L

Electrical Circuits and

IA
Networks

R
E
EL-401

T
A
M
Mr. S. U. Barbhuiya
D

Lecturer, Department of Electrical Engineering

E

H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat

T
H

2023
IG
R
Y
P
O
C
C
O
P
Y
R
IG
H
T
E
D
M
A
T
E
R
IA
L
 L
IA
Preface

R
E
T
A
M
D
E

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Ut purus elit, vesti-
T

bulum ut, placerat ac, adipiscing vitae, felis. Curabitur dictum gravida mauris.
Nam arcu libero, nonummy eget, consectetuer id, vulputate a, magna. Donec
H

vehicula augue eu neque. Pellentesque habitant morbi tristique senectus et ne-

IG

tus et malesuada fames ac turpis egestas. Mauris ut leo. Cras viverra metus
rhoncus sem. Nulla et lectus vestibulum urna fringilla ultrices. Phasellus eu tel-
lus sit amet tortor gravida placerat. Integer sapien est, iaculis in, pretium quis,
R

viverra ac, nunc. Praesent eget sem vel leo ultrices bibendum. Aenean faucibus.
Morbi dolor nulla, malesuada eu, pulvinar at, mollis ac, nulla. Curabitur auctor
Y

semper nulla. Donec varius orci eget risus. Duis nibh mi, congue eu, accumsan
eleifend, sagittis quis, diam. Duis eget orci sit amet orci dignissim rutrum.
P

Nam dui ligula, fringilla a, euismod sodales, sollicitudin vel, wisi. Morbi auctor
O

lorem non justo. Nam lacus libero, pretium at, lobortis vitae, ultricies et, tellus.
Donec aliquet, tortor sed accumsan bibendum, erat ligula aliquet magna, vitae
C

ornare odio metus a mi. Morbi ac orci et nisl hendrerit mollis. Suspendisse ut
massa. Cras nec ante. Pellentesque a nulla. Cum sociis natoque penatibus et
magnis dis parturient montes, nascetur ridiculus mus. Aliquam tincidunt urna.
Nulla ullamcorper vestibulum turpis. Pellentesque cursus luctus mauris.
C
O
P
Y
R
IG
H
T
E
D
M
A
T
E
R
IA
L
 L
IA
Contents

R
E
T
A
M
D
E
T

Preface i
H
IG

1 DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES) 1

1.1 Electric Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

R

1.2 Electric Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Y

1.3 Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
P

1.4 Basic Circuit Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

O

1.4.1 Branch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
C

1.4.2 Node . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.4.3 Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.4.4 Mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.5 Types of Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.5.1 Linear and Non-Linear Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.5.2 Active and Passive Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

 iv CONTENTS

1.5.3 Bilateral and Unilateral Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.5.4 Time Invariant and Time varying elements . . . . . . . . 9

1.6 Electrical Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

1.6.1 Active Network and Passive Network . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.7 Electric Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

L
1.7.1 Linear Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

IA
1.7.2 Non-Linear Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.7.3 Bilateral Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

R
1.7.4 Unilateral Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

E
1.8 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

T
1.8.1 Ideal Independent Voltage Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.8.2
A
Ideal Independent Current Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
M
1.8.3 Dependent Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.8.4 Practical/Real/Non-ideal Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
D

1.9 Network Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

E

1.10 Network Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

T

1.11 Superposition Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

H
CONTENTS

1.11.1 Procedure of analyzing a circuit by superposition theorem 21

IG

1.11.2 Solved Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1.12 Thevenin’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

R
Y
P
O
0.CONTENTS

Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat EL-401

 L
IA
List of Figures

R
E
T
A
M
D
E
T

[1.1] Branches in an electric circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

H

[1.2] Nodes in an electric circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

IG

[1.3] Loops in an electric circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

[1.4] Loops in an electric circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

R

[1.5] I-V graph of Linear elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Y

[1.6] Examples of Linear elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

P

[1.7] I-V graph of Non-Linear elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

O

[1.8] Examples of Non-Linear elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

C

[1.9] Examples of Active elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

[1.10]Examples of Passive elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

[1.11]V-I characteristic curve of bilateral elements . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

[1.12]An electric circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

[1.13]I-V characteristics of linear circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

[1.14]I-V characteristics of linear circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

 vi LIST OF FIGURES

[1.15]Various types of sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

[1.16]Ideal independent voltage source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

[1.17]V-I characteristics of Ideal independent voltage source . . . . . . 15

[1.18]Ideal independent current source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
[1.19]V-I characteristics of Ideal independent current source . . . . . . 17

L
[1.20]Dependent sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

IA
[1.21]Practical Voltage source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
[1.22]Practical Current source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

R
[1.23]Various network terms associated with a circuit/network . . . . . 20

E
[1.24]Circuit currents for 20V source only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

T
[1.25]Circuit currents for 10V source only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

A
[1.26]Circuit current for 24V source only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
M
[1.27]Circuit current for 5A source only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
[1.28]Branch currents for 10V source only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
D

