RADAR OBSERVER &

SIMULATOR COURSE
(ROSC)
&
AUTOMATIC RADAR
PLOTTING AIDS (ARPA)

HIMT BRANDING
Contents
RADAR OBSERVER & SIMULATOR:
1. HOW MARINE RADAR WORKS ................................................................... 3

2. IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF A RADAR SET............................. 5

3. SOME LIMITATIONS OF A RADAR SET ................................................... 7

4. SOME WAVEFORMS USED IN MARINE .................................................. 14

5. THE SIMPLE BLOCK DIAGRAM ................................................................ 16

6. MORE ABOUT THE MAGNETRON, WAVEGUIDE & SCANNER ........ 19

7. MORE ABOUT THE RECEIVER ................................................................ 21

8. THE CATHOD RAY TUBE .......................................................................... 23

9. BASIC CONTROLS – I (TIME SYNCHRONOSIED)................................. 25

10. BASIC CONTROLS - II (NON - SYNCHRONOSIED) .............................. 28

11. BASIC CONTROLS (AZIMUTH) ................................................................. 33

12. BASIC CONTROLS (OTHERS) .................................................................... 34

13. EFFICIENCY OF A RADAR SET ................................................................. 36

14. SITING OF COMPONENTS ........................................................................ 37

15. DEVELOPMENTS IN BASIC RADAR ........................................................ 41

ARPA 46

1. HOW MARINE RADAR WORKS .................................................... 3

2. IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF A RADAR SET ...................... 5

3. SOME LIMITATIONS OF A RADAR SET ........................................ 9

4. SOME WAVEFORMS USED IN MARINE ...................................... 14

5. THE SIMPLE BLOCK DIAGRAM ................................................. 16

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6. MORE ABOUT THE MAGNETRON, WAVEGUIDE & SCANNER..... 19

7. MORE ABOUT THE RECEIVER ................................................. 21

8. THE CATHOD RAY TUBE ......................................................... 23

9. BASIC CONTROLS – I (TIME SYNCHRONOSIED) ........................ 25

10. BASIC CONTROLS - II (NON - SYNCHRONOSIED) ...................... 29

11. BASIC CONTROLS (AZIMUTH) .................................................. 34

12. BASIC CONTROLS (OTHERS) .................................................... 35

13. EFFICIENCY OF A RADAR SET .................................................. 37

14. SITING OF COMPONENTS ....................................................... 38

15. DEVELOPMENTS IN BASIC RADAR ........................................... 42

1.0 DESCRIPTION OF AN ARPA SYSTEM .......................................... 48

1.1 ARPA Systems display characteristics .................................................................... 48

1.2 IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR AUTOMATIC RADAR PLOTTING AIDS .. 51

1.3 ACQUISITION of targets ................................................................................. 55

1.4 Tracking Capabilities and Limitations .................................................................... 56

1.5 Processing Delays ............................................................................................ 57

2.0 OPERATE AN ARPA SYSTEM ...................................................... 58

2.1 Setting Up and Maintaining Displays ..................................................................... 58

2.2 Obtaining TARGET Information......................................................................... 60

2.3 ERROR OF INTERPRETATION (ARPA) ............................................................ 64

2.4 ERRORS IN DISPLAYED DATA (ARPA) ........................................................... 64

2.5 SYSTEM OPERATIONAL TESTS ..................................................................... 67

2.6 RISK OF OVER- RELIANCE ON ARPA ............................................................ 68

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1. HOW MARINE RADAR WORKS
1. GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
1 Basic theory and operation principles of a marine radar system

Marine radar is an instrument of near perfect synchronization. It needs no calculator or computer to do

its basic functions. Range and bearing are obtained by the fact that each component does a specific job
at the correct time.
Marine radar consists mainly of FOUR units :
1. TRANSMITTER
2. AERIAL OR SCANNER,
3. RECEIVER AND
4. DISPLAY UNIT.
The transmitter sends out short powerful bursts of electro-magnetic energy, called pulses, through the
scanner at a specific number of times per second, called the pulse repetition frequency (PRF) or pulse
recurrence rate (PRR). These pulses travel at the speed of light (300 meters per microsecond* or 6.173
microseconds per nautical mile) and when they strike any object (target) in their path, they are reflected
back to the scanner as echoes.
The receiver processes each echo and causes it to show up visually as a bright spot, called a blip, on the
screen of the display unit.
The display unit has a circular screen representing on a scale, an actual area around the ship and is
called the plan position indicator (PPI) because it gives a bird's eye view (or plan) of the positions of
targets. The distance represented by the radius of the screen is called the range scale in use and this can
be varied, by a switch, as desired by the observer.
The underside of the screen is coated with a phosphor compound that glows when struck by a stream
of electrons and then fades off slowly. This slow fading off, of the spots on the screen, is called the
persistence or after-glow of the screen and helps the observer to view the screen at leisure.
A thin stream of electrons is made to strike the underside of the screen and move radially across from
the centre to the edge of the screen, at a number of times per second equal to the PRF, thereby creating
one radial line (called the trace) on the screen for every pulse sent out through the scanner. Then an
echo is received and processed by the receiver, a sudden brightening and fattening of the tracing spot
occurs momentarily. Though the tracing spot is moving continuously during this time, the blip created
by it (referred to as the paint) remains stationary and visible due to the persistence of the screen. This is
how radar detects the presence of a target in the vicinity.
 Symbol for microseconds is μ 106 = 1 second.
 1.852 kilometer = 1 nautical mile, 1 kilometer = 0.54 nautical mile.

2. RANGE DETERMINATION:
As explained earlier, there is one trace created for every pulse transmitted. The tracing spot
leaves the centre, on its radial path, at the same instant that the pulse leaves the scanner. The
tracing spot is made to move at a scale speed equal to half that of radio waves (i.e. at a scale
speed of 150 meters per micro second), so that in the time taken for radio waves to travel 2
miles, the tracing spot would have travelled a scale distance of 1 mile on the screen.
If a target was situated at a range of 3 miles, the pulse would travel 3 miles to the target and the echo
would travel 3 miles back, a total distance of 6 miles. During this time, the tracing spot would have

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travelled a scale distance of 3 miles, from the centre of the PPI, so that when the echo causes the
tracing spot to brighten and fatten, the paint so created would be at a scale distance of 3 miles from the
centre of the PPI. That is to say, since the radius of ·the .screen represents a definite distance, the
distance of the paint from the centre of the screen, using the same ratio, gives the range of the object.
In order to accurately obtain the range of a target, as described above, two methods are provided on
the display unit:

2.1 Range Rings:

A series of concentric, equidistant circles, called range rings or calibration rings, are made to appear,
centered over the PPI. Each range ring represents a definite value of range and hence the range of a
target can be visually estimated with reasonable accuracy, even if a range ring does not exactly pass
through the paint of the target on the screen.

2.2 Variable Range Marker:

A circle with a variable radius is provided, the radius being controlled by a rotary knob. The value of
the radius, in miles and decimal of a mile, is indicated by a digital display. The radius of the circle is
adjusted until its circumference passes through the nearest edge of the paint of a target on the screen
and the range is read off the digital display.

3. BEARING DETERMINATION:
The energy sent out by the scanner is made unidirectional (it is beamed in one direction at a time). The
scanner is made to rotate clockwise (when viewed from above) at a very constant speed (between 20 &
30 RPM). The trace on the screen is also made to rotate and is synchronized with the scanner such that
when the scanner points right ahead, the trace is at the 12 o'clock position of the PPI and when the
scanner points to the starboard beam, the trace is at the 3 o'clock position, and so on. The PRF is so
high (500 to 4000) compared to the RPM (20 to 30) that the angle rotated by the scanner, between the
transmission of a pulse and the arrival of the echo from a far off target (i.e., the time taken for the
tracing spot to go from the centre to the edge of the screen), is negligible. So the paint of a target would
appear in such a position on the PPI that the relative bearing of the target is the angle at the centre,
measured clockwise from the 12 o'clock position of the PPI to the paint. This can be read off using a
concentric, circular scale fixed around the PPI, graduated from 0° to 359° in a clockwise direction, with
its 0° at the 12 O‟ clock position of the PPI. A stationary radial line, called the heading marker,
extending from the centre of the PPI to the zero of the bearing scale, is constantly visible for reference.
To facilitate reading off, of the relative bearing, two methods are provided on the display unit.
3.1 Mechanical Cursor:
A separate, circular, Perspex sheet is fitted, centered over the PPI. It has a diametrical line etched on it
called the mechanical cursor. The cursor is rotated until this line passes through the target on the screen
and the reading where it passes over the graduated scale is the relative bearing. When the display is
gyro-stabilized, the bearings indicated will be true.
3.2 Electronic Bearing Line:
A radial line is made to appear on the screen, when desired. This line can be rotated about the centre of
the screen by a control knob. The angle rotated by the line, in a clockwise direction from the heading
marker, is indicated by a digital display. The line is rotated until it passes through the blip on the screen
and the relative bearing read off, from the digital display. When the display is gyro- stabilized, the
bearing will be true.

