Power Electronics and Electronic Instruments Module 1

Module 1.

Brief History of Power Electronics

The first Power Electronic Device developed was the Mercury Arc Rectifier during the year
1900. Then the other Power devices like metal tank rectifier, grid controlled vacuum tube rectifier,
ignitron, phanotron, thyratron and magnetic amplifier, were developed & used gradually for power
control applications until 1950.
The first SCR (silicon controlled rectifier) or Thyristor was invented and developed by Bell
Lab’s in 1956 which was the first PNPN triggering transistor. The second electronic revolution
began in the year 1958 with the development of the commercial grade Thyristor by the General
Electric Company (GE). Thus the new era of power electronics was born. After that many different
types of power semiconductor devices & power conversion techniques have been introduced.The
power electronics revolution is giving us the ability to convert, shape and control large amounts of
power.

Power Electronic System:

Power Electronic Applications

 COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS

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 Power Electronics and Electronic Instruments Module 1

o Heating Systems Ventilating, Air Conditioners, Central Refrigeration, Lighting, Computers

and Office equipment, Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS), Elevators, and Emergency
Lamps.
 DOMESTIC APPLICATIONS
o Cooking Equipment, Lighting, Heating, Air Conditioners, Refrigerators & Freezers, Personal
Computers, Entertainment Equipment, UPS.
 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
o Pumps, compressors, blowers and fans. Machine tools, arc furnaces, induction furnaces
 AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
o Space shuttle power supply systems, satellite power systems, aircraft power systems.
 TELECOMMUNICATIONS
o Battery chargers, power supplies (DC and UPS), mobile cell phone battery chargers.
 TRANSPORTATION
o Traction control of electric vehicles, battery chargers for electric vehicles, electric
locomotives, street cars, trolley buses, automobile electronics including engine controls.

CLASSIFICATION OF POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

The power semiconductor devices are used as on/off switches in power control circuit.
These devices are classified as follows.

The Thyristors can be subdivided into different types

 Forced-commutated Thyristors (Inverter grade Thyristors)
 Line-commutated Thyristors (converter-grade Thyristors)
 Gate-turn off Thyristors (GTO).
 Reverse conducting Thyristors (RCT’s).
 Static Induction Thyristors (SITH).
 Gate assisted turn-off Thyristors (GATT).
 Light activated silicon controlled rectifier (LASCR) or Photo SCR’s.
 MOS-Controlled Thyristors (MCT’s).

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 Power Electronics and Electronic Instruments Module 1

Types of Power Converters or Types of Power Electronic Circuits

For the control of electric power supplied to the load or the equipment/machinery or for
power conditioning the conversion of electric power from one form to other is necessary and the
switching characteristic of power semiconductor devices (Thyristors) facilitate these conversions.
The different types of thyristor power converters are
 Diode rectifiers (uncontrolled rectifiers).
 Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC TO DC Converters)
 DC choppers (DC to DC converters).
 Inverters (DC to AC converters).
 Cyclo converters (AC to AC converters at low output frequency).
 AC voltage controllers or AC regulators.

1. Phase Controlled Rectifiers (AC TO DC Converters)

These are AC to DC converters. The line commutated converters are AC to DC power
converters. These are also referred to as controlled rectifiers. The line commutated converters
(controlled rectifiers) are used to convert a fixed voltage, fixed frequency AC power supply
to obtain a variable DC output voltage.
AC to DC power converters are widely used in
 Speed control of DC motors.
 UPS.
 HVDC transmission.
 Battery Chargers.

2. CHOPPERS or DC TO DC Converters
The choppers are power circuits which obtain power from a fixed voltage DC supply and
convert it into a variable DC voltage. They are also called as DC choppers or DC to DC converters.
Choppers employ forced commutation to turn off the Thyristors. DC choppers are further classified
into several types depending on the direction of power flow and the type of commutation.
DC choppers are widely used in
 Speed control of DC motors from a DC supply.
 DC drives for sub-urban traction.
 Switching power supplies.