[1.29]Branch currents for 5V source only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

E

[1.30]Branch currents for 2A source only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

LIST OF FIGURES

T
H
IG
R
Y
P
O
0.LIST OF FIGURES

Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat EL-401

C
O
P
Y
R
IG
H
T
E
D
M
A
T
E
R
IA
L
List of Tables
C
O
P
Y
R
IG
H
T
E
D
M
A
T
E
R
IA
L
 1
L
IA
DC NETWORK

R
E
THEOREMS

T
(INDEPENDANT
A SOURCES)
M
D
E
T

1.1 Electric Circuit

H
IG

An electric circuit typically refers to a closed path through which electric current
can flow. It consists of interconnected electrical components like resistors, ca-
pacitors, inductors, voltage sources, and current sources. The elements present
R

in an electric circuit will be in series connection, parallel connection or in any

combination of series and parallel connections.
Y
P
O
C

1.2 Electric Network

Electrical network is a broad term that encompasses interconnected electric

circuits and components. It refers to a complex system of electrical elements and
circuits, often in a large-scale context, like an electrical power grid. Electrical
networks can be made up of multiple interconnected circuits and components.
 2 DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

1.3 Current

Electric current is the flow of electric charge through a conductor or a circuit.

It is a fundamental quantity in electricity and is typically measured in amperes
(A). Electric current can be thought of as the rate at which electric charges,
usually electrons, pass through a given point in a circuit.

L
The mathematical equation that defines electric current is:

IA
Q

R
I=
t

E
T
Where:

A
M
• I represents the electric current in amperes (A).
Current

• Q is the electric charge that passes through a point in the circuit, measured
in coulombs (C).
E
T

• t is the time in seconds (s) during which the charge flows.

H
1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

IG

In simpler terms, this equation tells us that electric current (I) is equal to the
amount of electric charge (Q) passing through a point in the circuit divided by
the time (t) it takes for that charge to flow through. So, one ampere (1 A) of
R

current corresponds to the flow of 1 coulomb of charge per second.

Y
P
O

1.4 Basic Circuit Terminology

C

1.4.1 Branch

A branch within an electrical circuit represents an individual electrical element

or component. Branches are the pathways that connect various nodes within the
circuit. The quantity of branches in a circuit is equal to the number of elements
or components present. For instance, in the circuit depicted in Fig. [1.1] below,
there are a total of five branches.

Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat EL-401

 Basic Circuit Terminology 3

R1 R3

V1 + R2 I1
−

L
Fig. [1.1]: Branches in an electric circuit

IA
R
E
1.4.2 Node

Basic Circuit Terminology

A
In an electrical circuit, a node represents a point where two or more circuit
M
elements or branches intersect and connect. The circuit depicted in the Fig. [1.2]
below contains a total of four nodes.
D
E

R1 R3
Node Node Node
T
H

V1 + R2 I1
−
IG

1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

R

Node
Y

Fig. [1.2]: Nodes in an electric circuit

P
O
C

1.4.3 Loop

A loop within an electrical circuit refers to a closed pathway. This pathway is

formed by commencing at a specific point (known as a node), traversing through
a series of nodes, and ultimately returning to the initial starting point, all while
ensuring that no node is visited more than once. In the illustrated circuit, as
depicted in the Fig. [1.3], there are a total of six such closed pathways or loops.

EL-401 Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat

 4 DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

R1 R3 R5

V1 + R2 R4 + V2
− −

L
Fig. [1.3]: Loops in an electric circuit

IA
R
1.4.4 Mesh

E
In an electrical circuit, a ”mesh” refers to a closed path that doesn’t enclose

T
any other closed paths within it. In Fig. [1.4], Loop1 and Loop2 are considered
meshes because they don’t contain any other closed paths within them. How-

A
ever, Loop3 is not considered a mesh because it contains both Loop1 and Loop2
Types of Elements

within it. It’s important to note that while all meshes are a type of loop, not
M
all loops qualify as meshes.
D

R1 R3
E
T

V1 + Loop 1 R2 Loop 2 + V2
− −
H

Loop 3
IG
1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

Fig. [1.4]: Loops in an electric circuit

R
Y

1.5 Types of Elements

P
O

There are ten types of elements:-

C

1. Linear and Non-linear

2. Active and Passive

3. Bilateral and Unilateral

4. Distributed and Lumped

5. Time invariant and Time varying

Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat EL-401

 Types of Elements 5

1.5.1 Linear and Non-Linear Elements

Linear Elements

Linear elements are components that exhibit a proportional relationship between

voltage and current. In simpler terms, these elements have a current response
that changes in a linear fashion when the applied voltage varies. This behavior
is easily illustrated through a voltage-current graph as shown in Fig. [1.5], which

L
for linear elements always takes the form of a straight line. This straight line

IA
graph indicates that an increase in current corresponds directly to an increase
in voltage. Examples of linear elements include resistors, inductors, capacitors
etc. as given in Fig. [1.6]. Linear elements possess several key characteristics:

R
1. They obey Ohm’s law.