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2. IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF A
RADAR SET
1. VERTICAL BEAM WIDTH (VBW)
VBW is the vertical angle at the scanner contained between the upper and lower edges of the radar
beam. The upper and lower edges of the beam are taken to be the lines joining the half-power points
above and below centre of the beam. If the VBW was too small, targets would be missed due to rolling
and pitching. If the VBW was too large, the radar energy sent out through the scanner would be spread
out over a large vertical angle. This means a decrease in the intensity of the beam whereby the amount
of energy striking unit area of a target would be small, resulting in loss of echo strength and consequent
decrease in the range of first detection of each target. As per Performance Standards for Navigational
Radar (IMO), the radar should function without deterioration in performance when the vessel is rolling
or pitching up to ± 10o,
In commercial marine radar sets, VBW is anything between 15° & 30°. The value of VBW depends on
the constructional details of the scanner.

2. HORIZONTAL BEAM WIDTH (HBW)

HBW is the horizontal angle at the scanner contained between the leading and trailing edges of the
radar beam. The leading and trailing edges of the beam are taken to be the lines joining the half-power
points ahead and behind the centre of the beam, in the direction of rotation of the scanner. HBW
causes all targets to appear larger in azimuth, by an amount equal to half the HBW on either side. This
is because echoing from a target commences when the leading edge of the beam touches the target and
continues until the trailing edge of the beam has left the target. During this time, the scanner and the
trace would have rotated through an arc equal to the angular size of the target plus HBW. A point
target thus appears as an arc subtending an angle equal to HBW, at the centre of the PPI. This is called
beam-width distortion.
Echoing commences when leading edge B strikes the target. The trace, aligned with the centre of the
beam, is at direction C. Echoing continues until trailing edge A reaches position A'. At this time, the
trace would be in the direction e. Though the actual size of the target is only arc BA', the paint on the
PPI equals to arc CC‟. Similarly, a very small target, such as a narrow chimney, will appear as arc XX',
equal to HBW, on the PPI. In the foregoing diagrams, the value of HBW has been exaggerated for
illustration
When observing a small target such as a buoy, a light-vessel, another vessel, etc. pass the bearing
marker through the centre of the target on the screen and read off the bearing. No appreciable error
will result in this case.
When observing an end of land, the bearing obtained on the PPI is that of the expanded end of the
land, which will be in error by about Y2 HBW or a little more. Such bearings should, therefore, be
avoided wherever possible. Where it is not possible to avoid taking such a bearing. The fix so obtained
should not be implicitly accepted as accurate. Beam-width distortion also affects bearing discrimination
which is discussed in the next chapter.
In actual practice. Beam-width distortion for close-by objects may be slightly more than HBW. This is
because the edges of the radar beam are taken to be the half-power points on either side of the line of
maximum power. Some energy is transmitted beyond these 'edges' and it is likely that close by targets
may respond to this, resulting in greater beam-width distortion than HBW.

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The value of the HEW of a radar set depends on the type of scanner (see chapter 6) and its horizontal
size .. The larger the horizontal size, the smaller the HBW and vice versa*. In commercial marine radar
sets, HBW is between 0.6° and 2°.
It is because of HBW that a peculiar phenomenon sometimes occurs with radar, contrary to that
associated with vision. With vision, an object appears larger and larger as we progressively approach it
and smaller as we go away from it. With radar, the opposite sometimes happens - as the range of a
small· target decreases, its paint on the PPI decreases in horizontal size and as the range increases, its
paint on the PPI increases in horizontal size, as illustrated in the figure on the next page.
At A, a small target has expanded to be painted as an arc equal to HBW. At B, the same target,
expanded to be an arc equal to HBW, is now larger in azimuth than before, though B is at a greater
range than A. However, this effect is not noticeable in the case of large targets because the angle
subtended by the target, at the scanner, decreases considerably as range increases.

3. PULSE LENGTH (PL) :

PL is the time taken for a pulse to leave the scanner i.e., the interval between the instant the leading
edge of the pulse leaves the scanner and the instant the trailing edge does so. PL is therefore, usually
expressed in micro-seconds but, the speed of radio waves being taken to be 300 m/μ, PL may also
expressed in meters, if and when required to do so. PL, also referred to as PW (pulse width), is
controlled by the transmitter.

When an echo returns from a target, it will be the same length as the pulse. When the leading edge of
the echo enters the receiver, the tracing spot on the screen becomes fat and bright and remains so until
the entire echo comes in. When the trailing edge has come in, the tracing spot reduces to its original
size. The tracing spot, therefore, becomes a blip (referred to as paint) for a time interval equal to PL.
During this interval, the tracing spot would have covered a distance equal to half the PL in meters, on
its steady, radial path (its scale speed is half that of radio waves). The paint on the PPI would hence
appear to have a radial depth equal to half the PL in meters.
To ensure accuracy, the tracing spot is synchronized with the leading edge of the pulse. Hence the
correct range of a target is the range of the nearest edge of its paint on the screen.
PL therefore, does not affect range accuracy. PL does affect range discrimination. Short pulses are
suitable for the shorter range scales as they give better range discrimination. To cover longer ranges,
however, long pulses would have to be sent out to allow for attenuation (loss of energy) in the
atmosphere. Long pulses would be unsuitable for short ranges because all targets painted on the screen
would appear too large in the radial direction. Hence, paint created by echoes from sea waves and
raindrops would be especially troublesome, as there would be considerable overlapping of such paint
on the screen.
Commercial marine radar sets may have three or four values of PL, automatically changed over when
the range scale selector switch is operated. A PL selector switch, having two positions marked SHORT
and LONG, may also be provided. An idea of the PL (in micro-seconds) that may then be available, is
given below :

Position of PL Short range scale Medium range scale Long range scale
selector switch ( 3 M and less ) ( 6 & 12 M ) ( 24 & 48 M )

SHORT 0.05 μ 0.25 μ 0.75 μ

LONG 0.25 μ 0.75 μ 1.00 μ

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The actual values provided for each set will be given in the operating manual supplied by the
manufacturer. During normal operation, short pulses should be used. When searching for specific targets such
as buoys, light-vessels, etc., or when making landfall, long pulses may be used.

4. PULSE REPETITION FREQUENCY (PRF):

PRF is the number of pulses sent out through the scanner in one second. The unit, if used, is Hertz.
Commercial marine radar sets usually have two or three values of PRF, between 500 and 4000. PRF is
also referred to as pulse recurrence rate (PRR).
A high' value of PRF is preferable for a clear and detailed picture (good picture resolution). On longer
range scales, this is not possible because a greater interval between pulses is required, for each pulse to
go long distance and come back, necessitating a low PRF. Longer range scales therefore have a low
PRF while the shorter range scales have a high PRF..
The picture resolution of a radar set is governed by its RPMPRF relationship. Consider a radar set
having a scanner RPM of 20, a PRF of 2000 on the shorter range scales and a PRF of 1000 on the
longer range scales. In one minute the scanner sweeps 20 revolutions or in one second it sweeps 120°.
On the shorter range scales, while the scanner sweeps 120° in one second, it also sends out 2000 pulses
i.e., over 16 pulses are transmitted per degree of scanner rotation, which means that 16 echoes from a
target form one degree of paint on the screen. The picture on the screen would therefore be very clear
and accurate, showing great detail - excellent picture resolution.
On the longer range scales, while the scanner sweeps 120° in one second, it also sends out 1000 pulses
Le., over 8 pulses per degree of scanner rotation, which means that at least 8 echoes from a target form
one degree of paint on the screen. Though the picture resolution is fairly good, it is not as good as that
on the shorter-range scales. It is hence clear that the picture resolution of a radar set depends on its
RPM-PRF relationship.
In addition to the RPM and PRF, the value of HBW also plays and important part in picture resolution
and detection range. In the foregoing example, suppose the HBW. Was 1.5o. By the time the scanner
sweeps 1°, over 16 pulses (actually 16%) were sent out on the shorter-range scales and over 8 pulses
(actually 8~) on the longer-range scales. So by the time the scanner sweeps 1.5° (i.e., HBW), 25 pulses
would be sent out on the shorter range scales and over 12 on the longer range scales, thereby ensuring
that even the smallest target in the vicinity would return 25 echoes or 12 echoes, depending on range
scale in use, resulting in greater detection ranges.

