(i) Cathode rays are not electromagnetic rays.
(ii) Cathode rays are deflected by electric field and magnetic field.
(iii) Cathode rays produce heat in metals when they fall on them.
(iv) Cathode rays can pass through thin aluminium or gold foils
without puncturing them.
(v) Cathode rays can produce physical and chemical change.
(vi) Cathode rays travel in straight line with high velocity
momentum and energy and cast shadow of objects placed in
their path.
(vii) On striking the target of high atomic weight and high melting
point, they produce X-rays.
(viii) Cathode rays produce fluorescence and phosphorescence in
certain substance and hence affect photographic plate.
(ix) Specific charge of an electron was determined by JJ Thomson
using perpendicular magnetic and electric field applied on a
beam of electrons, at the same place.
e E2
(x) Specific charge of electron =
m 2VB2
where, E = electric field, B = magnetic field and V = potential
difference applied across ends of tube.
(xi) The value of specific charge of an electron is 1.7589 ´ 1011 C/kg.
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318 Handbook of Physics

(xii) Millikan measured the charge of an electron through his

popular oil drop experiment.
(xiii) The charge of the electron as determined by Millikan was found
to be 1.602 ´ 10-19 C.

Positive Rays
Positive rays were discovered by Goldstein. Positive rays are moving
positive ions of gas filled in the discharge tube. The mass of these
particles is nearly equal to the mass of the atoms of gas.

Properties of Positive Rays

(i) These consists of fast moving positively charged particles.
(ii) These rays are deflected in magnetic and electric fields.
(iii) These rays travel in straight line.
(iv) Speed of positive rays is less than that of cathode rays.
(v) These rays can produce fluorescence and phosphorescence.

Electron Emission
It is the phenomenon of emission of electron from the surface of a
metal. The electron emission can be obtained from the following
process
(i) Thermionic emission (ii) Photoelectric emission
(iii) Field emission (iv) Secondary emission

Photoelectric Effect
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface,
when radiations of suitable frequency is incident on it, is called
photoelectric effect.

Terms Related to Photoelectric Effect

(i) Work Function ( f) The minimum amount of energy required
to eject one electron from a metal surface is called its work
function. Its dimensional formula is [ML2 T –2 ] and unit is J or eV.
(ii) Threshold Frequency (n 0 ) The minimum frequency of light
which can eject photoelectron from a metal surface is called
threshold frequency of that metal.
Its dimensional formula is [T –1 ] and unit is Hz.
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Electrons, Photons and X-rays 319

(iii) Threshold Wavelength ( lmax ) The maximum wavelength of
light which can eject photoelectron from a metal surface is called
threshold wavelength of that metal.
Relation between work function, threshold frequency and threshold
wavelength
hc
f = hn 0 =
lmax

Laws of Photoelectric Effect

(i) For a given material and a given frequency of incident
radiation, the photoelectric current or number of photoelectrons
ejected per second is directly proportional to the intensity of the
incident light.
(ii) For a given material and frequency of incident radiation,
saturation current is found to be proportional to the intensity of
incident radiation, whereas the stopping potential is
independent of its intensity.
(iii) For a given material, there exists a certain minimum frequency
of the incident radiation below which no emission of
photoelectrons takes place. This frequency is called threshold
frequency.
Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of
the emitted photoelectrons or equivalent stopping potential is
independent of the intensity of the incident light but depends
upon only the frequency (or wavelength) of the incident light.
(iv) The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. The
time lag between the incidence of radiations and emission of
photoelectrons is very small, less than even 10-9s.

Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation

The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons
( EK )max = hn - f = h(n - n 0 )
where, n is frequency of incident light and n 0 is threshold frequency.

Stopping Potential
The minimum negative potential given to anode plate at which
photoelectric current becomes zero is called stopping potential (V 0 ).
Maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons
1 2 æ1 1 ö
( EK )max = mvmax = eV 0 = hc çç - ÷÷
2 è l l0 ø
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320 Handbook of Physics

where, l is the wavelength of incident radiation and l0 is the

threshold wavelength of metal surface.
Dimensional formula of stopping potential is [ML2T –3 A –1 ] and unit
is volt.