E
2. They display a linear relationship between voltage and current.

T
3. Their voltage-current graph forms a straight line.

Types of Elements
4. They comply with the principles of the superposition theorem.
M
I
D
E
T

I4
H

I3
IG

1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

I2
R

I1
Y
P

0 V1 V2 V3 V4 V
O

Fig. [1.5]: I-V graph of Linear elements

C

(a) Resistor (b) Inductor (c) Capacitor

+
−

(d) Voltage source (e) Current source

Fig. [1.6]: Examples of Linear elements

EL-401 Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat

 6 DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

Non-Linear Elements

Non-linear elements are components where the current passing through them
doesn’t change proportionally with variations in the applied voltage. To grasp
this concept, one can examine a typical voltage-current graph for non-linear
elements, as illustrated in Fig. [1.7]. Unlike linear elements, the voltage-current
graph for non-linear elements doesn’t form a straight line; it takes on a curved
shape. This curve signifies that an increase in current doesn’t vary uniformly

L
or linearly with an increase in applied voltage.

IA
A prime example of a non-linear element is the PN junction diode as shown in
Fig. [1.8]. Additionally, transistors such as BJT (Bipolar Junction Transistor)
and FET (Field-Effect Transistor) also exhibit non-linear behavior.

R
Key characteristics of non-linear elements include:

E
T
1. Non-compliance with Ohm’s law.

A
Types of Elements

2. A voltage-current relationship that is non-linear.

M
3. A voltage-current graph that deviates from being a straight line.
D
E

I
T
H
IG
1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

R
Y
P

0 V
O

Fig. [1.7]: I-V graph of Non-Linear elements

C

(a) Diode (b) BJT (c) MOSFET

Fig. [1.8]: Examples of Non-Linear elements

Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat EL-401

 Types of Elements 7

1.5.2 Active and Passive Elements

Active Elements

Active elements in electrical circuits are components that provide power to other
elements within the circuit. They are indispensable components in electronic
systems, and every electronic circuit must incorporate at least one active ele-

L
ment to function properly. These active elements are responsible for actively
generating or delivering electrical energy to drive and manipulate the behavior

IA
of the circuit.
Voltage sources and current sources are common examples of active elements.

R
Voltage sources supply a consistent voltage level, ensuring a stable potential
difference across their terminals. Current sources, on the other hand, furnish a

E
constant current flow, maintaining a steady current within the circuit.

T
A

Types of Elements
M
+
−
D
E

(a) DC Voltage Source (b) DC Current Source (c) Battery (d) AC Voltage Source
T

Fig. [1.9]: Examples of Active elements

H
IG

1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

Passive Elements
R

Passive elements in electrical circuits are those that do not supply power to
Y

other components but instead absorb, consume, or dissipate electrical energy.

These elements typically transform electrical energy into other forms, such as
P

heat or light, or store it in the form of magnetic or electric fields. Common

examples of passive elements include resistors, inductors, and capacitors. They
O

play a passive role in circuits, acting as energy consumers or storage devices

rather than actively providing power to the system.
C

(a) Resistor (b) Inductor (c) Capacitor

Fig. [1.10]: Examples of Passive elements

EL-401 Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat

 8 DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

Ď Sign convention

i
+ i
-

L
Active Passive
Element Element

IA
Adjacent figure shows the sign
- +

R
convention followed in this book i i
for voltages across active and

E
passive elements when current i
passes through them.

T
A
Types of Elements

M
D
E
T
H
IG

1.5.3 Bilateral and Unilateral Elements

1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

R
Y

Bilateral Elements
P
O

Bilateral elements are characterized by their consistent behavior, which remains

C

unaffected by changes in the polarity of the applied voltage. In simpler terms,

the behavior of these components, as represented by their voltage-current (V-I)
characteristics, remains consistent regardless of whether the voltage is applied
in one direction or the opposite.

A notable feature of bilateral elements is their ability to offer the same impedance
or response when the same current flows through them, regardless of the direc-
tion of that current. This implies that for bilateral elements, any point (i,v)
on their characteristic curve will also have a corresponding point (-i,-v) on the
same curve.

Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat EL-401

 Types of Elements 9

+V

−i
-I i +I

−v

L
IA
-V

R
Fig. [1.11]: V-I characteristic curve of bilateral elements

E
T
Common examples of bilateral elements include resistors, inductors, and capac-

A
itors. These components exhibit symmetrical behavior in response to voltage

Types of Elements
changes, making them fundamental components in electronic circuits. Essen-
M
tially, the polarity of the voltage doesn’t alter their response to current flow.
D

Unilateral Elements
E

Unilateral elements are components distinguished by their behavior, where the

T

voltage-current (V-I) characteristics are notably influenced when the polarity

of the applied voltage is reversed. In simpler terms, these elements exhibit
H

changes in the magnitude of current flowing through them when the direction
of the applied voltage changes.
IG

1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

The impedance to the flow of current, provided by unilateral elements varies as
the current flow changes. This is in contrast to bilateral elements, where the
R

impedance remains consistent regardless of current direction.