5. PULSE WAVELENGTH (WL):

WL of a commercial marine radar set may be either 3 cm (9300 to 9500 megahertz called the X band)
or 10 cm (2900 to 3100 MHz called the S band). Radar pulses of different wavelengths are influenced
differently by external factors, as described below. Hence the wavelength of radar set directly affects its
performance. After a radar pulse has left the scanner, its path of travel and energy content is influenced
by two main factors : -
1. Attenuation
2. Diffraction

5.1 Attenuation in the atmosphere:

It is the loss of energy caused by scattering, absorption, diffraction, etc. while the energy passes through
the atmosphere. Attenuation in the atmosphere is greater when using waves of shorter length.
Therefore, echoes of 3 cm pulses, coming from far off targets, may be completely attenuated before
returning to the scanner whereas echoes of 10 cm pulses coming from the same far off target, may still.
be strong enough to paint, even though the original power of transmission was the same in both cases.

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The picture obtained by 10 cm radar is less affected by sea-clutter and rain-clutter.

5.2 Diffraction:
When a ray of energy passes very close to an object, it is bent slightly towards the object. This effect is
known as diffraction. When radar waves pass very close to the surface of the earth, they are diffracted
downwards and follow the curvature of earth for some distance. Longer waves are diffracted more and
hence 10 cm waves follow the curvature of the earth to greater distances than 3 cm waves. The surface
detection range, of far off targets, using longer waves is thus greater than when using shorter waves.
Summing up: When using 10 cm radar waves, attenuation in the atmosphere is less and diffraction is more
than when using 3 cm waves. That is why a cliff 60 miles off may be detected by 10 cm radar but may
not be detected by 3 cm radar of same power. 10 cm waves are hence good for long distance radar.
10 cm waves are not generally preferred for the main radar of a merchant ship because of two reasons:
a) Detection of small objects nearly is poor compared to that of 3 cm waves. This is due to
interference caused by energy being reflected off the sea surface. This reflected energy has the
effect of lifting the radar beam somewhat and this effect is greater for 10 cm waves than for 3
cm waves.
For example, with a scanner height of 18 meters above sea level, for a target 5 miles off to be
painted. it would have to be only 3.5 meters high if using 3 cm wavelength but around 11.5
meters high (over three times as big) if using 10 cm wavelength.
b) To have the same HBW as a 3 cm radar set, the horizontal size of the scanner of a 10 cm radar
set would have to be increased threefold. This is not easily practicable on merchant ships.
In view of the foregoing points, 3 cm wavelength is generally preferred for the radar of a
merchant ship. However, when two radar sets are fitted, both would be 3 cm sets or one set
of 3 cm wavelength and the other set of 10 cm wavelength. Inter-switching arrangements for
the display units may then be provided so that failure of anyone transceiver and/or display
unit, would not deprive the ship of the use of radar.

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3. SOME LIMITATIONS OF A RADAR SET
1. RANGE DISCRIMINATION:
Is the ability of a radar set to clearly distinguish two small targets, on the same bearing and slightly
different ranges, as two separate targets on the PPI. The factor that governs this is the PL which causes
all paint to expand radially outwards by Y2 PL in meters, as explained earlier in chapter 2.
Considering the two small targets that are on the same bearing and close to each other, the paint of the
nearer target would expand towards the other, on the PPI, by ½ PL in meters. If the distance between
the two targets is equal to or less than ½ PL, their paints would merge on the PPI and show as if they
were one target. If the targets are further apart then ½ PL, they would paint as two separate targets on
the PPI.
Example : If a radar set has a PL of 0.2 11, how far apart must two small targets on the same bearing be
for the radar to paint them as two separate echoes on the PPI? In other words, what is the range
discrimination of a radar set of PL 0.2 μ ?
PL = 0.2 x 300 = 60 meters.
Range discrimination = ½ PL = 30 meters.
i.e. , the two small targets on the same bearing must be more than 30 meters apart for the radar set to
paint them as two separate targets.
As per Performance Standards for Navigational Radar (IMO), two small similar objects on the same
bearing, separated by 40 meters in range, should be separately indicated when using a range scale of 1.5
M when they lie between 50% and 100% of the range scale in use.
Note:
In actual practice, range discrimination will be more than ½ PL in meters, depending on the scale size
of the tracing spot. Suppose the diameter of the screen is 30 cm and the diameter of the spot is 0.5
mm. When using the 1.5 M range scale, the radius of the screen (150 mm) represents 1.5 M. So the spot
size (0.5 mm) would represent 9.25 m, rounded off to 9 whole meters. The range discrimination would,
in this case, be ½ PL + scale size of the spot = 30 + 9 = 39 m:
The' scale size of the spot increases as range scale is increased. In the foregoing case, the scale size of
the spot would be 18.5 m on the 3 M range scale, 37 m on the 6 M range scale, 74 m on the 12 M range
scale, etc.

2. BEARING DISCRIMINATION:

It is the ability of a radar set to clearly distinguish two targets, on the same range and slightly different
bearings, as two separate targets on the PPI. The governing factor is the HBW of the set.
As explained earlier, in chapter 2, HBW causes all targets on the PPI to expand in azimuth by ½ HBW
on .either side. The paints of the two targets, on the same range and slightly different bearings would,
therefore, expand towards each other by a total of one HBW. If the angle subtended at the scanner, by
the closer edges of the two targets. is equal to or less then HBW their paints would merge on the PPI
and they would appear as one big target. If the angle so subtended is more than HBW, they would
paint as two SEPARATE TARGETS. Bearing discrimination is, therefore, usually expressed in
degrees and, as per Performance Standards for Navigational Radar (IMO), it should not exceed 2.5o
Example: A radar set of HBW 2° observes two targets both at 4 miles range. How far apart must they
be if the radar set is to paint them as two separate targets on the PPI? In other words, what is the
bearing discrimination of a radar set of HEW 2° at a range of 4 miles ?

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3. MINIMUM RANGE:
The minimum detection range of radar set depends on:
3.1 The pulse length
Since the same waveguide and scanner are used for transmission and for reception, a unit called the TR
cell (transmission / receive switch), described later in chapter 7, is fitted. This unit blocks the receiver
branch of the waveguide during transmission to prevent the transmitted energy from short circuiting
into the receiver and damaging it. The TR cell, therefore, ensures that reception starts only after
transmission is over. When transmission starts (i.e., when the leading edge of the pulse leaves the
scanner) the tracing spot leaves the centre of the PPI on its radial path, as explained in chapter 2 under
the heading of PL. By the time transmission is over (i.e., when the trailing edge of the pulse has left the
scanner) and reception starts, the tracing spot would have travelled a radial distance of ½ PL in meters.
Hence targets closer than ½ PL in meters cannot be shown on the PPI because their echoes would
come back before reception starts. The theoretical minimum range of detection is therefore represented
by ½ PL in meters. A PL of 0.2 μ would therefore have a theoretical minimum range of 30 meters.

3.2 The de-ionization delay

A small delay occurs in the TR Cell between the completion of transmission and the commencement
of reception (explained in chapter 7). This delay increases the minimum detection range. A delay of
0.05 μ (micro-second) would increase the minimum range by 7.5 meters.

3.3 The VBW and the height of the scanner

The VBW and the height of the scanner· above sea level affect the minimum range as these two factors
govern the distance off at which the lower edge of the radar beam would strike the sea surface. The
VBW of a given scanner is fixed whereas its height above sea level depends on the ship's draft at that
time. The higher the scanner above sea level, the greater the minimum range of detection of the radar
set and vice versa.
However, the minimum range should not be calculated geometrically, using the height of scanner above
sea level and its VBW - it is possible that targets closer than such a calculated distance may show up on
the screen because :

3.3.1 The lower edge of the radar beam is taken to be the half-power point below the line of
maximum power, whereas actually, some energy does get transmitted below this, which could
cause response from nearby targets.

3.3.2 The height of a target may be such that its top intercepts the radar beam, even though the
target's base is closer than such calculated minimum range.

3.4 The wavelength

As described in chapter 2, under the heading of 'wavelength', the minimum detection range of small
targets is better when using 3 cm waves than when using 10 cm waves.
As per Performance Standards for Navigational Radar (IMO), the minimum detection range, with a
scanner 15 m high, shall not exceed 50 ID. Targets between 50 m & 1 M should be displayed without
resetting any control other than range selector.

