CULTURE AND SOCIALISATION 63

CHAPTER 4

CULTURE AND SOCIALISATION

I Activity 1

How do you greet another person in

INTRODUCTION
your ‘culture’? Do you greet different
‘Culture’, like ‘society’, is a term used
kinds of persons (friends, older
frequently and sometimes vaguely.
relatives, the other gender, people
This chapter is meant to help us define
from other groups) differently?
it more precisely and to appreciate
its different aspects. In everyday Discuss any awkward experience
conversation, culture is confined to the you may have had when you did not
arts, or alludes to the way of life of know how you should greet a
certain classes or even countries. person. Is that because you did not
Sociologists and anthropologists study share a common ‘culture’? But next
the social contexts within which culture time round you will know what to
exists. They take culture apart to try do. Your cultural knowledge thereby
and understand the relations between expands and rearranges itself.
its various aspects.
Just like you need a map to
navigate over unknown space or constantly being added, deleted,
territory, you need culture to conduct expanded, shrunk and rearranged.
or behave yourself in society. Culture This makes cultures dynamic as
is the common understanding, which functioning units.
is learnt and developed through social The capacity of individuals to
interaction with others in society. A develop a common understanding with
common understanding within a group others and to draw the same meanings
demarcates it from others and gives it from signs and symbols is what
an identity. But cultures are never distinguishes humans from other
finished products. They are always animals. Creating meaning is a social
changing and evolving. Elements are virtue as we learn it in the company of

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others in families, groups and social set up like in villages, towns and
communities. We learn the use of tools cities. In different environments, people
and techniques as well as the non- adapt different strategies to cope with
material signs and symbols through the natural and social conditions. This
interaction with family members, leads to the emergence of diverse ways
friends and colleagues in different of life or cultures.
social settings. Much of this knowledge Disparities in coping mechanisms
is systematically described and were evident during the devastating
conveyed either orally or through tsunami of 26 December 2004, which
books. affected some parts of the Tamil Nadu
For example, notice the interaction and Kerala coast as well as the Andaman
below. Notice how words and facial and Nicobar Islands in India. People on
expressions convey meaning in a the mainland and islands are integrated
conversation. into a relatively modern way of life. The

Commuter asks autodriver: “Indiranagar?” The verb that conveys the question —
“Bartheera?” or “Will you come?” — is implied in the arch of the eyebrow. Driver
jerks his head in the direction of the back seat if the answer is “Yes”. If it is “No”
(which is more likely the case as every Bangalorean knows) he might just drive
away or grimace as if he has heard a bad word or shake his head with a smile
that seems to suggest a “Sorry”, all depending on the mood of the moment.

This learning prepares us for fisherfolk and the service personnel in the
carrying out our roles and islands were caught unaware and
responsibilities in society. You have suffered large scale devastation and
already dealt with status and roles. much loss of life. On the other hand, the
What we learn in the family is primary ‘primitive’ tribal communities in the
socialisation, while that which happens islands like the Onges, Jarawas, Great
in school and other institutions are Andamanese or Shompens who had no
secondary socialisation. We shall access to modern science and technology,
discuss this in greater detail later in this foresaw the calamity based on their
chapter. experiential knowledge and saved
themselves by moving on to higher
II ground. This shows that having access
to modern science and technology does
DIVERSE SETTINGS, DIFFERENT CULTURES not make modern cultures superior to
Humans live in a variety of natural the tribal cultures of the islands. Hence,
settings like in the mountains and cultures cannot be ranked but can be
plains, in forests and clear lands, in judged adequate or inadequate in
deserts and river valleys, in islands and terms of their ability to cope with the
main lands. They also inhabit different strains imposed by nature.

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Discuss how natural settings affect culture

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habits acquired by man as a member

Activity 2 of society” (Tylor 1871).
Find out from at least one region
other than your own how natural
environment affects food habits,
patterns of dwelling, clothing and
the ways in which God or gods are
worshipped.