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 Power Electronics and Electronic Instruments Module 1

3. INVERTERS or DC TO AC Converters
The inverters are used for converting DC power from a fixed voltage DC supply into an AC output
voltage of variable frequency and fixed or variable output AC voltage. The inverters also employ
force commutation method to turn off the Thyristors.
Applications of inverters are in
 Industrial AC drives using induction and synchronous motors.
 Uninterrupted power supplies (UPS system) used for computers, computer labs.

4. AC TO AC Converters with Low Output Frequency or CYCLO CONVERTERS

The cyclo converters convert power from a fixed voltage fixed frequency AC supply to a variable
frequency and variable AC voltage at the output. The cyclo converters generally produce output AC
voltage at a lower output frequency. That is output frequency of the AC output is less than input AC
supply frequency.
Applications of cyclo-converters are traction vehicles and gearless rotary kilns.

5. AC voltage controllers or AC regulators.

The AC voltage controllers convert the constant frequency, fixed voltage AC supply into variable AC
voltage at the same frequency using line commutation.
AC regulators (RMS voltage controllers) are mainly used for
 Speed control of AC motor.
 Speed control of fans (domestic and industrial fans).
 AC pumps, Tap changers.
 Lighting Controls

THYRISTORS
A thyristor is the most important type of power semiconductor devices. They are extensively used
in power electronic circuits. They are operated as bi-stable switches from non-conducting to
conducting state. It was invented in the year 1957 at Bell Labs. The Different types of Thyristors are
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR).
 TRIAC
 DIAC
 Gate Turn Off Thyristor (GTO)

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 Power Electronics and Electronic Instruments Module 1

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR).

A thyristor is a four layer, semiconductor of p-n-p-n structure with three p-n junctions. It
has three terminals, the anode, cathode and the gate.
Symbol. Structure

Steady State Characteristics of Anode and Cathode

Circuit diagram V-I Characteristics

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 Power Electronics and Electronic Instruments Module 1

Reverse Blocking Region: When the anode is made negative with respect the cathode
junctions J 1 & J 3 are reverse biased and junction J 2 is forward biased. With cathode to anode
voltage V AK being large, only leakage current flows through the device called as reverse leakage
current. The SCR is then said to be in the reverse blocking state. If V AK is further increased to a
large value, the reverse biased junction J1 and J3 will breakdown due to avalanche effect resulting
in a large reverse current through the device. The voltage at which this phenomenon occurs is
called the reverse breakdown voltage V BR, and the device may be damaged.
Forward Conduction Region: When the anode is made positive with respect the cathode
junctions J 1 & J 3 are forward biased and junction J 2 is reverse biased. With anode to cathode
voltage V AK being small, only leakage current flows through the device. The SCR is then said to be
in the forward blocking state. If V AK is further increased to a large value, the reverse biased
junction J 2 will breakdown due to avalanche effect resulting in a large current through the device.
The voltage at which this phenomenon occurs is called the forward breakdown( or Forward
Breakover) voltage V BO . Since the other junctions J 1 & J 3 are already forward biased, there will
be free movement of carriers across all three junctions resulting in a large forward anode current.
Once the SCR is switched on, the voltage drop across it is very small, typically 1 to 1.5V. The anode
current is limited only by the external impedance present in the circuit.
Although an SCR can be turned on by increasing the forward voltage beyond V BO , in
practice, the forward voltage is maintained well below V BO and the SCR is turned on by applying
leakage current through the junction J 2 is increased. This is because the resulting gate current
consists mainly of electron flow from cathode to gate. Since the bottom end layer is heavily doped
as compared to the p-layer, due to the applied voltage, some of these electrons reach junction J 2
and add to the minority carrier concentration in the p-layer. This raises the reverse leakage current
and results in breakdown of junction J 2 even though the applied forward voltage is less than the
breakdown voltage V BO . With increase in gate current breakdown occurs earlier.
Holding Current I H
After an SCR has been switched to the on state a certain minimum value of anode current is
required to maintain the thyristor in this low impedance state. If the anode current is reduced
below the critical holding current value, the thyristor cannot maintain the current through it and
reverts to its off state usually I is associated with turn off the device.
Latching Current I L
After the SCR has switched on, there is a minimum current required to sustain conduction.
This current is called the latching current. I L associated with turn on and is usually greater than
holding current.