Y

Common examples of unilateral elements include diodes, transistors, and similar

devices. These components are crucial because their response to voltage changes
P

is asymmetric, and they are often used for functions like rectification and signal
amplification.
O
C

1.5.4 Time Invariant and Time varying elements

Time Invariant Elements

Time-invariant elements, on the other hand, are components within electrical

circuits whose behavior, properties, or characteristics remain constant and do
not change with time. Some important points to note about time-invariant
elements include:

EL-401 Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat

 10 DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

1. Steady Behavior: Time-invariant elements exhibit steady or constant

behavior, meaning their response to electrical inputs remains consistent
over time.

2. Examples: Common examples of time-invariant elements include resis-

tors, capacitors, inductors, and passive components. These elements main-
tain their properties, such as resistance, capacitance, and inductance, re-
gardless of when they are used within a circuit.

L
3. Simplified Analysis: Analyzing circuits containing time-invariant ele-
ments is often more straightforward compared to time-varying elements,

IA
as their behavior does not change over time.

4. Fundamental Building Blocks: Time-invariant elements serve as fun-

R
damental building blocks in electronic circuits and are essential for various
circuit functions, such as filtering, impedance matching, and energy stor-

E
age.

T
A
Time Varying Elements
Electrical Network

M
Time-varying elements in electrical circuits are components whose behavior,
properties, or characteristics change as a function of time. This implies that the
way these elements interact with electrical signals or currents varies with time.
D

Some key points to understand about time-varying elements include:

E

1. Dynamic Behavior: Time-varying elements exhibit dynamic behavior,

T

meaning their response to electrical inputs evolves over time.

H

2. Examples: Common examples of time-varying elements include devices

like voltage-controlled oscillators, modulators, and amplifiers with time-
IG

dependent parameters. These elements are crucial in applications requir-

1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

ing dynamic signal processing, such as radio communication systems and

audio processing.
R

3. Complex Analysis: Analyzing circuits containing time-varying elements

Y

often involves differential equations and complex mathematics due to the

changing nature of these elements.
P

4. Signal Modulation: Time-varying elements are frequently used in ap-

O

plications where signal modulation, frequency shifting, or dynamic control

is necessary.
C

1.6 Electrical Network

An electrical network is a system composed of interconnected electrical compo-

nents, which can include sources, resistors, inductors, capacitors, diodes, and
transistors, among others. Unlike some electrical configurations, an electrical
network does not necessarily require a closed path for the flow of electric current.

Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat EL-401

 Electric Circuit 11

Examples of electrical networks include resistive networks, inductive networks,

capacitive networks, and diode networks, among others. These networks can
contain both passive elements (like resistors, inductors, and capacitors) and
active elements (like transistors and diodes) or a combination of both.

1.6.1 Active Network and Passive Network

L
Active Network

IA
An electrical network is classified as an ”active network” when it is linked to
an electromotive force (EMF) source or an active component capable of con-

R
tinuously delivering electrical energy. In active networks, there is at least one
voltage source or current source that can consistently provide power to the

E
network.

T
A
Passive Network

Electric Circuit
M
A passive network is an electrical network that operates without being connected
to any electrical source, whether it’s a voltage source or a current source. In
passive networks, there is no active supply of electrical energy; instead, they
D

rely on passive components like resistors, inductors, and capacitors to interact

with and modify the electrical signals they receive from external sources or other
E

parts of the circuit.

T
H

1.7 Electric Circuit

1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

IG

An electric circuit is a closed pathway that provides a route for electric current
to flow from a region of higher electrical potential (voltage) to a region of lower
R

electrical potential. In an electric circuit, all connections are continuous, forming

an unbroken path, and there are no open gaps or interruptions in the conducting
Y

elements. This continuous closed pathway ensures that electric current can
P

circulate through the circuit, allowing electrical energy to be transferred and

utilized for various purposes.
O

R7
C

R1 R3 R5

+ R2 R4 R6
− V1

Fig. [1.12]: An electric circuit

EL-401 Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat

 12 DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

1.7.1 Linear Circuit

A linear electric circuit is one where the relationship between the flow of electric
current and the corresponding voltage changes follows a consistent and uniform
pattern. In simpler terms, in a linear circuit, the way current behaves in response
to variations in voltage remains predictable and proportional. Linear circuits are
typically composed of linear elements, and if a circuit comprises solely of such
linear components, the entire circuit is considered linear as well. Essentially, if

L
the parameters and characteristics of an electric circuit remain constant and do