Defining Culture
Often the term ‘culture’ is used to refer
to the acquiring of refined taste in
classical music, dance forms or
painting. This refined taste was thought
to distinguish people from the ‘uncul-
tured’ masses, even concerning Discuss how the visual
captures a way of life
something we would today see as
individual, like the preference for coffee
Two generations later, the founder
over tea!
of the “functional school” of anthro-
By contrast, the sociologist looks at
pology, Bronislaw Malinowski of
culture not as something that
Poland (1884-1942) wrote: “Culture
distinguishes individuals, but as a way
comprises inherited artifacts, goods,
of life in which all members of society
technical process, ideas, habits and
values” (Malinowski 1931:621-46).
Activity 3 Clifford Geertz suggested that we
look at human actions in the same way
Identify equivalents in Indian
as we look at words in a book, and see
languages for the word culture.
them as conveying a message. “… Man
What associations do these carry?
is an animal suspended in webs of
significance he himself has spun. I take
participate. Every social organisation culture to be those webs…”.The search
develops a culture of its own. One early is not for a causal explanation, but for
anthropological definition of culture an interpretative one, that is in search
comes from the British scholar Edward for meaning (Geertz 1973:5). Likewise
Tylor: “Culture or civilisation taken in Leslie White had placed a comparable
its wide ethnographic sense, is that emphasis on culture as a means of
complex whole which includes adding meaning to objective reality,
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, using the example of people regarding
custom and any other capabilities and water from a particular source as holy.

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• Do you notice anything in The multiple definitions of culture

Malinowski’s definition that is in anthropological studies led Alfred
missing in Tylor’s? Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn
(anthropologists from the United
Apart from his mention of art, all the
States) to publish a comprehensive
things listed by Tylor are non-material. survey entitled Culture: A Critical
This is not because Tylor himself never Review of Concepts and Definitions in
looked at material culture. He was in 1952. A sample of the various
fact a museum curator, and most of his definitions is presented below.
anthropological writing was based on • Try comparing these definitions to
the examination of artifacts and tools see which of these or which
from societies across the world, which combination of these you find most
he had never visited. We can now see satisfactory.
his definition of culture as an attempt You may first find yourself noticing
to take into account its intangible and words which recur–‘way’, ‘learn’ and
abstract dimensions, so as to acquire a ‘behaviour’. However, if you then look
comprehensive understanding of the at how each is used, you may be struck
societies he was studying. Malinowski by the shifts in emphasis. The first
happened to be stranded on an island phrase refers to mental ways but the
in the Western Pacific during the First second to the total way of life.
World War, and discovered thereby the Definitions (d), (e) and (f) lay stress on
value of remaining for an extended culture as what is shared and passed
period with the society one was on among a group and down the
studying. This led to the establishment generations. The last two phrases are
of the tradition of “field work” you will the first to refer to culture as a means
read about it in Chapter 5. of directing behaviour.

Culture is…

(a) a way of thinking, feeling, believing.

(b) the total way of life of a people.
(c) an abstraction from behaviour.

(d) learned behaviour.

(e) a storehouse of pooled learning.

(f) the social legacy the individual acquires from his group.
(g) a set of standardised orientations to recurrent problems.
(h) a mechanism for the normative regulation of behaviour.

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Make a list of phrases you have It may have occurred to you that
heard containing the word ‘culture’. our understanding of material culture,
Ask your friends and family what they especially art, is incomplete without
mean by culture. What criteria do they knowledge acquired from the cognitive
use to distinguish among cultures? and normative areas. It is true that our
developing understanding of social
Activity 4 process would draw upon all these
Compare these definitions to see
areas. But we might find that in a
community where few have acquired
which of these (or combination of
the cognitive skill of literacy, it in fact
these) you find most satisfactory.
becomes the norm for private letters to
You could do this by listing familiar
be read out by a third party. But as we
uses of the word ‘culture’ (the
see below, to focus on each of these
culture of eighteenth century
areas separately provides many
Lucknow, the culture of hospitality
important insights.
or the much used term ‘Western
culture’...). Which of the definitions Cognitive Aspects of Culture
best captures the impressions
conveyed by each? The cognitive aspects of one’s own
culture are harder to recognise than its
material aspects (which are tangible or
Dimensions of Culture
visible or audible) and its normative
Three dimensions of culture have been aspects (which are explicitly stated).
distinguished : Cognition refers to understanding, how
(i) Cognitive: This refers to how we we make sense of all the information
learn to process what we hear or coming to us from our environment. In
see, so as to give it meaning literate societies ideas are transcribed
(identifying the ring of a cell-phone in books and documents and
as ours, recognising the cartoon of preserved in libraries, instititutions or
a politician). archives. But in non-literate societies
(ii) Normative: This refers to rules of legend or lore is committed to memory
conduct (not opening other and transmitted orally. There are
people’s letters, performing rituals specialist practitioners of oral tradition
at death). who are trained to remember and
(iii) Material: This includes any activity narrate during ritual or festive occasions.
made possible by means of Let us think about how writing
materials. Materials also include may affect the production and
tools or machines. Examples consumption of art. In his influential
include internet ‘chatting’, using book, Orality and Literacy Walter Ong
rice-flour paste to design kolam on cites a study of 1971 that states that
floors. only 78 of the approximately 3,000

