KAJ / CSJAQ & KAJ / SAJ

5. Text

What distinguishes written (or spoken) texts from a random collection of sentences (or utterances) is
the quality of textuality. Textual units are connected with one another by means of what is called
connectivity, connexity, or continuity.

Cohesion and coherence

When writing, we use different ways to make our sentences flow smoothly and make sense together.
One way is to use grammar and word choices that connect the sentences. This is called cohesion.
Another way is to make sure that the sentences are all about the same topic. This is called coherence.

STATE EXAM TERMINOLOGY

Cohesion is the degree to which a sentence transitions smoothly to the next sentence. Cohesion
involves links between sentences and is thus more objective and visible at the surface.
Coherence concerns the internal logical continuity of the subject discussed in a piece of text. It occurs
at a deeper semantic level, making it more subjective and more difficult to measure than cohesion.

Cohesion is more straightforward, as it is easier to identify its concrete devices, which typically appear
at the beginning of sentences.

Task 1
Look at this passage. Explain how the highlighted words serve to connect the sentences to the
preceding ones.

Herons migrate annually, often traveling thousands of miles. These birds typically fly south during the winter to
find warmer climates. In addition, they prefer wetland areas where food is abundant. Once they arrive, herons
establish temporary habitats near rivers and lakes. This behavior is crucial for their survival. Though some
remain in their breeding grounds year-round, most migrate. Likewise, younger herons tend to follow the same
paths as their parents. The journey can be long and dangerous, yet they persevere, ensuring the continuation of
their species.

STATE EXAM TERMINOLOGY

Functional sentence perspective (FSP) – a theory that accounts for how information is distributed
in a sentence.
Note that in this passage the sentences begin by mentioning something that was described in the
previous sentences. This follows the theme-rheme order, where the theme refers to known (familiar)
information, and the rheme is the ending of a sentence containing new information.
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Task 2
The following two paragraphs differ only in terms of the word order in the second sentence
(underlined). Which paragraph is more cohesive?

Some astonishing questions about the nature of the universe have been raised by scientists exploring the nature
of black holes in space. The collapse of a dead star into a point perhaps no larger than a marble creates a black
hole. So much matter compressed into so little volume changes the fabric of space around it in profoundly
puzzling ways.

Some astonishing questions about the nature of the universe have been raised by scientists exploring the nature
of black holes in space. A black hole is created by the collapse of a dead star into a point perhaps no larger than a
marble. So much matter compressed into so little volume changes the fabric of space around it in profoundly
puzzling ways. (Williams 1990: 47)

Coherence

Task 3
What point does the author make about the passage in italics?

Even if every sentence in a text is crisp, lucid, and well formed, a succession of them can feel choppy,
disjointed, unfocused—in a word, incoherent. Consider this passage:

The northern United States and Canada are places where herons live and breed. Spending the winter
here has its advantages. Great Blue Herons live and breed in most of the northern United States. It’s an
advantage for herons to avoid the dangers of migration. Herons head south when the cold weather
arrives. The earliest herons to arrive on the breeding grounds have an advantage. The winters are
relatively mild in Cape Cod.

The individual sentences are clear enough, and they obviously pertain to a single topic. But the passage
is incomprehensible. By the second sentence we’re wondering about where here is. The third has us
puzzling over whether great blue herons differ from herons in general, and if they do, whether these
herons live only in the northern United States, unlike the other herons, who live in Canada as well. The
fourth sentence seems to come out of the blue, and the fifth seems to contradict the fourth. The
paragraph is then rounded out with two non sequiturs. (Pinker 2014: 104)

Task 4
Readers look for a connection between sentences (or clauses within a sentence). Sometimes people may
seek and supply coherence when none exists. Look at the examples below and explain what elements of
coherence suggest themselves that were not intended by the author.

The sermon this morning: “Jesus Walks on the Water.” The sermon tonight will be “Searching for Jesus.”
Dog for sale: Eats anything and is fond of children.
We do not tear your clothing with machinery. We do it carefully by hand.
The patient has been depressed ever since she began seeing me in 2008.

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The coherence of a text depends on shared knowledge of so-called scripts and schemas.
Schemas refer to our mental models of concepts such as dog, bicycle, or weather. We know what a dog
looks like, and how it behaves, etc. We know it can be either friendly or vicious. This knowledge is
assumed to be shared by language users. This way, a text can be brief, without the need to mention
many details.

Task 5
In the following passage, what information is not mentioned explicitly on the assumption that the
reader shares the dog schema?

As Sarah walked through the park, she noticed a stray dog approaching her. She tensed slightly. After a
moment’s hesitation, she glanced around to see if anyone was nearby, perhaps its owner. A man jogging by
slowed down and said, “Don’t worry, it’s probably had its shots. Strays around here are usually taken care of.”