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 Power Electronics and Electronic Instruments Module 1

Thyristor Gate Characteristics

The gate voltage is plotted with respect to gate current in the above characteristics. I g(max)
is the maximum gate current that can flow through the thyristor without damaging it Similarly V
g(max) is the maximum gate voltage to be applied. Similarly V g ( min ) and I g(min) are minimum
gate voltage and current, below which thyristor will not be turned-on. Hence to turn-on the
thyristor successfully the gate current and voltage should be
I g(min)< I g < I g(max)
V g ( min) < V g < V g ( max)
The characteristic of Fig. 3.6 also shows the curve for constant gate power (P g ). Thus for
reliable turn-on, the (V g, I g )point must lie in the shaded area in Fig. It turns-on thyristor
successfully. Note that any spurious voltage/current spikes at the gate must be less than V g ( min)
and I g(min) to avoid false triggering of the thyristor. The gate characteristics shown in Fig are for
DC values of gate voltage and current.

Requirement of Gate Drive

 The maximum gate power should not be exceeded by gate drive, otherwise thyristor will be
damaged.
 The gate voltage and current should be within the limits specified by gate characteristics for
successful turn-on.
 The width of the pulse should be sufficient to turn-on the thyristor successfully.
 The gate drive should be isolated electrically from the thyristor. This avoids any damage to
the trigger circuit if in case thyristor is damaged.
 The gate drive should not exceed permissible negative gate to cathode voltage, otherwise the
thyristor is damaged.
 The gate drive circuit should not sink current out of the thyristor after turn-on.

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 Power Electronics and Electronic Instruments Module 1

Thyristor Turn OFF Mechanism:

When an SCR is turned on by the gate signal, the gate loses control over the device and the
device can be brought back to the blocking state only by reducing the forward current to a level
below that of the holding current. In AC circuits, however, the current goes through a natural zero
value and the device will automatically switch off. But in DC circuits, where no neutral zero value of
current exists, the forward current is reduced by applying a reverse voltage across anode and
cathode and thus forcing the current through the SCR to zero. As in the case of diodes, the SCR has a
reverse recovery time t rr which is due to charge storage in the junctions of the SCR. These excess
carriers take some time for recombination resulting in the gate recovery time or reverse
recombination time t gr .
Thus, the turn-off time t q is the sum of the durations for which reverse recovery current
flows after the application of reverse voltage and the time required for the recombination of all
excess carriers present. At the end of the turn off time, a depletion layer develops across J 2 and the
junction can now withstand the forward voltage. The turn off time is dependent on the anode
current, the magnitude of reverse V g applied ad the magnitude and rate of application of the
forward voltage. The turn off time for converter grade SCR’s is 50 to 100usec and that for inverter
grade SCR’s is 10 to 20usec.
To ensure that SCR has successfully turned off , it is required that the circuit off time t c be
greater than SCR turn off time t q .

Thyristor Turn-ON Methods:

Forward Voltage Triggering: This is triggering without application of gate voltage with only
application of a large voltage across the anode-cathode such that it is greater than the forward
breakdown voltage V BO . This type of turn on is destructive and should be avoided.
Thermal Triggaring (Temperature): If the temperature of the thyristor is high, there will be an
increase in charge carriers which would increase the leakage current in junction j2. This would

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 Power Electronics and Electronic Instruments Module 1

cause the thyristor to turn on. This type of turn on many cause thermal run away and is usually
avoided.
Light Triggering: If light(photons) be allowed to fall on the junctions of a thyristor, charge carrier
concentration would increase which may turn on the SCR. For example the LASCR- Light activated
SCRs are turned on by allowing light to strike the silicon wafer.
dv/dt Triggering: Under transient conditions, the capacitances of the p-n junction will influence the
characteristics of a thyristor. If the thyristor is in the blocking state, a rapidly rising voltage applied
across the device would cause a high current to flow through the device resulting in turn-on. If i j 2
is the current throught the junction j 2 and C j 2 is the junction capacitance and V j 2 is the voltage
across j 2 , then