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existing languages possess a different contexts. We most often follow

literature. Ong suggests that material social norms because we are used to
that is not written down has certain doing it, as a result of socialisation. All
specific characteristics. There is a lot social norms are accompanied by
of repetition of words, to make it sanctions that promote conformity. We
simpler to remember. The audience of have already discussed social control
an oral performance is likely to be in Chapter 2 .
more receptive and involved than While norms are implicit rules,
would be readers of a written text from laws are explicit rules. Pierre
an unfamiliar culture. Texts become Bourdieu, the French sociologist has
more elaborate when they are written. reminded us that when we try to
In societies like ours historically understand another culture’s norms,
literacy has been made available only we must remember that there are
to the more privileged. Sociological certain implicit understandings. For
studies are often concerned with example, if a person wants to show
investigating how literacy can be made gratitude for something s/he has been
relevant to the lives of people whose given, s/he should not offer a return-
families have never gone to school. This gift too quickly, or it seems like an
can lead to unexpected responses, like attempt to get rid of a debt, not a
a vegetable-seller who asked why he friendly gesture.
needed to know the alphabet when he A law is a formal sanction defined
could mentally calculate what his by government as a rule or principle
customers owed him? that its citizens must follow. Laws are
The contemporary world allows us explicit. They are applicable to the
to rely far more on written, audio and whole society. And a violation of the
visual records. Yet students of Indian law attracts penalties and punishment.
classical music are still discouraged If in your home children are not
from writing down what they learn allowed to stay outdoors after
rather than carrying it in their memory. sundown, that is a norm. It is specific
We still do not know enough about the to your family and may not be
impact of the electronic media, of applicable to all families. However, if
multiple channels, of instant accessing you are caught stealing a gold necklace
and surfing. Do you think these new from someone else’s home, you have
forms impact our attention span and violated the universally accepted law
cognitive culture? of private property and can be sent to
jail after trial as punishment.
Normative Aspects of Culture Laws, which derive from the
The normative dimension consists of authority of the State are the most
folkways, mores, customs, conven- formal definitions of acceptable
tions and laws. These are values or behaviour. While different schools may
rules that guide social behaviour in establish different norms for students,

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laws would apply to all those accepting norms. This can give rise to a situation
the authority of the State. Unlike laws, of culture lag when the non-material
norms can vary according to status. dimensions are unable to match the
Dominant sections of society apply advances of technology.
dominant norms. Often these norms are
discriminating. For example norms that Culture and Identity
did not allow dalits from drinking water
Identities are not inherited but
from the same vessel or even source. Or
fashioned both by the individual and
women from moving freely in the public
the group through their relationship
sphere.
with others. For the individual the
social roles that s/he plays imparts
Material Aspects of Culture
identity. Every person in modern
The material aspect refers to tools, society plays multiple roles. For
technologies, machines, buildings and instance within the family s/he may be
modes of transportation, as well as a parent or a child but for each of the
instruments of production and specific roles there are particular
communication. In urban areas the responsibilities and powers.
widespread use of mobile phones, It is not sufficient to enact roles.
music systems, cars and buses, ATMs They also have to be recognised and
(automated teller machines), refri- acknowledged. This can often be done
gerators and computers in everyday life through the recognition of the
indicates the dependence on particular language that is used among
technology. Even in rural areas the use role players. Students in schools have
of transistor radios or electric motor their own way of referring to their
pumps for lifting water from below the teachers, other students, class
surface for irrigation demonstrates the performances. By creating this
adoption of technological devices for language which also serves as a code,
increasing production. they create their own world of meanings
In sum there are two principal and significances. Similarly, women are
dimensions of culture: material and also known to create their own
non-material. While the cognitive and language and through it their own
normative aspects are non-material, the private space beyond the control of men
material dimension is crucial to especially when they congregate at the
increase production and enhance pond to bathe in rural areas or across
the quality of life. For integrated washing lines on rooftops in urban
functioning of a culture the material areas.
and non-material dimensions must In a culture there can be many sub-
work together. But when the material cultures, like that of the elite and
or technological dimensions change working class youth. Sub-cultures are
rapidly, the non-material aspects can marked by style, taste and association.
lag behind in terms of values and Particular sub-cultures are identifiable