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4. MAXIMUM RANGE:
The maximum range of a radar set depends on the following characteristics of the radar unit :
4.1 Height of scanner
The greater the height of scanner above sea level, the greater the detection range. However, two major
disadvantages may be experienced with a very high scanner – increased minimum detection range and
also more clutter, as explained earlier in this chapter, under the heading of minimum range.
4.2 Power of the set
he greater the power of transmission, the greater the expected maximum range subject to the other
factors mentioned here. This is because of attenuation in the atmosphere (loss of energy due to
absorption, diffraction, scattering, etc., during the pulses' travel through the atmosphere). The peak
power I)f transmission, of commercial marine radar sets, is around 25 to 60 kilowatts.
The electro-magnetic power generated for transmission is subject to attenuation within the set. The
greater the length of the waveguide, or the greater the number of bends in it, the greater the attenuation
within the waveguide. Water or dirt inside the waveguide, dust or particles of salt on the reflecting
surface of the scanner, etc., can cause severe attenuation. The greater the attenuation within the set, the
less the transmitted power and, consequently, the less the maximum range.

4.3 Wavelength : As explained earlier, in chapter 2, 10 cm waves have a greater maximum range
than 3 cm waves due to less attenuation in the atmosphere and more diffraction.

4.4 Pulse repetition frequency : Each value of PRF has a maximum range to which it can
measure. For example, if the PRF is 2000 it means one pulse is sent out every 1/2000 of a
second, i.e., 500 μ. That means each pulse can travel 250 μ to and 250 μ fro (covering a range
of 40 miles ), before the next pulse leaves the scanner. The theoretical maximum range of PRF
2000 is therefore 40 miles.
In practice, however, each PRF would be allotted a much smaller range scale than its theoretical
maximum range so as to ensure that echoes from one pulse do not get mixed up with echoes from the
next pulse (see 'Second trace echoes', described later in this handout). The manufacturers would have
already pre-set the PRF for each range scale and the radar observer usually has no choice in this matter.

4.5 Pulse length : Long pulses ensure better maximum ranges than short pulses. This is because
long pulses have more energy in them than short pulses and hence have a greater ability to
suffer attenuation in the atmosphere, as explained earlier in chapter 2.

4.6 VBW and HBW : The narrower the beam widths. the greater the directional concentration of
the transmitted energy (see under YBW and HBW in chapter 2, and under 'Aerial gain' in
chapter 6) and hence the greater the maximum range.

4.7 Receiver sensitivity : Every receiver generates some unwanted signals of its own, which are
called noise. The greater the amplification factor, the more the level of noise. Sensitivity of a
receiver is its ability to amplify a very weak signal sufficiently without losing the signal in
receiver noise. Receiver sensitivity is one of the very important factors that determine the
maximum detection range of a target by the radar set.
In addition to the characteristics of a radar set, the following external factors affect maximum detection
range :

4.8 Nature if target : The height, horizontal size, nature of surface, shape and material of a target,
and also its aspect, greatly affect the maximum detection range.

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4.9 Weather effects : Such as rain, snow, hail, fog, etc., cause attenuation, resulting in a decrease
in detection range.

4.10 Anomalous propagation : Super-refraction causes an increase in the maximum detection

range whereas sub-refraction causes a decrease.

4.11 Sea and· swell : Rough sea and heavy swell cause rolling and pitching whereby the scanner
goes well out of the vertical. Sea waves frequently obstruct the radar pulses and echoes, to and
from far off objects, thereby reducing the maximum detection range.
In view of the foregoing points, targets at a range of 50 M do not generally return echoes strong
enough to paint on the PPI of 3 cm radar. However, should severe super-refraction or ducting be
present, the possibility increases.

5. RANGE ACCURACY:
As per Performance Standards for Navigational Radar (IMO), the error in the range of an object,
obtained by using the range rings or the variable range marker, should not exceed 1 % of the maximum
range of the scale in use, or 30 m, whichever is greater.
Range accuracy of radar depends on :-

5.1 Correct synchronization between the transmission of the pulse and the commencement of
the trace.
5.2. Uniformity and rectilinearity of the time base.
Uniformity of the time base means that the speed of the tracing spot must be very steady. Rectilinearity
means that each trace created should be a perfect straight line. The speed of the spot, on the scale of
the PPI, must be exactly half that of radio waves. Defects in uniformity and rectilinearity of the time
base must be set right by technician.

5.3 The scale of size of the tracing spot. This is described in the note under range
discrimination, earlier in this chapter. The inaccuracy caused by this would be half the scale
size of the spot. For example, using a 30 cm display on the 3 M range scale, a tracing spot
diameter of 0.5 mm would represent a distance of 18.5 m. Hence the range inaccuracy caused
by the scale size of the spot, in this case, would be 9.25 m. On the same display, using the 12
M range scale, the scale size of the 0.5 mm spot would be 74 m and the range error caused by
it would be 37 m and on the 48 M range scale, the error would be 148 m.

5.4 Height of scanner : When observing small targets very close-by, the radar measures the range
from the scanner to the target whereas the correct range should be the distance along the
surface of the earth.

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6. BEARING ACCURACY:
As per Performance Standards for. Navigational Radar (IMO), the radar bearing of an object, whose
echo appears on the edge of the display, should be capable of being measured with an accuracy equal
to, or better than, ±1o.

The factors which govern bearing accuracy are :-

6.1 Correct alignment between the heading marker and the scanner.

6.2 Correct alignment between the heading marker and the bearing scale.

6.3 Gyro error, if any, when the display is gyro-stabilized.

6.4 Type of bearing marker used.

6.5 Recti linearity of the trace.

6.6 Beam-width distortion.

6.7 Scale size of the spot.

Of the above, point 6.6 has been discussed in chapter 2 ( under the heading of HBW ), point
6.7 in this chapter under the heading of bearing discrimination).

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4. SOME WAVEFORMS USED IN MARINE
Whilst discussing marine radar, terms such as spike waves, square waves, etc., are sometimes used and
many mariners do not readily grasp the meanings of these terms.
If a graph was plotted, with time in microseconds along the X-axis and the current in amperes (or
potential difference in volts) along the Y-axis, the shape of the curve so obtained differs for different
units of the radar and each such waveform is given a name because of its distinct shape. Some of the
waveforms used in marine radar are:

1. ALTERNATING CURRENT WAVEFORM

If the alternating current flowing between two terminal, the waveform obtained would be sinusoidal
(like that of a sine curve). The number of waves per second is called the frequency, the unit of which is
the Hertz (1 Hertz = 1 wave per second). The length of one full wave on the graph, converted from
microseconds to meters at the rate of 300 m / μ, gives the wavelength of that current.

2. DIRECT CURRENT WAVEFORM

Soon after the current is switched on, the current increases from zero to maximum in a very short
while and then stays at that value. When the current is switched off, it quickly falls back to zero.

3. SQUARE WAVEFORM (DC) :

This is the waveform of an interrupted direct current. Each such wave is a pulse and the number of
pulses per second is called the pulse repetition frequency (PRF) or pulse recurrence rate (PRR). The
waveform is not exactly square or rectangular as the angles are not exactly 90°. but nearly so. This is

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because the current does require a small interval of time to go from zero to maximum and vice versa.
The duration of each pulse is the PL.

4. SPIKE / TRIANGULAR WAVEFORM

This also, is the waveform of an interrupted direct current but whose pulse length is extremely small.
The current goes from zero to maximum in a very short while but falls back to zero equally fast
without remaining at the maximum value. This spike is repeated at regular intervals, as required.

5. SAW-TOOTH WAVEFORM
Here the current goes from zero to maximum slowly but very steadily. On reaching the maximum
value, it falls back to zero very quickly. The saw-tooth wave is repeated at regular intervals, as required.

6. SQUARE WAVEFORM (ALTERNATING)

Short bursts of electrical or electromagnetic energy of very high frequency are also termed square waves
if .the line drawn from the origin, through the peaks of the waves and back to the baseline (the pulse
envelope), appears like a square or a rectangle. The duration of each pulse, expressed in microseconds,
is the PL.

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5. THE SIMPLE BLOCK DIAGRAM

As explained in chapter 1, marine radar consists mainly of four parts - the transmitter (units 1 to 5 of
the block diagram on the next page), the aerial or scanner (unit 6), the receiver (units 7 to 10) and the
display (units 11 to 15).