Scripts are a subtype of schemas that deal specifically with sequences of actions or events that are
expected to occur in a specific order within familiar contexts. Writers presuppose that their readers
share their scripts, as in the following example:

As soon as John entered the restaurant, he looked around for a table. Seeing none available, he
approached the host and asked how long the wait would be. The host glanced at the screen and said,
'About 20 minutes.' John nodded, then moved to the waiting area, where several people were already
seated. He took out his phone, checked the time, and hoped the kitchen wouldn't be too slow tonight.

In this case, to understand the passage, the reader must be familiar with the following:
Restaurant Script: The reader understands what happens when someone enters a restaurant—finding
a table, interacting with a host, waiting, and dealing with the kitchen's speed. This is part of the shared
restaurant script.
Host and Waiting Script: The reader knows that a host is responsible for seating guests and managing
wait times, so when John asks about the wait, it's immediately clear that there's a procedure for
handling such requests.
Waiting Area: The mention of a "waiting area" presupposes that readers understand it's a common
feature in restaurants where guests sit while waiting for their tables.

Informativity
This is reader centred and refers to the degree to which the text produced is expected or unexpected,
and whether it repeats what is known already or provides new information. No text provides only old
or only new information, but the ratio of the two can vary considerably and depends on the writer’s
intentions and assessment of the reader. Texts about well known things are easy to produce and
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understand, but can also easily bore the reader. Texts that give a lot of new information, on the other
hand, are more difficult to understand, though they are likely to be of greater interest to readers.

Task 6
Decide which of the following are low and which are high on informativity.

Automated email responses

Basic advertisements (e.g. buy now!, best prices)
Conversations about the weather
Encyclopedia entries
Legal documents
Medicine information leaflets
Social media updates (e.g. feeling blessed)
User's manuals

Intertextuality
This stresses the fact that the production and reception of texts and text units often depend upon both
the writer’s and the reader’s knowledge of other texts or text forms and important concepts associated
with them. Intertextuality allows writers to pack more significance into fewer words, creating
connections that enhance interpretation through allusion rather than explicit explanation.
For example, the line “Tomorrow is another day” spoken by Scarlett O’Hara in Gone with the Wind, is
used to convey hope, resilience, or the possibility of starting fresh after a setback. After an election loss
or personal failure, a headline might read, "Tomorrow Is Another Day: A New Chapter Begins,"
suggesting the promise of future opportunities.
Intertextuality can be exploited without specific phrasal references. For instance, The Lion King draws
heavily on Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Audiences familiar with Hamlet recognize parallels between Simba’s
struggle to avenge his father’s death and Hamlet’s similar quest. This deepens the emotional and
thematic resonance, as The Lion King indirectly inherits the weight of Hamlet’s exploration of themes
like betrayal, guilt, and revenge.

Task 7
Read the following excerpt from Travor Noah’s Born A Crime. He talks about visiting his 80-year-old
grandfather, who married again and had children with his new wife.
What effect does the author achieve through the reference to Game of Thrones?

(…) we visited them sparingly because my mom was always afraid of being poisoned. Which was a thing
that would happen. The first family were the heirs, so there was always the chance they might get
poisoned by the second family. It was like Game of Thrones with poor people. We’d go into that house
and my mom would warn me.
“Trevor, don’t eat the food.”
“But I’m starving.”
“No. They might poison us.”

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Task 8
Modern political discussions or news articles often reference “Big Brother” or the slogan “Big Brother
is watching you.” What elements of Orwell’s dystopian vision in 1984 are being alluded to? What is the
intertextual reference intended to critique? List key concepts (e.g. government overreach)

Recap questions

Which of the following is an example of a cohesive device?

(A) Changing the subject.
(B) Using pronouns to refer back to a noun.
(C) Introducing new topics for variety.
(D) Changing tense within the same sentence.

What is meant by 'Functional Sentence Perspective' (FSP)?

(A) The grammatical correctness of sentences.
(B) The distribution of old and new information within a sentence.
(C) The length and structure of sentences.
(D) The use of connectives and pronouns for coherence.

Which of the following is high in informativity?

(A) Basic advertisements.
(B) Automated email responses.
(C) Social media updates.
(D) Legal documents.

______________ refers to allusions to specific texts to influence the meaning of a new text.
The notion of _____________ is concerned with how much new vs. old information is provided in a text.
_____________ are shared mental models that help readers understand concepts in a text without
needing explicit explanation.

References
Pinker, S. 2014. The sense of style: the thinking person’s guide to writing in the 21st century. New York: Viking.
Williams, J. M. 1990. Style: toward clarity and grace. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.