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by their speech, dress codes, preference cultural values projected as the

for particular kind of music or the standard or norm are considered
manner in which they interact with their superior to that of the beliefs and values
group members. of other cultures. We have seen in
Sub-cultural groups can also Chapter 1 and in Chapter 3 (particularly
function as cohesive units which impart in the discussion on religion) how
an identity to all group members. sociology is an empirical and not a
Within such groups there can be leaders normative discipline.
and followers but group members are Underlying ethnocentric compari-
bound by the purpose of the group and sons is a sense of cultural superiority
work together to achieve their clearly demonstrated in colonial
objectives. For instance young situations. Thomas Babbington
members of a neighbourhood can form Macaulay’s famous Minute on
a club to engage themselves in sports Education (1835) to the East India
and other constructive activities. Such Company in India exemplifies
activities create a positive image of the ethnocentrism when he says, ‘We must
members in the locality and this gives at present do our best to form a class
the members not only a positive self- who may be interpreters between us and
image but also inspires them to perform the millions whom we govern, a class of
better in their activities. The orientation persons Indian in blood and colour but
of their identity as a group undergoes English in tastes, in opinions, morals
a transformation. The group is able to and intellect’ (quoted in Mukherji 1948/
differentiate itself from other groups 1979:87), (emphasis added).
and thereby create its own identity Ethnocentrism is the opposite of
through the acceptance and cosmopolitanism, which values other
recognition of the neighbourhood. cultures for their difference. A
cosmopolitan outlook does not seek to
Activity 5 evaluate the values and beliefs of other
people according to one’s own. It
Are you aware of any sub-cultural
celebrates and accommodates different
group in your locality? How are you cultural propensities within its fold and
able to identify them? promotes cultural exchange and
borrowings to enrich one’s own culture.
Ethnocentrism The English language has emerged as
It is only when cultures come into a leading vehicle of international
contact with one another that the communication through its constant
question of ethnocentrism arises. inclusion of foreign words into its
Ethnocentrism is the application of vocabulary. Again the popularity of
one’s own cultural values in evaluating Hindi film music can be attributed to
the behaviour and beliefs of people from its borrowings from western pop music
other cultures. This means that the as well as from different traditions of

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Indian folk and semi-classical forms Cultural Change

like the bhangra and ghazal.
Cultural change is the way in which
A modern society is appreciative of
societies change their patterns of
cultural difference and does not close culture. The impetus for change can be
its doors to cultural influences from internal or external. In regard to
abroad. But such influences are internal causes, for instance, new
always incorporated in a distinctive methods of farming or agriculture can
way, which can combine with elements boost agricultural production, which
of indigenous culture. The English can transform the nature of food
language despite its foreign inclusions consumption and quality of life of an
does not become a separate language, agrarian community. On the other
nor does Hindi film music lose its hand external intervention in the form
character through borrowings. The of conquest or colonisation can also
absorption of diverse styles, forms, affect deep seated changes in the
sounds and artifacts provides an cultural practices and behaviour of a
identity to a cosmopolitan culture. In society.
a global world where modern means of Cultural change can occur through
communication are shrinking changes in the natural environment,
distances between cultures, a contact with other cultures or
cosmopolitan outlook allows diverse processes of adaptation. Changes in
influences to enrich one’s own culture. the natural environment or ecology can

Notice the words in the box. Have you heard or

used these words in your conversations?

‘Hinglish’ may soon conquer the world

Some of the Hinglish words in vogue include airdash (travel by air),

chaddis (underpants), chai (Indian tea), crore (10 million), dacoit (thief),
desi (local), dicky (boot), gora (white person), jungli (uncouth), lakh
(100,000), lampat (thug), optical (spectacles), prepone (bring forward),
stepney (spare tyre) and would-be (fiancé or fiancée). Hinglish contains
many words and phrases that Britons or Americans may not easily
understand, according to a report... Some are archaic, relics of the
Raj, such as ‘pukka’. Others are newly coined, such as ‘time-pass’,
meaning an activity that helps kill time. India’s success in attracting
business has recently produced a new verb. Those whose jobs are
outsourced to India are said to have been ‘Bangalored’.