Graphs related to Photoelectric Effect

(i) Photoelectric current (i) versus intensity of incident light (I).

O I
(ii) Variation of photoelectric current (I) versus potential for
different intensities but constant frequency
Photoelectric
current

I 3 > I2 > I1
I3
I2
I1

Stopping
potential

–V0 O Collector plate

Retarding potential potential

(iii) Variation of photoelectric current (I) versus potential for

different frequencies but constant intensity of incident
radiation

Photoelectric current

n3 > n2 > n1
Saturation
n3 current
n2
n1

–V03 –V02 –V01 0 Collector plate

Retarding potential potential
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Electrons, Photons and X-rays 321

(iv) Frequency (n 0) versus stopping potential (V 0)
V0

Stopping potential h
q tan q = = Slope
e
0 n0 n
Frequency
– f0
e

(v) Frequency (n) versus photoelectric current (i)

I
Photoelectric
current

n0 Frequency n

(vi) Intensity versus (I) stopping potential (V 0)

V0
Stopping
potential

Intensity I

(vii) Photoelectric current (I) versus time lag (t)

I
Photoelectric
current

O 10 –9 s t
Time

Photoelectric Effect and Wave Theory of Light

(i) According to wave theory, greater the intensity of radiation,
greater should be the energy absorbed by each electron.
However, as per experimental facts, maximum kinetic energy
of ejected photoelectrons is independent of I.
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322 Handbook of Physics

(ii) According to wave theory, sufficiently intense beam of radiation

should be able to impart enough energy to electrons for ejections.
However, as per experimental facts, no photoelectrons takes
place below threshold frequency, irrespective of its intensity.
(iii) According to wave theory, it take hours or more for a single
electron to come out of metal which contradicts the
experimental fact that photoelectric emission is
instantaneous.

Planck’s Quantum Theory

(Particle Nature of Light : The Photon)
In 1990, Max Planck proposed his quantum theory of radiation.
According to this theory, the energy of an electromagnetic wave is not
continuously distributed over the wavefront, instead of an
electromagnetic wave travels in the form of discrete packets or
bundles of energy called quanta. One quantum of light radiation is
called a photon.
The energy of each photon is E = hn,
where h is Planck’ s constant and n is frequency of radiation.
The dimensional formula of Planck’s constant is [ML2 T –1 ] and its SI
unit is Js.
hn h
The momentum of a photon, p = =
c l

Characteristic Properties of Photons

Different characteristic properties of photons are given below
(i) In interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if
it is made up of particles called photons.
(ii) A photon travels at a speed of light c in vacuum( i. e. 3 ´ 108 m / s).
E h hv
(iii) The inertial mass of a photon is given by, m = 2
= =
c cl c2
(iv) Photons travel in a straight line.
(v) Irrespective of the intensity of radiation, all the photons of a
particular frequency n or wavelength l have the same energy and
momentum.
(vi) Energy of a photon depends upon frequency of the photon, so the
energy of the photon does not change when photon travels from
one medium to another.
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Electrons, Photons and X-rays 323

(vii) Wavelength of the photon changes in different media, so velocity
of a photon is different in different media.
(viii) Photons are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields. This
shows that photons are electrically neutral.
(ix) In a photon-particle collision (such as photoelectron collision),
the energy and momentum are conserved. However, the
number of photons may not be conserved in a collision.
(x) It has zero rest mass, i.e. the photon exist at rest.