1. POWER SOURCE:
The necessary AC input, depending on the make and model of the set. is usually provided
from :
1.1. Directly from the ship's mains, if suitable, or
1.2. through a Transformer, or
1.3. through a Motor Alternator or
1.4. through an Inverter if the ship‟s mains are D.C.

2. DELAY LINE:
Stores the energy received from the power source.

3. TRIGGER UNIT:
Sends spike waves signals to the modulator ( unit 4 ), the time base ( unit 13 ) and the trace
blanking unit ( unit 15 ). The number of spikes per second equals to the PRF.

4. MODULATOR:
Is a device which switches the magnetron on and off as required. In older sets this was done by
a valve such as a thyratron but in modem sets solid state devices, such as a silicon controlled
rectifier, are used. Each spike wave from the trigger causes the modulator to release one
powerful DC pulse (square wave of 10,000 to 15,000 Volts) from the delay line to the
magnetron. The duration of each pulse is the PL and the number of pulses per second is the
PRF.

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 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF MARINE RADAR

5. MAGNETRON:
It is a high power RF oscillator capable of being switched on and off, for short durations
(equal to the PL) at the desired PRF, by the pulses from the modulator. The output of the
magnetron consists of RF pulses of electromagnetic energy that are sent to the scanner
through a hollow, metal tube called a waveguide.

6. SCANNER:
Scanner: Sends the pulses out and receives the echoes, one direction at a time. Since it rotates
at a constant speed, the entire area around it gets scanned regularly.

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7. TR CELL :
It is the abbreviated name for transmit / receive switch. It blocks the receiver branch of the
waveguide during transmission so that the transmitted pulse does not directly enter the receiver
and damage it. Soon after transmission is over, the TR cell allows the echoes that are received
to pass into the receiver.

8. LOCAL OSCILLATOR:
Oscillates at a constant low power RF of about 30 to 60 MHz above or below (usually below)
the magnetron frequency, the difference being called the intermediate frequency (IF). In many
marine radar sets, the local oscillator uses a valve of special construction called the klystron.

9. MIXER:
Mixer: Mixes the echoes with the local oscillations and makes available. to the IF amplifier, the
echoes reduced from RF to IF

10. IF AMPLIFIER:
Amplifies the IF signals several million times and passes them on to the video amplifier.

11. VIDEO AMPLIFIER:

Controls the amplification of signal voltages fed to the electron gun of the cathode ray tube.

12. DISPLAY UNIT (CRT / LCD SCREEN):

This provides a visual display of all targets in the vicinity. Because it gives a bird's eye view or
plan, its screen is called the plan position indicator (PPI).

13. TIME BASE UNIT:

It generates the saw-tooth waves required by the deflection coils. Each spike-wave from the
trigger unit releases one saw-tooth wave from this unit.

14. DEFLECTION COILS (CRT DISPLAY ONLY) :

Each saw-tooth wave received by the deflection coils causes the electron stream to move
steadily across the PPI, in a radial direction, thereby creating a trace. One trace is created for
every pulse transmitted. The deflection coils are made to rotate around the neck of the CRT, in
synchronism with the scanner, thereby creating a rotating trace. In some radar sets, the trace is
created and rotated by a rotating magnetic field in stationary deflection coils.

15. TRACE BLANKING UNIT:

Trace blanking unit allows the electron stream, from the electron gun of the CRT, to hit the
screen as soon as transmission takes place and cuts it off as soon as reception time is over (i.e.,
when the electron stream reaches the edge of the PPI). Being triggered by spike waves from
the trigger unit, it sends one square wave to the electron gun of the CRT, for every spike wave
received from the trigger. This unit is also called the brightening pulse circuit.

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6. MORE ABOUT THE MAGNETRON,
WAVEGUIDE & SCANNER

MAGNETRON
This is a resonant cavity oscillator that converts the electrical pulses received from the modulator into
electromagnetic pulses. The input is electrical, through HT leads, while its output is electro-magnetic,
through a waveguide. The frequency range of 3 cm radar is 9300 to 9500 MHz (also called the X band)
and that of 10 cm radar is 2900 to 3100 MHz (also called the S band). The exact value of the frequency
of each individual marine radar set is that of its magnetron. Each magnetron has its own fixed
frequency. It oscillates only as and when it receives an EHT square wave. In between pulses the
magnetron is idle.

THE WAVEGUIDE:
This is a tube of uniform cross-sectional area, usually rectangular, which carries the RF pulses from the
magnetron to the scanner and also the RF echoes from the scanner to the mixer (through the TR Cell).
A small length of waveguide also connects the LO and the mixer. The waveguide is made of corrosion
resistant material such as copper or suitable alloys. Its area of cross-section depends on the wavelength
- the larger the wavelength, the greater the area of cross-section and vice versa. The length of the
waveguide, the number of bends that it takes, damage to it, water or dirt inside it, all cause severe
attenuation in the waveguide (considerable loss of transmitted power and also of echo strength) and
consequent decrease in the range of first detection of all targets

THE SCANNER:
This is a unidirectional aerial that beams the energy, and receives the echoes, one direction at a time.
The size and type of scanner determine the HBW and VBW of the set and hence its aerial gain. Aerial
gain: If an omni-directional aerial and an unidirectional aerial were to transmit signals of the same
power, the former would send out the energy equally in all directions whereas the latter would
concentrate it as a beam in one direction. It is, therefore, obvious that, at a given distance inside the
beam, the field strength of an unidirectional aerial will be a number of times stronger than the field
strength of an omni-directional aerial. This ratio, expressed in decibels·, is called the aerial gain of the
scanner and it depends on the vertical size, horizontal size and type of scanner.

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As per Performance Standards for Navigational Radar (lMO), the scanner must rotate at a constant
RPM of not less than 20 (and also stop and start) in relative wind speeds up to 100 knots. The scanner
motor situated just under the scanner is, therefore, very powerful. If the scanner is fouled by halyards
or stays, or if prevented from rotating by icing, either the gears will get stripped or the motor would
burn out in a few minutes. To prevent icing up of the scanner axle during periods of non-use in very
cold weather, some manufacturers provide a heater which should be switched on' whenever necessary.
Some other manufacturers provide switching arrangements to enable the scanner to be kept rotating
even when the set is switched off.
The surface of the scanner should be periodically, cleaned of salt, dust, etc by brushing off with a soft
paintbrush or wiping with a cloth. The scanner should never be painted, except under the supervision
of the manufacturer's representatives; as ordinary paints would alter the surface characteristics and
cause severe attenuation at the scanner.
The slotted waveguide type of scanner, as its name suggests, it is a horizontal length of waveguide with
slots on one side. It is end fed (the transmitted pulse enters from one end) and the other end is
permanently closed. The numerous slots are very specific in size and shape, and very precisely spaced,
depending on the exact wavelength used and cause the energy to go out as parallel rays.
The slotted part of the waveguide has a weatherproof cover of corrosion resistant material, usually
Perspex or fiberglass, to keep out water, salt and dirt without itself causing much attenuation. This
further reduces wind resistance. The advantages of this type of scanner over parabolic types of the same
size are :
a. It offers less wind resistance and hence needs a smaller scanner motor.
b. It has a smaller HBW.
c. It produces less side lobe effect.
The slotted waveguide is thus the most popular type of scanner seen on modem ships of the merchant
navy.

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7. MORE ABOUT THE RECEIVER
1. THE TR CELL:

The transmit / receive cell blocks the receiver branch of the waveguide during transmission so that the
transmitted pulse, being of very high power (25 to 60 kW), cannot directly enter ~ the mixer and
damage it. It is necessary because we use the same waveguide and scanner for transmission and for
reception. One type of scanner, called the double cheese scanner, described in chapter 6, does not
require a TR Cell because separate waveguides are used' for transmission and for reception. However, it
was not found to be as efficient as the duplex system (same waveguide and scanner for transmission
and reception) using a TR Cell.
Because the TR Cell has to shut off the receiver branch of the waveguide, without fail, during each and
every transmission (500 to 4000 times every second, depending on PRF) it cannot be an electro-
mechanical switch as the moving parts' will give way due to fatigue. The TR Cell therefore has to be' an
electronic switch with no moving parts.
The TR Cell consists of a glass' bulb with a low-pressure mixture of an inert gas and water vapour. It
has two electrodes in it with a small gap between them.
A HT PD (high tension potential difference), of about 500 to 2000 Volts, is constantly maintained
between these - two electrodes but the current cannot flow between them because of the gap. When
the transmitted pulse tries to pass through the TR Cell, its very high energy content (25 to 60 kW)
ionizes the gas (splits it up into protons and electrons) whereby the gas becomes a temporary
conductor of electricity. The circuit now becoming complete, a spark jumps across the gap thereby
preventing the transmitted pulse from passing through to the mixer. Soon after transmission is over,
the gas de-ionizes and, the circuit thus becoming broken, the sparking ceases. When an echo returns
from a target, it passes through the TR Cell as it is too weak (only 2 x 10-12 to 2 X 10-4 Watt) to ionize
the gas.