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drastically alter the way of life of a III

people. When forest dwelling
communities are deprived of access to SOCIALISATION
the forest and its produce either I believe that a complete life is
because of legal restrictions or due to inclusive of everything around us :
its decimation, it can have disastrous plants, cattle, guests, feasts,
effects on the dwellers and their way of festivals, quarrels, friendship,
companionship, discrimination,
life. Tribal communities in North East
scorn. All these and more were
India as well as in middle India have present in one single place, my
been the worst affected by the loss of home. Although life sometimes
forest resources. appeared complicated then, I now
Along with evolutionary change understand how consummate it
there can also be revolutionary change. was. It is thanks to such a
childhood, perhaps, that if I get just
When a culture is transformed rapidly
a glimpse of someone’s suffering, I
and its values and meaning systems feel I can comprehend the whole of
undergo a radical change then it (Vaidehi 1945).
revolutionary change takes place.
Revolutionary change can be initiated At the time of birth, the human infant
through political intervention, knows nothing about what we call
technological innovation or ecological society or social behaviour. Yet as the
transformation. The French Revolution child grows up, s/he keeps learning not
(1789) transformed French society by just about the physical world, but about
destroying the estate system of ranking, what it means to be a good or bad
abolishing the monarchy, and girl/boy. S/he knows what kind of
inculcating the values of liberty, behaviour will be applauded and, what
equality and fraternity among its kind will be disapproved. Socialisation
citizens. When a different under- can be defined as the process whereby
standing comes to prevail, culture the helpless infant gradually becomes a
self-aware, knowledgeable person,
change occurs. Recent years have seen
skilled in the ways of the culture into
an amazing expansion of the media,
which s/he is born. Indeed without
both electronic and print. Do you think
socialisation an individual would not
the media has brought about an
behave like a human being. Many of you
evolutionary or revolutionary change? will be familiar with the story of the
We are familiar with the various ‘Wolf-children of Midnapore’. Two
dimensions of culture now. To return small girls were reportedly found in a
to the point we started with in Chapter wolf den in Bengal in 1920. They walked
1 about the interplay between the on all four like animals, preferred a diet
individual and society, we now move on of raw meat, howled like wolves and
to the concept of socialisation. lacked any form of speech. Interestingly

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such incidents have been reported from how the process of socialisation takes
other parts of the world too. place. A child, in the first instance, is a
We have so far been talking about member of a family. But s/he is also a
socialisation and the new-born infant. member of a larger kin-group (biradari,
But the birth of a child also alters the khaandaan, a clan etc.) consisting of
lives of those who are responsible for brothers, sisters and other relatives of
its upbringing. They too undergo new the parents. The family into which
learning experiences. Becoming s/he is born may be a nuclear or
grandparents and parenting involves a extended family. It is also a member of
whole set of activities and experiences. a larger society such as a tribe or sub-
Older people still remain parents when caste, a clan or a biradari, a religious
they become grandparents, of course, and linguistic group. Membership of
thus forging another set of relationships these groups and institutions imposes
connecting different generations with certain behavioural norms and values
each other. Likewise the life of a young on each member. Corresponding to
these memberships there are roles that
child changes with the birth of a sibling.
are performed, e.g. that of a son, a
Socialisation is a life-long process even
daughter, a grandchild or a student.
though the most critical process
These are multiple roles, which are
happens in the early years, the stage of
performed simultaneously. The process
primary socialisation. Secondary
of learning the norms, attitudes, values
socialisation as we saw extends over the or behavioural patterns of these groups
entire life of a person. begins early in life and continues
While socialisation has an throughout one’s life.
important impact on individuals it is The norms and values may differ
not a kind of ‘cultural programming’, within a society in different families
in which the child absorbs passively the belonging to different castes, regions or
influences with which he or she comes social classes or religious groups
into contact. Even the most recent new- according to whether one lives in a
born can assert her/his will. S/he will village or a city or one belongs to a tribe
cry when hungry. And keep crying until and if to a tribe, to which tribe. Indeed
those responsible for the infant’s care the very language that one speaks
respond. You may have seen how depends on the region one comes from.
normal, everyday schedules of the Whether the language is closer to a
family get completely reorganised with spoken dialect or to a standardised
the birth of a child. written form depends on the family and
You have already been introduced the socio-economic and cultural profile
to the concepts of status/role, social of the family.
control, groups and social strati-
fication. You are also acquainted with Agencies of Socialisation
what culture, norms and values are. All The child is socialised by several
these concepts will help us understand agencies and institutions in which