From the above equation, we see that if dv/dt is large, I j2 will be large. A high value of
charging current may damage the thyristor and the device must be protected against high dv/dt.
The manufacturers specify the allowable dv/dt.
Gate Triggering: Gate triggering is the method practically employed to turn-on the thyristor. Gate
triggering can be done into 3 ways.
AC Gate Triggering: this is most commonly used for the gate signal in all application of
thyristor control. This provides a an isolation between power and control circuit. The firing angle
can be changed very conveniently by changing the phase angle of control signal
The disadvantage is that the drive is maintained only for positive half cycle and reverse
voltage is applied on gate-cathode during negative half cycle. This needs a separate transformer
which adds to the cost.
DC Gate Triggering: Here a d.c. voltage of proper magnitude and polarity is applied
between the gate-chathode junction. When the voltage is sufficiently applied, the device starts
conducting.
The drawback is both power and control circuits are d.c. and there is no isolation between
them, as well there is a continues d.c. signal is applied on gate causing more gate power loss.
Pulse Gate Triggering: this is most popular method for triggering the device. Here the gate
drive consists of single pulse appearing periodically or in a sequence of high frequency pulses. This
is known as carrier frequency gating. A pulse transformer is used for isolation. Here there is no
need to apply gate signal continuously and hence gate losses are very much reduced.

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 Power Electronics and Electronic Instruments Module 1

Turn OFF Methods:

Commutation basically means the transfer of currents from one path to another. It is not
possible to thyristor to turn itself OFF; the circuit in which it is connected must reduce thyristor
current to zero to enable it to turn OFF. Therefore commutation is the term used to describe
turning OFF method of the thyristor. There are two methods:
Natural Commutation: his type of commutation takes place when supply voltage is AC,
because a negative voltage will appear across the SCR in the negative half cycle of the supply
voltage and the SCR turns off by itself. Hence no special circuits are required to turn off the SCR.
That is the reason that this type of commutation is called Natural or Line Commutation. This type of
commutation is applied in ac voltage controllers, phase controlled rectifiers and cyclo converters.
Forced Commutation: When supply is DC, natural commutation is not possible because the
polarity of the supply remains unchanged. Hence special methods must be used to reduce the SCR
current below the holding value or to apply a negative voltage across the SCR for a time interval
greater than the turn off time of the SCR. This technique is called FORCED COMMUTATION.

Forced commutations are classified as following methods:

1. Class A- self Commutation by Resonating the load.
2. Class B- self Commutation by an LC circuit.
3. Class C- Complementary commutation.
4. Class D- Auxiliary commutation
5. Class E- External Pulse commutation.
6. Class F- A.C. line commutation

Class A- self Commutation by Resonating the load.

In this type of commutation the current through the SCR is reduced below the holding
current value by resonating the load. i.e., the load circuit is so designed that even though the supply
voltage is positive, an oscillating current tends to flow and when the current through the SCR
reaches zero, the device turns off. This is done by including an inductance and a capacitor in series
with the load and keeping the circuit under-damped. Figure shows the circuit. This type of
commutation is used in Series Inverter Circuit.

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 Power Electronics and Electronic Instruments Module 1

The load RL and the commutating components are so selected that they should generate
underdamped resonant circuit, when it is excited the reverse voltage is applied on the thyristor
which will push it towards turn OFF condition.

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 Power Electronics and Electronic Instruments Module 1

Class B- self Commutation by an LC circuit.

This is a type of commutation in which a LC series circuit is connected across the SCR. Since
the commutation circuit has negligible resistance it is always under-damped i.e., the current in LC
circuit tends to oscillate whenever the SCR is on. Initially the SCR is off and the capacitor is charged
to V volts with plate ‘a’ being positive. Referring to figure the SCR is turned ON by giving a gate
pulse. A current IL flows through the load and this is assumed to be constant. At the same time SCR
short circuits the LC combination which starts oscillating. A current ‘i’ starts flowing in the direction
shown in figure. As ‘i’ reaches its maximum value, the capacitor voltage reduces to zero and then
the polarity of the capacitor voltage reverses ‘b’ becomes positive. When ‘i’ falls to zero this reverse
voltage becomes maximum, and then direction of ‘i’ reverses i.e., through SCR the load current IL
and ‘i’ flow in opposite direction. When the instantaneous value of ‘i’ becomes equal to I L , the SCR
current becomes zero and the SCR turns off. Now the capacitor starts charging and its voltage
reaches the supply voltage with plate a being positive. The related waveforms are shown in figure.