2. THE MIXER AND THE LO :

The echoes that are received are very weak and of radio frequency (RF). In commercial marine radar, it
is not practicable, for reasons ,of economy; to amplify these RF echoes directly. The frequency of the
echoes is considerably reduced to a value called the intermediate frequency (IF), before amplification is
done. This is called the principle of the heterodyne.
The original RF of 3 cm radar is about 9300 to 9500 MHz and of 10 cm radar is about 2900 to 3100
MHz. The IF is around 30 to 60 MHz, in commercial marine radar.
The local oscillator (LO) produces continuous low power RF oscillations that differ from the
magnetron frequency by a value equal to the IF. Both, the local oscillations and the echoes received, are
fed to the crystal mixer. At the output end of the crystal, three frequencies are available - (i) the
continuous oscillations of the LO at its RF (ii) the echo-signals at the magnetron frequency and (iii) the
echo-signals at the IF. The IF amplifier selects and amplifies only the IF signals, ignoring the other two.
Due to temperature variation, voltage fluctuation, ageing of components, etc., the magnetron frequency
and the LO frequency may each drift somewhat from their original frequency, thereby causing a change
in the IF. The IF amplifier will accept variations only up to about ± 5MHz from the correct value of
IF. If the IF varies by more than this, the LO can be adjusted (tuned) so that the IF returns to the
correct value of that particular radar set. This tuning of the LO may be done manually but may also be
done, within certain limits, by an automatic frequency control (AFC) circuit.

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3. THE IF AMPLIFIER :

The echoes returning from a target are very weak and of greatly differing signal strengths. Furthermore,
they lose some of their strength while being processed through the mixer. The strongest echo may be
as much as 108 times as strong as the weakest one. The weakest one needs to be amplified about 109
times to be able to show up on the screen (the amount of amplification is controlled - by the setting of
the "gain" or "sensitivity" knob). If the stronger echoes are amplified so much, they would appear too
bright and smudge severely on the screen (called blooming). The amplifier therefore has a limiting
circuit so that the output signals do not exceed a predetermined ceiling value. The IF amplifier may be
of the linear type or the logarithmic type as described below :

4. LINEAR AMPLIFICATION :

The IF amplifier has several stages, each stage amplifying by a certain amount. The output of the first
stage is the input of the second stage, and so on. The output signals of the final stage would all be of
equal strength and hence all targets would appear equally bright on the PPI, regardless of whether it is a
navigational

5. LOGARITHMIC AMPLIFICATION :

Here a parallel lead is taken after every stage of the IF amplifier. All these signals are joined together
and then fed to the video amplifier. The advantage of this system is that contrast is available
a. Between weak and strong echoes
b. Possibly between two strong echoes of different strengths
c. Between targets and sea-clutter and also
d. Between targets and rain echoes.
Some radar sets have a control knob with positions marked 'LINEAR' and 'LOG', thereby giving the
observer a choice of the system of amplification, depending on the existing circumstances.

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8. THE CATHOD RAY TUBE

The cathode ray tube (CRT) is a funnel shaped, glass vacuum container with an electron gun at its
narrow end and a screen at its broader end. The electron gun gives off a stream of electrons that strikes
the screen. The screen is coated on its inner side with a phosphor compound that glows when struck by
electrons. A focusing and deflection system is provided which is either electromagnetic or electrostatic
and hence the names „Electromagnetic type‟ and „Electrostatic type‟ of CRT.
Because electrostatic deflection is not as strong as electromagnetic deflection, electrostatic tubes are
much longer than electromagnetic tubes for the same size screen. The former requires lower voltages
but are not as robust as the latter. Many instruments such as oscilloscopes, electro-cardiographs, etc.,
use electrostatic tubes. Basic marine radar uses an electro-magnetic, long-persistence tube.
Television sets use electro-magnetic tubes(as the neck is required to be very short) but of the short-
persistence type. Television type radar displays are not described here as it would be out of place to
discuss these here.

Electro-Magnetic CRT .
A· brief description of each part is given below :
Heater: A coil of high-resistance wire through which a current is passed so as to heat up the cathode.
Cathode :.An oxide-coated cylinder that gives off electrons when heated (thermionic emission). In
some types of CRT, the heater coil itself acts as the cathode.
Control Grid : Is a hollow cylinder covering the cathode. It has a small hole, on its axis, through which
the electrons leave as a stream. It is given a negative potential with respect to the cathode. The value of
this potential controls the number of electrons that are released towards the screen - the less negative
this grid potential, the greater the number of electrons that pass through it and vice versa. The strength
of the electronic stream is, therefore, controlled by varying the negative potential of the control grid by
means of a knob marked 'Brilliance'.
If the grid potential is made sufficiently negative, with respect to the cathode (about -50 Volts), the
electrons will not pass through the grid at all and hence the trace will get blanked off from the screen.
This is how the trace-blanking unit works.

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Each echo-signal is fed as a DC pulse to the control grid and causes a sudden brightening of the tracing
spot on the screen thereby creating the blip or paint. Signal voltages to create range rings, the variable
range marker, the heading marker and the electronic bearing line are fed to the control grid, as
explained in chapter 10.
First Anode : Is a hollow cylinder that is given a high positive voltage (about 800 Volts) with respect
to the cathode. It attracts the electrons from the cathode and accelerates their movement towards the
screen. It is also called the accelerating anode.
Focus Coil : Is a coil of wire wound around the narrow part of the CRT. A direct current is passed
through the coil and the magnetic lines of force, so formed, act on the electron beam. By altering the
strength of this current, by means of a "Focus" knob, the electron beam can be made to converge to a
point as it reaches the screen.
The Screen : The underside of the screen· is coated with a phosphor compound that glows when
struck by electrons. This glow fades off slowly, in marine radar screens, so that all the echoes painted
thereon, being visible for quite sometime, form a composite picture. This type of CRT is, therefore,
also called a long-persistence tube.
The underside of the screen is fitted with a superfine mesh of very thin aluminum that is connected to
the final anode. This is provided to prevent secondary emission - some electrons bounce off the screen
and tend to hit the screen again. If allowed to do so, they would reduce the sharpness of the picture.
The aluminum mesh collects these electrons, before they hit the screen again, and passes them on to
the final anode.
Final Anode : The inner side of the broad part of the glass envelope, right upto the screen, is coated
with a chemical called AQUADAG which acts as the final anode. This is given a positive potential of
7,000 to 15,000 Volts with respect to the cathode and has the following uses :

a. It accelerates the flow of electrons towards the screen.

b. It shields the electron beam from external magnetic fields.
c. It collects the electrons from the screen and returns them to the cathode through an
external electric cable thereby preventing a build up of a negative static charge at the screen.

Cut Section of CRT Television showing all working parts

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9. BASIC CONTROLS – I (TIME
SYNCHRONOSIED)

Adjusted Radar Screen Raw Radar Image with Clutter

1. ANTI-CLUTTER

This is also called clutter suppression or swept gain control or STC (sensitivity-time control).
In a slight sea, there will be indications of sea-echoes on the PPI, around the centre spot, up to a range
of about 3 to 4 miles. Paint on the PPI caused by sea-echoes is called clutter. The clutter area will be
roughly oval in shape, symmetrical about the wind direction, with the greater part towards windward.
This is because a wave presents, to the radar pulses, a near-vertical front profile (when approaching the
ship) and a smooth and sloping rear profile (when going away).
The clutter echoes will change positions with every rotation of the scanner. As the sea gets more and,
more rough, the clutter echoes will increase in density. In a very rough sea, the clutter echoes may
saturate the central part of the PPI (join together and form a bright patch around the centre spot, in
which area even echoes of large targets cannot be distinguished). Even under moderate conditions,
echoes of small targets such as buoys, boats, etc. tend to get 'drowned' or 'swamped' by clutter (become
indistinguishable against so many clutter echoes). If the clutter echoes were suitably reduced in number
and brightness, the smaller targets would become distinguishable on the PPI. This is the object of the
anti-clutter circuit.