IA
not vary with fluctuations in voltage or current, it qualifies as a linear circuit.
For example, in the V-I (voltage-current) characteristics of a linear circuit shown
in Fig. [1.13], the voltage and current exhibit a linear relationship, meaning

R
that as current changes, voltage changes proportionally. This relationship can
be expressed as

E
V2 − V1 V3 − V2
=
I2 − I1 I3 − I2

T
A
indicating that the circuit’s behavior remains consistent and linear across dif-
ferent operating points.
Electric Circuit

M
I
D
E

I3
T
H

I2
1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

IG

I1
R

0 V1 V2 V3 V
Y

Fig. [1.13]: I-V characteristics of linear circuit

P
O

1.7.2 Non-Linear Circuit

C

A non-linear electric circuit is one where the relationship between voltage and
current is not uniform or predictable as the voltage changes. In simpler terms,
in a non-linear circuit, the way current responds to variations in voltage is not
consistent and doesn’t follow a straight-line pattern.
In such circuits, the parameters and characteristics of the circuit components,
like resistance or impedance, are not steady. Instead, they fluctuate with
changes in voltage and current, leading to a more complex and non-uniform
behavior in the circuit.

Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat EL-401

 Sources 13

L
IA
0 V

R
Fig. [1.14]: I-V characteristics of linear circuit

E
T
A
1.7.3 Bilateral Circuit
M
A bilateral circuit is one in which the characteristics and properties of the electric

Sources
circuit remain consistent regardless of the direction in which the current flows.
In other words, the behavior of the circuit is symmetric with respect to current
D

direction.
E

For instance, a transmission line serves as an example of a bilateral circuit. In

T

this context, whether current flows from point A to point B or from point B to
point A, the transmission line’s properties and responses remain the same. This
H

symmetrical behavior is a defining feature of bilateral circuits.

1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

IG

1.7.4 Unilateral Circuit

R

A unilateral circuit is one where the properties and characteristics of the electric
Y

circuit vary or change depending on the direction of current flow. In simpler

P

terms, the behavior of the circuit is asymmetric with respect to current direction.
O

For example, a circuit that contains diodes, such as a rectifier circuit, can be
considered a unilateral circuit. In this case, the circuit’s response and behavior
C

differ when current flows in one direction through the diodes compared to the
opposite direction. This asymmetry is a defining feature of unilateral circuits.

1.8 Sources

Sources are broadly classified into two types: Dependent and Independent
sources. Fig. [1.15] shows various types of sources.

EL-401 Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat

 14 DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

Ideal
Voltage
Voltage Sources
Sources
Practical
Voltage
Independent Sources
Sources
Ideal

L
Current
Current Sources

IA
Sources
Practical
Voltage Current

R
Sources Controlled Sources
Voltage

E
Source

T
(VCVS)

A Voltage
Controlled
M
Current
Sources

Dependent Source
Sources (VCCS)
D

Current
E

Controlled
Voltage
T

Source
H

(CCVS)
1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

IG

Current
Controlled
Current
R

Source
(CCCS)
Y

Fig. [1.15]: Various types of sources

P
O
C

1.8.1 Ideal Independent Voltage Source

An ideal independent voltage source is a two-terminal circuit element that main-

tains a constant terminal voltage no matter how much current is drawn from
it. The characteristic curve for an ideal independent voltage source is shown in
Fig. ?? below.

Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat EL-401

Sources 15

+ Arbitrary
− V
Network
I

L
IA
No matter how much
current is drawn by
the arbitrary net-

R
work, the terminal +
voltage of the sup- − V

E
ply/source is always

T
going to be the same
i.e. V .
(a) Ideal voltage source connected to a network

A (b) Symbol
M
Fig. [1.16]: Ideal independent voltage source

Sources
D
E

At any instant, the character-

T

istic curve for an ideal voltage I

source is a straight line paral-
H

1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

lel to the current axis.
IG

0
V V
R

‡ INDEPENDENT
The voltage supplied
Y

by the source does −I

P

not depend on
Fig. [1.17]: V-I characteristics of Ideal independent
voltage/current in voltage source
O

any point or part of

the circuit.
C

Ď NOTE
Two voltage sources of different
voltages cannot be connected in
parallel.

EL-401 Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat

 16 DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

+ + + +
− 2V − 5V − 2V − 2V

L
✓

IA
R
E
T
1.8.2 Ideal Independent Current Source

A
An ideal independent current source is a two terminal circuit element that will
M
supply the same current to any resistance connected across its terminals. The
Sources

current supplied by the current source is independent of the voltage at the source
terminals. The magnitude and waveform of current at the terminals of a current
D

source remain the same irrespective of the network connected to its terminals.
E
T
H

+
1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

IG

I Arbitrary
V
Network
R

-
Y
P

I
O

No matter what is the

value of V, the cur-
C

rent source will al-

ways supply current I
(a) Ideal current source connected to a network (b) Symbol

Fig. [1.18]: Ideal independent current source

At any instant, the characteristic curve for an ideal current source is a straight
line parallel to the voltage axis.

Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat EL-401

 Sources 17

−V 0 V

Fig. [1.19]: V-I characteristics of Ideal independent current source

L
IA
‡ INDEPENDENT

R
The current supplied by the source does not depend on voltage/current
in any point or part of the circuit.

E
T
A
M

Sources
Ď NOTE
D

2A 5A
E
T

2A 2A

✓
H

1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

Two current sources of different
IG

currents cannot be connected in

series.
R
Y
P

1.8.3 Dependent Sources

O
C

A dependent voltage source, also referred to as a controlled voltage source, is an

electrical component where the supplied voltage is determined by the value of
another variable elsewhere in the circuit, such as voltage or current. It is visually
represented using a diamond-shaped symbol, as illustrated in the Fig. [1.20]a
below.
A dependent current source, also known as a controlled current source, is an
electrical component where the supplied current is influenced by the value of
another variable elsewhere in the circuit, be it voltage or current. It is typically
depicted using a diamond-shaped symbol, as illustrated in the Fig. [1.20]b below.

EL-401 Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat

 18 DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

+
−

(a) Symbol of dependent voltage source (b) Symbol of dependent current source

L
Fig. [1.20]: Dependent sources

IA
R
E
T
Ď Types of Dependent Sources
A
M
R2
Sources

Voltage supplied de-

pends upon current
D

(I2 ) flowing through

R3 . So, it is a Cur- +
E

2I2 R1 R3
rent Controlled Volt- −
T

age Source (CCVS).

I1 I2
H
1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

IG

R2
Voltage supplied de-
pends upon voltage +
R

drop (V3 ) in R3 .
So, it is a Voltage +
Y

3V3 R1 V3 R3
Controlled Voltage −
P

Source (VCVS).
I1 − I2
O
C

R2
Current supplied de-
pends upon current
(I2 ) flowing through
R3 . So, it is a Cur- 5I2 R1 R3
rent Controlled Cur-
rent Source (CCCS).
I1 I2

Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat EL-401

 Sources 19

R2
Current supplied
depends upon volt- +
age drop (V3 ) in R3 .
So, it is a Voltage 2V3 R1 V3 R3
Controlled Current
Source (VCCS).
I1 − I2

L
IA
R
1.8.4 Practical/Real/Non-ideal Sources

E
Practical, real, or non-ideal voltage and current sources differ from their ideal

T
counterparts in that they reflect the constraints and imperfections present in
the real world. Unlike ideal sources, which are theoretical constructs, these

A
practical sources are influenced by real-world limitations and factors.
M
All real voltage sources have small but finite internal resistance. Hence, the

Sources
terminal voltage of a real voltage source depends on the current flowing through
the source.
D
E
T

Rinternal
H

IDEAL VOLTAGE

1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

+ SOURCES HAVE
V Supply
−
IG

ZERO INTERNAL
RESISTANCE
R
Y

Fig. [1.21]: Practical Voltage source

P
O
C

EL-401 Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat

 20 DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

All real current sources have some internal resistance so that current supplied
to the external load is dependent on the load.

IDEAL CUR-
RENT SOURCES

L
I Rinternal
HAVE INFINITE
INTERNAL RE-

IA
SISTANCE

R
E
Fig. [1.22]: Practical Current source

T
A
Network Terminology

1.9 Network Terminology

M
Fig. [1.23] shows some basic network terminology associated with a typical cir-
cuit.
D

Branch Branch
E

Node Node Node

T
H

Loop Loop
IG

Branch + Branch Branch

− (Mesh) (Mesh)
1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

Loop
Y

Node
P

Fig. [1.23]: Various network terms associated with a circuit/network

O
C

1.10 Network Theorems

Network theorems are fundamental principles in electrical engineering used to

analyze and simplify complex electrical circuits. These theorems provide sys-
tematic methods for solving circuit problems by reducing circuit components or
simplifying circuit equations. Prominent network theorems include Superposi-
tion Theorem, Thevenin’s Theorem, Norton’s Theorem, Reciprocity Theorem,
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem among others.

Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat EL-401

 Superposition Theorem 21

1.11 Superposition Theorem

The Superposition Theorem relies on the assumption of circuit element linearity,

making it particularly useful when circuits are excited by various source types,
such as AC and DC, or sources with different frequencies. Superposition is
a fundamental principle enabling the determination of the combined effect of
multiple energy sources acting simultaneously on a system. It accomplishes

L
this by separately evaluating the impact of each source in isolation and then
aggregating these individual effects.

IA
Statement of Superposition Theorem

R
Within a linear network containing multiple independent energy sources,
the overall response in any branch results from the algebraic sum of

E
responses due to each independent source, each considered individually
while all other ideal independent sources are set to zero.

T
A

Superposition Theorem
M
1.11.1 Procedure of analyzing a circuit by superposition theorem

To analyze a circuit using the Superposition Theorem, follow these steps:

D
E

Step-¬: Begin by choosing one source within the circuit.