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s/he participates, viz. family, school, peer Families have varying ‘locations’
group, neighbourhood, occupational within the overall institutions of a
group and by social class/caste, society. In most traditional societies, the
region, religion. family into which a person is born
largely determines the individual’s
Family social position for the rest of his/her life.
Since family systems vary widely, the Even when social position is not
infants’ experiences are by no means inherited at birth in this way the region
standard across cultures. While many and social class of the family into
of you may be living in what is termed which an individual is born affect
a nuclear family with your parents and patterns of socialisation quite sharply.
siblings, others may be living with Children pick up ways of behaviour
extended family members. In the first characteristic of their parents or others
case, parents may be key socialising in their neighbourhood or community.
agents but in the others grandparents, Of course, few children simply
an uncle or a cousin may be more take over in an unquestioning way
significant. the outlook of their parents. This

Activity 6

Suggest ways in which the child of a domestic worker would feel herself different
from the child whose family her mother works for. Also, what are the things they
might share or exchange?
To start with the obvious, one would have more money spent on clothes, the
other might wear more bangles…
They might have watched the same serials, heard the same film songs… they
might pick up different kinds of slang from each other…
Now you are left to follow up the difficult areas, like the sense of security within
the family, the neighbourhood and on the street...

Activity 7

The presence or absence of which of the items below do you think would affect
you most as an individual?
(possessions) television set/music system …
(space) a room of your own…
(time) having to balance school with household or other work…
(opportunities) travel, music classes…
(people around you)

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is especially true in the contemporary

world, in which change is so pervasive. Activity 8
Moreover, the very existence of a
Reflect on your own experience.
diversity of socialising agencies leads to
Compare your interaction with
many differences between the outlooks
friends to that of your parents and
of children, adolescents and the
parental generation. Can you identify other elders. What is different? Does
any instance where you felt that what the earlier discussion on roles and
you learnt from the family was at status help you understand the
variance from your peer group or may difference?
be media or even school?
ages at work, and in other contexts, are
Peer Groups
usually of enduring importance in
Another socialising agency is the peer shaping individuals’ attitudes and
group. Peer groups are friendship behaviour.
groups of children of a similar age. In
some cultures, particularly small Schools
traditional societies, peer groups are
Schooling is a formal organisation:
formalised as age-grades. Even without
there is a definite number of subjects
formal age-grades, children over four
studied. Yet schools are agencies of
or five usually spend a great deal of
socialisation in more subtle respects
time in the company of friends of the
too. Alongside the formal curriculum
same age. The word ‘peer’ means ‘equal’,
there is what some sociologists
and friendly relations established
have called a hidden curriculum
between young children do tend to be
conditioning children’s learning. There
reasonably egalitarian. A forceful or
are schools in India and in many other
physically strong child may to some
countries where girls, but rarely boys,
extent try to dominate others. Yet there
are expected to sweep their classroom.
is a greater amount of give and take
In some schools efforts are made to
compared to the dependence inherent
counter this by making boys and girls
in the family situation. Because of their
do those tasks that are normally not
power, parents are able (in varying
expected of them. Can you think of
degrees) to enforce codes of conduct
examples that reflect both trends?
upon their children. In peer groups, by
contrast, a child discovers a different
Mass Media
kind of interaction, within which rules
of behaviour can be tested out and Mass media has increasingly become
explored. an essential part of our everyday life.
Peer relationships often remain While today the electronic media like
important throughout a person’s life. the television is expanding, the print
Informal groups of people of similar media continues to be of great

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importance. Even in the early print Activity 9