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Though echoes from sea-waves are very much weaker than echoes from small targets, they show up
strongly because of the large amplification factor (controlled by the setting of 'gain') necessary to allow
good detection ranges of all targets. If the setting of gain was reduced, many targets would cease to
show up on the PPI, which situation is highly undesirable. Anti-clutter, therefore, works in opposition
to gain - but whereas the setting of the gain control affects the whole PPI, the setting of the anticlutter
control works only within 3 miles range or so, on the PPI, Le., within the first 37 microseconds or so
after transmission.

Since the strength of the clutter echoes is maximum from nearby and decreases as range increases,
control of clutter also is effected accordingly. The effect of anti-clutter is maximum soon after
transmission and tapers off to zero at a range (up to a maximum of about 3 miles) depending on the
setting of the anti-clutter control - the less the setting, the earlier its effect tapers to zero and vice-versa.
Anti-clutter should be so adjusted that targets within the clutter area appear just brighter than clutter. It
should never be set so as to completely eliminate clutter. If the anti-clutter is set too high, echoes of
small targets within a range of 3 miles or so may not be amplified enough to paint on the PPI. Another
important fact to note is that whereas the effect of anti-clutter is equal in all directions, the clutter area
may not be so - the clutter area is roughly oval in shape, greater part to windward. So a setting of anti-
clutter in one direction may prove too high or the or too low in another. This may sometimes become
noticeable by the appearance of ~ark patches on the PPI, near the outer edges of the clutter area.
When in doubt, a lower setting should be preferred so that small targets will not be missed. The anti-
clutter control should be frequently adjusted according to sea conditions and should never be left in
some arbitrary position for long.
Modem radar sets are provided with automatic clutter control (ACC). This is based on the fact that
clutter echoes from sea and rain are random echoes whereas target echoes are systematic. When the
ACC is switched on, the echoes received from one pulse are compared with the echoes received from
the earlier pulse. If they are inconsistent (do not agree in echo strength and time of arrival), they are not
fed to the CRT. Hence most clutter echoes are rejected, without loss of target echoes. ACC is superior
to manual clutter control because it provides the correct level of gain for nearby targets, regardless of
the varying clutter density to windward and leeward. Furthermore, the ACC automatically adapts to
changes in sea conditions unlike the manual clutter control which has to be frequently adjusted. When
entering harbour or when sailing very close to land, it is advisable to switch over from ACC to manual clutter control as
strong echoes from targets ashore may result in over-suppression and consequent loss of small targets.

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2. RANGE RINGS These are also called calibration rings. When required, a series of spike
waves are sent to the control grid of the CRT at equal intervals, causing equidistant blips to
appear on the trace. Since these blips occur on every trace, they join up in azimuth and
appear as concentric equidistant circles, called range rings, each representing a definite
value of range, depending on the range scale in use.

3. VARIABLE RANGE MARKER (VRM)

A single spike wave is sent to the control grid of the CRT resulting in a blip being painted on the trace:
The blips of each successive trace join together in azimuth and form a circle. The radius of this circle
can be varied, at will, by the observer. The value of the radius of the VRM, in nautical miles and
decimal of a mile, is indicated by a digital display. The bri9htness of the VRM can be adjusted, at will, by
the observer. In some sets, even when the VRM is switched off, its blip on the EBL is visible so that
range along the EBL may be measured whenever desired, without actually switching on the VRM.

4. ELECTRONIC BEARING LINE (EBL)

This is also called the electronic bearing marker (EBM) or electronic cursor. It consists of a radial line
that is made to appear on the PPI when desired. The EBL does not flash, like the heading marker,
when the rotating trace passes over it. The EBL can be rotated by a hand control and made to pass
through any target on the PPI. The angle between the EBL and the heading marker (the relative
bearing) can be read off a digital display. When the display is gyro stabilized, the digital display of the
EBL gives gyro bearings.
The EBL remains attached to the origin of the trace so that, even when using an off-centre display, its
readout would be free of centering error. The EBL is also free of error of parallax.
In most sets, the EBL control consists of three parts :
4.1. A brilliance control for the EBL.
4.2. A rotary knob to rotate the EBL, in azimuth, as desired
4.3. A digital readout which indicates the bearing - relative bearing in the case of an un-stabilized
display and gyro bearing in the case of a gyro-stabilized display .
.

5. ELECTRONIC RANGE AND BEARING LINE (ERBL)

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This is provided on most of the modem radar sets. It is a line whose direction and length
correspond to the EBL and VRM. The ERBL is possible because of an innovation called
'Interscan techniques'.

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10. BASIC CONTROLS - II (NON -
SYNCHRONOSIED)
1. MANUAL TUNING

This control is provided to manually alter the frequency of the La so as to bring the frequency of the IF
signals to the correct value required by the IF amplifier (see under 'The mixer and the La' in chapter 7).
There are two controls for tuning main and remote. The main or coarse tuning controls are fitted on
the La itself, on the power panel on the bulkhead, and are adjusted once for all. Main tuning requires
re-adjustments rarely, such as when great changes of atmospheric temperature are experienced or when
major components, specially the magnetron, have been changed. The remote or fine tuning control is
fitted, on the display unit, for use by the radar observer as and when necessary. Where an AFC
(automatic frequency control) circuit is provided, fine tuning by the observer would not be necessary.
When carrying out main tuning, the AFC would have to be switched off.
A meter or a magic eye gives indication of correct tuning. If the tuning indicator is defective, tuning
may be carried out while watching the PPI. Correct tuning is reached when maximum target echoes or
clutter echoes are seen, or when the length of the performance monitor signal is greatest.

2. GAIN

Gain controls the amplification of all echoes received. In most radar sets, this control works in the
video amplifier whereas the IF amplifier is pre-set for optimum amplification - maximum possible
without unacceptable levels of disturbance or distortion. If, after amplification, the strength of an echo
is below a certain minimum level, the echo is not fed to the PPI. If, after amplification, the strength of
an echo is above a certain maximum value, the excess is cut off before the signal is fed to the PPI.

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If gain is set very low, no targets would show up on the PPI owing to insufficient amplification. If set
slightly low, targets that return weak echoes (such as buoys 2 M away or a cluster of high rise buildings
30 to 40 M away) would not show up on the PPI.
If gain is set slightly high, 'receiver noise' (amplifier-created disturbances that resemble clutter) would
be visible in all parts of the PPI, resulting in less contrast between targets and background. However,
this is safer than setting gain low. If set too high, receiver noise would saturate the screen.

Correct setting of gain is achieved by increasing it until a speckled background of noise (resembling fine
sandpaper) is just visible while on a medium or long range scale.

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3. DIFFERENTIATOR

This is also called FTC (fast time constant) or anti-rain clutter. Rainfall areas show up fairly well on the
PPI. However, where the rainfall ·is heavy (intense), the rain echoes saturate part of the PPI such that
targets tend to get 'drowned' or 'swamped'. This is because of two factors :

3.1. The large amplification factor (controlled by the setting of the 'gain' control), necessary for good
detection ranges of all targets, causes echoes from rain drops, which are very weak, to show up
strongly 011 the PPI.

3.2. The PL, which causes all echoes to expand radially outwards on the PPI (by ½ PL in meters),
causes the echo of each raindrop to overlap several million others on the PPI, causing a bright
patch to appear.
In fact, tropical rainfall areas may easily be mistaken for land echoes because of their large size,
bright appearance, clearly defined edges and regularity in painting.
If either the setting of 'gain' or the PL of transmission was reduced, the rainfall area would
appear less bright but this would result in many targets not showing up on the PPI, which
effect is highly undesirable. The differentiator circuit reduces the PL of the incoming echoes in
the video amplifier. Each echo painted on the PPI would thus have a much shorter length in
the radial direction, resulting in the following advantages :
a) Less overlapping of rain echoes on the PPI, resulting in a considerable decrease in the
brightness of the rainfall area. The edges of the rainfall area are stilI clearly depicted.
b) Very little such dimming effect takes place in the case of land targets, which can thus be
distinguished from rainfall.
c) Ability to distinguish targets inside the rainfall area.
d) When navigating in restricted waters, this improves range discrimination thereby increasing
the clarity of the picture.
e) Possibly eliminate interference from RACONS at close range.
f) Better range discrimination on all range scales.
Rain clutters : Rain not only attenuates radar wave, but also reflects wave as echoes which affect
normal radar observation. The strength of responses is proportional to rainfall. Rain echoes are shown
as follows.
The features of rain echoes are:
1. Echo strength is proportional to precipitation;
2. The responses are fluffy bright speck with no obvious edge;
3. Under a tropical rainstorm condition, radar can hardly detect targets;
4. 3 cm radar is stronger than the 10 cm one;
5. wide pulse is stronger than narrow pulse;
6. Clutters are strong when horizontal beam is wide;
7. Echo strength is related to radar antenna beam width, pulse width and wavelength.