Compton Effect
When a monochromatic beam of falls on a target containing free
electrons, it is scattered. As a result, the electrons recoil and scattered
radiation has wavelength longer than incident one. This effect is called
Compton effect.
(i) l¢ - l = l = Compton shift, Recoil electron
h
Dl = (1 - cos f) Target
m0c Incident electron
photon at rest f
where, m0 is rest mass of
an electron and c is the q
h li
speed of light . Scattered
m0c photon
Compton shift Dl is
maximum, when f = 180°. Compton scattering lf

(ii) Kinetic energy of recoil electron,

hc hc
EK = -
l l¢
(iii) Direction of recoil electron,
l sin f
tan q =
l¢ - l cos f
(iv) Compton wavelength of electron
h
= = 0.024 Å
m0c
2h
(v) Maximum Compton shift ( Dl)max = = 0.048 Å
m0c
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324 Handbook of Physics

Photocell
It is a device which converts light energy into electrical energy. It is
also called an electric eye.
It works on the principle of photoelectric emission.
Incident
light
C

Collector (Anode)
A

Evacuated
Emitter glass bulb
(Cathode)

– B +
mA

Dual nature of radiation

With the experimental verification, it was proved that light has dual
nature, in some phenomena it behaves like wave and in some
phenomena it behaves like particle depending upon the dimensions of
object with which the particle interacts.
In 1924, French physicist Lewis de-Broglie suggested like radiation,
matter too should have dual nature, i.e., the particles like electrons,
protons, neutrons, etc, can have particle as well as wave nature.

Matter Waves or de-Broglie Waves

A wave is associated with every moving particle called matter or
de-Broglie wave.

Characteristics of Matter Waves

Characteristics of matter waves are given below
(i) Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves in nature.
(ii) Matter waves are non-mechanical waves, i.e., they can travel in
vacuum.
(iii) Matter waves are independent of charge, i.e., they are
associated with every moving particle (whether charged or
uncharged).
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Electrons, Photons and X-rays 325

(iv) Observation of matter waves is possible only when the
de-Broglie wavelength is of the order of size of the particle (i.e.,
the waves are diffracted).
(v) The phase velocity of the matter waves can be greater than the
speed of the light.
(vi) The number of de-Broglie waves associated with nth orbital
electron is n.

de-Broglie Wavelength
If a particle of mass m is moving with velocity v, then wavelength of
h h
de-Broglie wave associated with it is given by l = = .
p mv
h
For charged particles accelerated through a potential V , l =
2meV
de-Broglie wavelength associated with various particles

For charged particle de-Broglie wavelength

(a) Electron 12.27
l= Å
V
(b) Proton 0286
.
l= Å
V
(c) Deutron 0202
.
l= Å
V
(d) a-particle 0101
.
l= Å
V
For uncharged particle
(a) Neutrons 0286
.
l= Å
E
(b) Thermal neutron 2517
.
l= Å
T

Davisson-Germer Experiment
The wave nature of the material particles as predicted by de-Broglie
was confirmed by Davisson and Germer (1927) in united states and
by GP Thomson (1928) in Scotland.
This experiment verified the wave nature of electron using Ni crystal.
Davisson and Germer found that the intensity of scattered beam of
electrons was not the same but different at different angles of
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326 Handbook of Physics

scattering. It is maximum for diffracting angle 50° at 54 V potential

difference.

-
Electron
gun
C
+
A Detector
I
Incident Beam

am ed
be tter
a
Sc

Intensity

f
q
q f
O 50°
Scattering angle

Electron Microscope
Electron microscope is an important application of de-Broglie wave
used to study very minute objects like viruses, microbes etc. Like
light radiations, electron beams behave as waves but with much
smaller wavelength. It uses electric and magnetic field to concentrate
electron beam. The magnifying power of a microscope is inversely
related with the wavelength of radiations used. Here, the electrons
are focussed with the help of electric and magnetic lenses. Also, the
viewing screen used should be fluorescent so that image produced
should be visible.
An electron microscope can have a very high magnification of » 105 .
X-rays
When cathode rays strike on a heavy metal of high melting point,
then a very small fraction of its energy converts into a new type of
waves called X-rays. X-rays were discovered by Roentgen.