media in nineteenth century India,
‘conduct-books’ instructing women on You might want to explore how
how to be better house-keepers and people relate to serials set in
more attentive wives were popular in surroundings unlike their own. Or
many languages. The media can make if children are watching television
the access to information more with their grandparents, are
democratic. Electronic communication there disagreements about which
is something that can reach a village programmes are worth watching,
not connected by road and where no and if so, what differences in
literacy centres have been set up. viewpoint emerge? Are these
There has been much research on differences gradually modified?
the influence of television upon children
and adults. A study in Britain showed
was watched in London by children who
that the time spent by children
spoke only English!
watching television is the equivalent of
In recent years, non-print digital
almost a hundred school days a year,
media through internet is receiving
and that adults are not far behind them. considerable attention particularly in
Apart from such quantitative aspects, urban areas.
what emerges from such research is not
always conclusive in its implications. Other Socialising Agencies
The link between on-screen violence
and aggressive behaviour among Besides the socialising agencies
children is still debated. mentioned, there are other groups, or
If one cannot predict how media social contexts, in which individuals
influences people, what is certain is the spend large parts of their lives. Work
extent of the influence, in terms of both is, in all cultures, an important setting
information and exposure to areas of within which socialisation processes
experience distant from one’s own. operate, although it is only in
There is a sizeable audience for Indian industrial societies that large numbers
television serials and films in countries of people “go out to work” — that is,
like Nigeria, Afghanistan and among go each day to places of work quite
émigrés from Tibet. The televised separate from the home. In traditional
Mahabharat was aired after dubbing in communities many people tilled the
Tashkent, but even without dubbing land close to where they lived or had
Look at the report and discuss how mass media influences children

The Shaktimaan serial telecast a few years ago had children trying to
dive down buildings resulting in fatal accidents. “Learning by imitation
is a method followed frequently by people and children are no different,”
says clinical psychologist.

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78 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY

workshops in their dwellings (see and come to maturity so influence our

visuals on page 43). behaviour, it might appear that we are
robbed of any individuality or free will.
Socialisation and Individual Such a view is fundamentally
Freedom mistaken. The fact that from birth to
death we are involved in interaction
It is perhaps evident that socialisation with others certainly conditions our
in normal circumstances can personalities, the values we hold, and
never completely reduce people to the behaviour in which we engage. Yet
conformity. Many factors encourage socialisation is also at the origin of
conflict. There may be conflicts our very individuality and freedom.
between socialising agencies, between In the course of socialisation each of
school and home, between home and us develops a sense of self-identity,
peer groups. However, since the and the capacity for independent
cultural settings in which we are born thought and action.

How Gendered is Socialisation?

We boys used the streets for so many different things — as a place to stand
around watching, to run around and play, try out the manoeuvrability of our
bikes. Not so for girls. As we noticed all the time, for girls the street was simply a
means to get straight home from school. And even for this limited use of the
street they always went in clusters, perhaps because behind their purposeful
demeanour they carried the worst fears of being assaulted (Kumar 1986).

Activity 11

We have completed four chapters. Read the text of the next page carefully and
discuss the following themes :

• The relation between individual and society in the girl’s rebellion against
grown-ups.
• How the normative dimensions of culture are different in town and village?
• The question of ascribed status in that the priest’s daughter is permitted
to touch.
• Conflict between socialising agencies for example in the text note: “thankful
none of her school friends could see her like this”. Can you find any other
sentence that illustrates this?
• Gendered = combing hair + escort + not playing football
• Punishment = “tight-lipped silence” + conspicuous absence of pappadams

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CULTURE AND SOCIALISATION 79

An unusual sense of excitement pervaded her visit to the temple this evening.
There had been an argument over lunch, between her and the grown-ups, when
she had announced her decision to ring the bell in front of the sanctuary.
‘If Thangam can ring it, so can I,’ she debated hotly.
They protested in shocked voices. ‘Thangam is the daughter of the temple
priest, she is permitted to touch the bell.’
She responded angrily that Thangam came over to play hide-and-seek every
afternoon and behaved no differently from any of them. ‘Besides,’ she added,
goading them deliberately, ‘we are equal in the eyes of god.’ She was not quite
sure whether they had heard this bit, for they had already turned away in
disgust. But, after lunch, she caught them whispering about ‘that horrid English
school she goes to,’ which meant that they had heard…
She was sure they had not taken her seriously. That was the trouble with
grown-ups: they always presumed that if they told her that she would understand
everything when she was older, she would accept their wisdom and authority
unquestioningly and not dream of going against them. Oh well, she would show
them, this time... Back again at the house, she had to endure the intensely
uncomfortable ritual of hairdressing. Her grandmother soothed her hair with
what felt like a whole jar of oil, separated each shining strand till it hung limp
and straight and lifeless down her back, then tied it up in a tight, skin stretching
knot on the top of her head. She was thankful none of her school friends could
see her like this.…
Why wouldn’t they understand how ridiculous she felt, being escorted…She
had reminded her mother many times that she walked alone to school everyday
when they were back in town… [S]he noticed that the football game had already
begun on the courtyard beside the temple of Krishna. She enjoyed watching the
players, particularly since her obvious delight in the vigour of the game, and in
the raucously voiced comments irritated Kelu Nair profoundly.…
She came hurriedly upon the crowded main sanctuary... Before she could
regret her decision or go back upon it, she elbowed herself quickly through the
circle of women, nearly floundering on the slippery steps. The sight of the big
bell above her touched her with a heady excitement. She could distinguish Kelu
Nair’s frantically whispered threats, but she reached up, rang the bell with one
resounding clang and was down the steps before she realised what was happening.
Dimly she was aware of dark looks and subdued murmurs pursuing her as
she permitted Kelu Nair to drag her away... She was in dire disgrace. Their
tight-lipped silence was infinitely more eloquent than speech, as was the
conspicuous absence of her favourite tiny pappadams at dinner...
(From The Bell, by Gita Krishnakutty)