T

Step-­: Disable all other independent sources by setting them to zero. This means
replacing ideal voltage sources with short circuits and ideal current sources
H

with open circuits.

IG

Step-®: If there are dependent sources in the circuit, leave them unaffected.

1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

Step-¯: For the selected source mentioned in Step ¬, determine the current flowing
R

through the specific branch of interest.

Step-°: Iterate through Steps ¬ to ¯ for each source individually. Calculate the
Y

current in the desired branch for each selected source.

P

Step-±: Finally, combine all the calculated currents algebraically to determine the
O

total current flowing through the desired branch.

C

EL-401 Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat

 22 DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

1.11.2 Solved Examples

EXAMPLE
Calculate the current in each branch of the circuit shown in figure
1.1 below using Superposition Theorem.

2Ω 2Ω

L
IA
20 V + 4Ω +
− − 10 V

R
E
T
Solution:

A
Superposition Theorem

Selecting the 20V source, short circuiting the 10V source and assuming currents
M
in branches:

Let I1 , I2 and I3 be the branch currents as shown in the figure below.

D

2Ω 2Ω
A B C
E

I1 I3
T
H

20 V + 4Ω
−
IG

I2
1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

D
R
Y

Taking KVL in mesh ABDA, we have

P

+20 − 2I1 − 4I2 = 0

O

=⇒ I1 + 2I2 = 10 − − − − − − − (1)
C

Taking KVL in loop ABCDA, we have

+20 − 2I1 − 2I3 = 0

=⇒ I1 + I3 = 10 − − − − − − − (2)

Taking KCL at node B, we have

I1 = I2 + I3 − − − − − − − (3)

Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat EL-401

Superposition Theorem 23

Solving (1), (2) and (3), we have

I1 = 6A
I2 = 2A
I3 = 4A

So, the circuit diagram after solving I1 , I2 and I3 is shown in Fig. [1.24].

L
2Ω 2Ω
A B C

IA
6A 4A

R
20 V + 4Ω
−

E
2A

T
D

Superposition Theorem
Fig. [1.24]: Circuit currents for 20V source only
M
Selecting the 10V source, short circuiting 20V source and assuming currents in
D

branches:
E

2Ω 2Ω
A B C
T

I6 I4
H

4Ω + 10 V
−
IG

1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

I5
R

D
Y
P

Let I4 , I5 and I6 be the branch currents as shown in the figure above.

Taking KVL in mesh in CBDC, we have
O

+10 − 2I4 − 4I5 = 0

C

=⇒ I4 + 2I5 = 5 − − − − − − − (4)
Taking KVL in loop CBADC, we have
+10 − 2I4 − 2I6 = 0
=⇒ I4 + I6 = 5 − − − − − − − (5)
Taking KCL at node B, we have
I4 = I5 + I6 − − − − − − − (6)

EL-401 Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat

 24 DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

Solving (4), (5) and (6), we have

I4 = 3A
I5 = 1A
I6 = 2A

So, the circuit diagram after solving I4 , I5 and I6 is shown in Fig. [1.25].

L
IA
2Ω 2Ω
A B C

R
2A 3A

E
4Ω 10 V
−

T
1A

A
Superposition Theorem

D
M
Fig. [1.25]: Circuit currents for 10V source only
D

Now, we algebraically add all the currents in all the branches from Fig. [1.24]
E

and Fig. [1.25] as shown below:

T
H

2Ω 2Ω
A B C
IG

(6-2)A (4-3)A
1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

+ 20 V 4Ω + 10 V
R

− −
(2+1)A
Y
P

D
O
C

2Ω 2Ω

4A 1A

+ 20 V 4Ω + 10 V
− −
3A

Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat EL-401

Superposition Theorem 25

EXAMPLE
Determine the current I in the circuit shown in figure below using
1.2 Superposition Theorem.

6Ω 6Ω

L
24 V 6Ω 5A
−

IA
R
Solution:

E
Selecting 24V source and open circuiting the 5A source

T
6Ω 6Ω
A B C

Superposition Theorem
0A
M
24 V + 6Ω
− I1
D
E

D
T
H

Let I1 be the current flowing in mesh ABDA while current in the mesh BCDB
is zero as the path is open.
IG

1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

Taking KVL in mesh ABDA, we have
R

+24 − 6I1 − 6I1 = 0

Y

=⇒ I1 = 2A

So, the circuit diagram after solving I1 is shown in Fig. [1.26].