Gate Trigger Circuit:

1. Resistance firing circuit.

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 Power Electronics and Electronic Instruments Module 1

A simple resistance triggering circuit is as shown. The resistor R 1 limits the current
through the gate of the SCR. R is the variable resistance added to the circuit to achieve control over
the triggering angle of SCR. Resistor ‘Rb’ is a stabilizing resistor. The diode D is required to ensure
that no negative voltage reaches the gate of the SCR.
1. As es is positive, SCR becomes forward biased, but it will not conduct (eL = 0 ) until gate
current exceeds Ig(min)
2. The positive es also applied on diode and junction of SCR, there flows a gate current.
3. The gate current Ig reaches Ig(min) the SCR turns ON and e is approximately equal to es.
4. The SCR remains ON until es decreases to the point where the load current is below SCR
holding current.
5. The SCR now turns OFF and remains OFF while es goes negative since anode-cathode is
reverse biased and the load voltage is zero during this period.
6. The purpose of diode is to prevent the gate-cathode reverse bias from exceeding peak
reverse gate voltage during negative half cycle of es.
7. The same sequence is repeated when es goes positive.
Here the circuit is designed well to get a firing pulse by using the equations:
Rmin >= Emax/Igm
The stabilizing resistor Rb <= (Rv + Rmin)/(Emax-Vg(max))
The thyristor will be triggered when instantaneous anode voltage
es = Igmin (Rv + Rmin) + Vd + Vg(min)

2. Resistance Capacitance firing circuit.

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 Power Electronics and Electronic Instruments Module 1

Capacitor ‘C’ in the circuit is connected to shift the phase of the gate voltage. D 1 is used to
prevent negative voltage from reaching the gate cathode of SCR. In the negative half cycle, the
capacitor charges to the peak negative voltage of the supply Vm through the diode D 2 . The
capacitor maintains this voltage across it, till the supply voltage crosses zero. As the supply
becomes positive, the capacitor charges through resistor ‘R’ from initial voltage of V m , to a positive
value. When the capacitor voltage is equal to the gate trigger voltage of the SCR, the SCR is fired and
the capacitor voltage is clamped to a small positive value.
Case 1: R =Large.
When the resistor ‘R’ is large, the time taken for the capacitance to charge from Vm to Vg is
large, resulting in larger firing angle and lower load voltage.
Case 2: R =Small
When ‘R’ is set to a smaller value, the capacitor charges at a faster rate towards V gt
resulting in early triggering of SCR and hence V L is more. When the SCR triggers, the voltage drop
across it falls to 1 – 1.5V. This in turn lowers, the voltage across R & C. Low voltage across the SCR
during conduction period keeps the capacitor discharge during the positive half cycle.

UJT: UniJunction Transistor.

Basic Operation:

UJT is an n-type silicon bar in which p-type emitter is embedded. It has three terminals
base1, base2 and emitter ‘E’. Between B1 and B2 UJT behaves like ordinary resistor and the internal
resistances are given as RB1 and RB2 with emitter open RBB RB1 RB2 . Usually the p-region is heavily
doped and n-region is lightly doped. The equivalent circuit of UJT is as shown. When V BB is applied
across B 1 and B 2 , we find that potential at A is

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 Power Electronics and Electronic Instruments Module 1

The essence of UJT operation can be stated as:

1. When emitter diode is reverse biased only small emitter current flows, at this RB1 is at high
value(4Kohms) and this is UJT’s OFF state.
2. When emitter diode is forward biased, RB1 drops to very low resistance allowing emitter
current to flow readily, this is ON state.

V-I characteristics of UJT

UJT as an SCR firing:

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SECAB I.E.T, Dept. of E&C Lect. Veeresh K H