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80 INTRODUCING SOCIOLOGY

GLOSSARY

Cultural Evolutionism : It is a theory of culture, which argues that just like

natural species, culture also evolves through variation and natural selection.
Estates System : This was a system in feudal Europe of ranking according
to occupation. The three estates were the nobility, clergy and the ‘third
estate’. The last were chiefly professional and middle class people. Each
estate elected its own representatives. Peasants and labourers did not have
the vote.
Great Tradition : It comprises of the cultural traits or traditions which are
written and widely accepted by the elites of a society who are educated and
learned.
Little Tradition : It comprises of the cultural traits or traditions which are
oral and operates at the village level.
Self Image : An image of a person as reflected in the eyes of others.
Social Roles : These are rights and responsibilities associated with a person’s
social position or status.
Socialisation : This is the process by which we learn to become members of
society.
Subculture : It marks a group of people within a larger culture who borrow
from and often distort, exaggerate or invert the symbols, values and beliefs
of the larger culture to distinguish themselves.

EXERCISES

1. How does the understanding of culture in social science differ from the
everyday use of the word ‘culture’?
2. How can we demonstrate that the different dimensions of culture
comprise a whole?
3. Compare two cultures with which you are familiar. Is it difficult not to
be ethnocentric?
4. Discuss two different approaches to studying cultural change.
5. Is cosmopolitanism something you associate with modernity? Observe
and give examples of ethnocentrism.
6. What in your mind is the most effective agent of socialisation for your
generation? How do you think it was different before?

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CULTURE AND SOCIALISATION 81

READINGS

ARMILLAS, PEDRO. 1968. ‘The concept of civilisation’, in SILLS, DAVID. ed. The
International Encyclopedia of Social Science. Free Press-Macmillan, New
York.
BERGER, P.L. 1963. Invitation to Sociology : A Humanistic Perspective. Penguin,
Harmondsworth.
GEERTZ, CLIFFORD. 1973. The Interpretation of Cultures. Basic Books, New York.
GIDDENS, ANTHONY. 2001. Sociology. Polity Press, Cambridge.
Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), Unit 9, Agencies of
Socialisation.
Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), Unit 8, Nature of
Socialisation.
KOTTAK, CONRAD P. 1994. Anthropology : The Exploration of Human Diversity.
Sixth Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York.
KUMAR, KRISHNA. 1986. ‘Growing up Male’, in Seminar. No. 318, February.
LARKIN, BRIAN. 2002. ‘Indian Films and Nigeria Lovers, Media and the Creation
of Parallel Modernities’, in ed. XAVIER, JONATHAN. and ROSALDO, RENATO. The
Anthropology of Globalisation : A Reader. Blackwell, Malden.
MALINOWSKI, BRONISLAW. 1931. ‘Culture’, in SELIGMAN. ed. Encyclopedia of the
Social Sciences. Macmillan, New York.
MUKHERJI, D.P. 1948/1979. Sociology of Indian Culture. Rawat Publications,
Jaipur.
T YLOR , E DWARD B. 1871/1958. Primitive Culture : Researches onto the
Development of Mythology, Philosophy Religion, Art and Custom. 2 volumes.
Volume 1: Origins of Culture. Volume 2. Religion in Primitive Culture.
Gloucester, Mass, Smith.
VOGT, EVON Z. 1968. ‘Culture Change’, in SILLS, DAVID. ed. The International
Encyclopedia of Social Science. Free Press-Macmillan, New York.
WILLIAMS, RAYMOND. 1976. Keywords : A Vocabulary of Culture and Society.
Fontana/Croom Helm, London.

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