P
O

6Ω 6Ω
A B C
C

2A 0A

24 V + 6Ω
−

2A

D
Fig. [1.26]: Circuit current for 24V source only

EL-401 Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat

 26 DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

Selecting 5A current source, short cicuiting 24V source and assuming currents
in branches

6Ω 6Ω
A B C

I3 5A

6Ω 5A

L
IA
I2

R
E
Taking KVL in mesh BADB, we get

T
A
Superposition Theorem

−6I3 + 6I2 = 0
=⇒ I2 = I3 − − − − − − − (1)
M
Taking KCL at node B, we get
D

I2 + I3 = 5 − − − − − − − (2)
E

Solving (1) and (2), we get

T
H

I2 = 2.5A
I3 = 2.5A
IG
1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

So, the circuit diagram after solving I2 and I3 is shown in Fig. [1.27].
R

6Ω 6Ω
Y

A B C
P

2.5 A 5A
O

6Ω 5A
C

2.5 A

D
Fig. [1.27]: Circuit current for 5A source only

Now, we algebraically add all the currents in the branch BD from Fig. [1.26]
and Fig. [1.27] as shown below:

Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat EL-401

Superposition Theorem 27

(2+2.5)A=4.5A
6Ω

L
D

IA
R
Thus, I = 4.5A.

E
EXAMPLE
Determine the current in all branches of the circuit shown in figure

T
1.3 below using Superposition theorem.

Superposition Theorem
2A
M
D

2Ω 2Ω
E
T

+ 4Ω +
10 V − − 5V
H
IG

1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

Solution:
R

Considering the 10V source only and assuming currents in branches, we have:
Y
P
O

2Ω 2Ω
C

I1 I3

+ 4Ω
10 V −

I2

Providing ground node and various node voltages, we have:

EL-401 Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat

 28 DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

2Ω Vx 2Ω
10V 0V
I1 I3

+ 4Ω
10 V −

L
I2

IA
0V

R
Now, from the figure,

E
10 − Vx

T
I1 =
2
Vx − 0

A
Superposition Theorem

Vx
I2 = =
4 4
M
Vx − 0 Vx
I3 = =
2 2
D

Also, applying KCL we have,

E

I1 = I2 + I3
10 − Vx Vx Vx
T

=⇒ = +
2 4 2
H

=⇒ Vx = 4V
IG

So,
1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

10 − 4 4 4
R

I1 = = 3A; I2 = = 1A; I3 = = 2A
2 4 2
Y

So, the branch currents for 10V source only is shown in Fig. [1.28] below:
P
O

2Ω 2Ω
C

3A 2A

+ 4Ω
10 V −

1A

Fig. [1.28]: Branch currents for 10V source only

Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat EL-401

Superposition Theorem 29

Considering the 5V source only and assuming currents in branches, we have:

2Ω 2Ω

I6 I4

L
4Ω +
− 5V

IA
I5

R
E
Providing ground node and various node voltages, we have:

T
A

Superposition Theorem
2Ω Vy 2Ω
M
0V 5V
I6 I4
D

4Ω +
− 5V
E

I5
T

0V
H
IG

Now, from the figure,

1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

5 − Vy
R

I4 =
2
Vy − 0 Vy
Y

I5 = =
4 4
Vy − 0
P

Vy
I6 = =
2 2
O

Also, applying KCL, we have:

C

I4 = I5 + I6
5 − Vy Vy Vy
=⇒ = +
2 4 2
=⇒ Vy = 2V

So,
5−2 2 2
I4 = = 1.5A; I5 = = 0.5A; I6 = = 1A
2 4 2

EL-401 Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat

 30 DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

So, the branch currents for 5V source only is shown in Fig. [1.29] below:

2Ω 2Ω

1A 1.5 A

L
4Ω +
− 5V

IA
0.5 A

R
Fig. [1.29]: Branch currents for 5V source only

E
T
Considering the 2A source only, we have:

A
Superposition Theorem

2A
M
D

2Ω 2Ω
E
T

4Ω
H
IG
1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

Solving for branch currents using current division rule, we have:

Y

2A
P
O

2Ω 0.8 A 2Ω 0.8 A
C

4Ω

0.4 A

Fig. [1.30]: Branch currents for 2A source only

Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat EL-401

 Thevenin’s Theorem 31

Adding the currents algebraically in all the branches as given in Fig. [1.28],
Fig. [1.29] and Fig. [1.30], we have:

2A

2Ω 2Ω

L
(3-1+0.8)A (1.5+0.8-2)A

IA
+ 4Ω +
− 10 V − 5V

R
(1+0.5-0.4)A

E
T
A
Hence, the branch currents are:

Thevenin’s Theorem
M
2A
D

2Ω 2Ω
E
T

2.8A 0.3A
H

+ 4Ω +
− 10 V − 5V
IG

1. DC NETWORK THEOREMS (INDEPENDANT SOURCES)

1.1A
R
Y

1.12 Thevenin’s Theorem

P
O

Statement of Thevenin’s Theorem

C

A linear two terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent circuit

consisting of a voltage source Vth in series with a resistor Rth , where Vth
is the open circuit voltage at the load terminals and Rth is the input or
equivalent resistance at the load terminals when the independent sources
are turned off.

EL-401 Department of Electrical Engineering, H.R.H. The P.O.W.I.E.T., Jorhat