Properties of X-rays
(i) X-rays are electromagnetic waves of wavelengths ranging from
0.1 Å to 100 Å and frequencies ranging from 1016 Hz to 1018 Hz.
(ii) Soft X-rays have greater wavelength and lower frequency.
(iii) Hard X-rays have lower wavelength and higher frequency.
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Electrons, Photons and X-rays 327

(iv) X-rays are produced in coolidge tube.
(v) Molybdenum and tungsten provide suitable targets. These
elements have large atomic number and high melting point for
the purpose.
(vi) The intensity of X-rays depends on the heating voltage or
filament current.
(vii) The kinetic energy of X-ray photons depends upon the voltage
applied across the ends of coolidge tube.
(viii) If total energy of fast moving electron transfer to X-ray photon,
hc
then its energy eV = hn = .
l
hc
(ix) Wavelength of emitted X-rays is given by l = ,
eV
where h = Planck’s constant, c = speed of light, e = electronic
charge and V = potential difference applied across the ends of
the tube.
(x) Absorption of X-rays I = I 0e- mx , where I 0 = initial intensity of
X-rays, I = final intensity of emergent X-rays, x = thickness of
material and m = absorption coefficient.

Classification of X-rays
X-rays are of two types, continuous and characteristic. While the
former depends only on the accelerating voltage V, the later depends
on the target used.
(i) Continuous X-rays The continuous X-rays (or bremsstrahlung
X-rays) produced at a given accelerating potential V vary in
wavelength, but none has a wavelength shorter than a certain
value lmin . This minimum wavelength corresponds to the
maximum energy of the X-rays which in turn is equal to the
maximum kinetic energy qV or eV of the striking electrons. Thus,
hc hc
= eV or lmin =
lmin eV
After substituting values of h , c and e, we obtain the following
simple formula for lmin .
12375
lmin (in Å) = …(i)
V
If V is increased, then lmin decreases. This wavelength is also
known as the cut-off wavelength or the threshold wavelength.
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328 Handbook of Physics

(ii) Characteristic X-rays Some of the fast moving electrons with

high velocity penetrate the surface atoms of the target material
and knock out the electrons even from the inner most shells of
atom. Now, a vacancy is created at that place.
Electrons from higher shell jumps to fill the created vacancy.
When the electron jumps from a higher energy level E2 to lower
energy orbit E1, it radiates energy (E2 - E1). Thus, this energy
difference is radiated in the form of X-rays of very small but
definite wavelength which depends upon target material. The
X-ray spectrum consists of sharp lines and is called
characteristic X-ray spectrum.

Diffraction of X-rays
X-rays can be diffracted by crystals following Bragg’s law. According
to this
2d sin q = nl
where, n = 1, 2, 3, ¼ , d = spacing of crystal planes
and q = angle of diffraction.

X-rays Spectrum
The energy spectrum of X-rays is a line spectrum, containing
following series
(i) K-series When electrons of any higher orbit ( n = 2, 3, 4, ¼)
jump to first orbit ( n = 1), then K -series of X-rays are produced.
(ii) L-series When electrons of higher orbit ( n = 3, 4, 5, ¼) jump to
second orbit ( n = 2), then L-series of X-rays are produced.
(iii) M-series When electrons of higher orbit ( n = 4, 5, 6, ¼) jump to
third orbit ( n = 3), then M-series of X-rays are produced.
First lines of these series are called K a , La , M a and second lines
of these series are called K b , L b, M b.

n=4 N
Kg Lb Ma Mb
n=3 M
Kb La M-series
n=2 L
L-series

Ka

n=1 K
K-series
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Electrons, Photons and X-rays 329

The energy of X-ray radiation as
é1 1 ù
DE = Rhc( Z - b)2 ê 2 - 2 ú
ë n1 n 2 û
é1 1 ù
n = Rc( Z - b)2 ê 2 - 2 ú
ë n1 n 2 û

Moseley’s Law
The frequency of X-rays is given by
n = a ( Z - b)2
where, a and b are constants and Z is atomic number of element.
n µ Z2

Uses of X-rays
Uses of X-rays are given below
(i) X-rays are used for medical imaging.
(ii) X-rays are used in treating cancer.
(iii) They are useful for determining crystal structure by X-ray
crystallography.
(iv) X-rays are useful for airport security.
(v) In art, the change occurring in old oil paintings can be
examined by X-rays.
(vi) X-rays are used in laboratories for materials characterisation.