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FTC should never be left on indefinitely as targets, especially small ones, tend to get missed out on the
PPI. The use of a logarithmic amplifier (discussed in chapter 7 under 'IF amplifier') may achieve a
somewhat similar effect, without the danger of losing small, weak targets.
Automatic clutter control (ACC) is very effective is reducing both rain-clutter and sea-clutter. This is
described later in this handout.

4. DIFFERENTIATOR

This is also called 'brightness'. As explained under 'control grid' in chapter 8, this controls the strength
of the electron stream in the CRT. If set to a very low value, no electrons would be released - hence no
picture. If set slightly low, the picture would be dim and fade off quickly such that a complete picture
may not be visible all the time. If set very high, the screen would get saturated - no targets can be
distinguished against the bright background of the screen - and the life of the phosphor coating of the
screen would be drastically reduced. If set slightly high, the following disadvantages would be
experienced:

4.1. Decrease in the life of the phosphor coating of the screen.

4.2. Less contrast between paint and the background of the PPI.
4.3. The heading marker (and targets after gain has also been set) would be unnecessarily bright and
distracting.
4.4. Night vision of the observer would be adversely affected - it would take unduly long for the
observer's eyes to recover from the glare of the screen at night.
4.5. Secondary emission may take place resulting in blooming. The number of electrons that may
strike one square mm of the screen at one instant is limited. Any electrons in excess of that
bounce off and hit the screen nearby. This is called secondary emission. This causes the targets
to expand in size (bloom) and their outlines to become blurred. The result is similar to that
·caused by de-focusing.
The setting of brilliance depends on the amount of external light falling on the PPI. For
correct setting, ensure that the gain, sea-clutter & rain-clutter controls are at zero (anti-

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 clockwise). Turn up the brilliance until the rotating trace just a9pears. Then turn down the
brilliance until the rotating trace just disappears.

5. FOCUS

This control ensures that the electron stream converges to a point, as it reaches the screen, by suitably
altering the current passing through the focus coil (see chapter 8). To focus correctly, switch on the
range rings and adjust till they appear as thin as possible. In most sets, focusing is pre-set internally by a
technician and no control knob is provided on the display.

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11. BASIC CONTROLS (AZIMUTH)

1. HEADING MARKER ON / OFF

For measurement of bearings, the heading marker, also called the heading flash, is the reference line
provided. It is always visible on the PPI. It may sometimes be necessary to switch it off temporarily to
search for small targets ahead. For this purpose, a spring-loaded switch is provided. As soon as finger
pressure is released, the heading marker becomes visible again

2. PICTURE ROTATE

This is also called heading marker alignment. Rotation of this knob in either direction causes the entire
picture, including the heading marker, to rotate accordingly. This control is necessary to :
2.1. Align the heading marker to the zero of the scale, in the case of an unstabilised display.
2.2. Align the heading marker to the course of the vessel, in the case of a gyro-stabilised display.

3. Electronic bearing line (EBL)

The EBL, also being a time-synchronized control, has already been described in chapter 9.

4. Electronic range and bearing line (ERBL)

The ERBL, also being a time-synchronized control, has already been described in chapter 9.

5. Mechanical cursor

A PERSPEX sheet, centered over the PPI, with a diametric line etched on it, can be rotated as desired
by the observer. The diametric line is made to pass over a target and the reading where the line
intersects the outer fixed scale is the bearing of the target - relative bearing for an un-stabilized display
and gyro bearing for a gyro-stabilized display.

6. GYRO-STABILIZATION SWITCH

An un-stabilized display becomes gyro-stabilized by the operation of this switch. This is also called the
presentation mode switch.

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12. BASIC CONTROLS (OTHERS)
The following basic controls are grouped together as they will be better to understand in one group.

1. ON / OFF

This is the main power switch of the radar set and is situated on the display unit. Any additional main
switch, which may be provided externally on the bulkhead, etc., must always be left on, except during
radar maintenance or repair.

2. STANDBY

Is a switch that cuts off the EHT to the transmitter and the CRT, when desired by the observer. It may
be a separate two- position switch marked 'Standby / Transmit' or it may be incorporated with the
main power switch with three positions marked 'Off / Standby / On'. The switch is then referred to
as the main function switch.
When the radar observer desires to switch off the set temporarily in order to prolong its working life,
and yet have the facility of obtaining a picture at an instant's notice, he may put the set on standby,
leaving all the basic controls in their correct settings. When a picture is required, the standby switch is
put 'on ' (or to 'transmit', as the case may be) and a picture appears instantaneously, already adjusted
and ready for use, If manual control of anti-clutter is in use, it may be necessary" to re-adjust its setting,
in case the weather situation has altered during period that the set was on standby.
If the set is switched off, it would require about two to three minutes, sometimes as much as four
minutes, for the set to warm up and, thereafter, for the observer to adjust the controls. Where such a
delay can be afforded, the set may be switched off and where such a delay cannot be afforded, the set
may be put on standby.
When on standby, the transmitter is off and the PPI is blank.
In some sets, the scanner may stop rotating when on standby. All components of the set are warmed
up and ready to function at an instant's notice, when the set is on standby.

3. PULSE LENGTH SELECTOR

Is a switch marked 'short / long' and gives the observer a choice of pulse length. Longer pulses mean
greater detection ranges of all targets and it is especially useful when making landfall after a long ocean
passage. However, when using longer pulses, the following adverse effects may be experienced:
3.1. Minimum detection range becomes more.
3.2. All targets appear larger in a radial direction.
3.3. Clutter area becomes larger and brighter.
3.4. Range discrimination becomes less.
All the foregoing points are described in detail under 'Pulse length' in chapter 2. For normal
operation, short pulses should be used.
In some modern sets, the PL selector switch is incorporated in the function switch that is
marked 'Off / Standby / Short pulse / Long pulse'. ,

4. RANGE SELECTOR

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 This switch gives the observer the choice of range scale. The range scales to be available are 48,
24, 12, 6, 3, 1.5, 0.75, 0.50 & 0.25M.

5. CENTRE SHIFT

It may happen that, due to change of earth's magnetic field from place to place, external
magnetic influences, vibration, etc., the centre spot shifts out of the geometric centre of the
PPI. Two' controls are provided to bring the spot back to the centre - one for shifting it in the
X-axis and the other for shifting it in the Y-axis. It may sometimes be necessary to shift the
centre spot out of the centre, intentionally. This can also be done by the centre shift controls.
The reason for wanting an off-centre display could be :

5.1. The coating at the centre of the screen may be burnt and hence objects very nearby may be
missed. By purposely shifting the centre spot off to one side, targets very nearby will show up as
usual.
5.2. The observer may want to see more in one direction, without changing the range scale, in which
case he would shift the centre spot off in the opposite direction.
When the display is off-centered, bearings taken with the mechanical cursor would be subject
to centering error. Hence the EBL should be used. It is possible to allow for centering error
with the mechanical cursor.

6. PERFORMANCE MONITOR

This switch is provided to check the overall efficiency of the set. When this switch is put on, a plume or
a sun pattern appears on the screen. While on the 1.5 M range scale, or other small range scale specified
by the manufacturer, the length of the plume (or the radius of the sun pattern) is measured, with gain
set normal and both anti-clutter and differentiator controls set at minimum. The present length of the
plume, expressed as a percentage of the maximum length in the past, gives the present relative
efficiency of the set.

7. SCALE ILLUMINATION

The brightness of all readouts such as range scale in use, distance between consecutive range rings,
bearing !) digital displays of VRM, EBL, EREL,

8. SCANNER ON / OFF

This starts or stops the scanner. It may be necessary to stop the scanner, when the set is working, for
maintenance, alignment of heading marker, etc. Alternatively, in some radar sets, the scanner may be
kept rotating, whilst the rest of the equipment is off, to prevent icing up of the scanner shaft in very
cold weather. This is not necessary if a low power heater circuit is provided.

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13. EFFICIENCY OF A RADAR SET
As per Performance Standards for Navigational Radar (IMO), -the radar set must have means of
ascertaining the level of its overall performance. It is understood that such means shall be available to
the radar observer at all times and not rely on the existence of targets in the vicinity.
A simple oscillator, in the form of an echo box, is mounted at some suitable point on the ship where
the transmitted pulse would enter it, oscillate for some time, come back as a long echo and show up as
plume (feather) on the display. The length of the plume is an indication of the performance of the set -
the longer the plume, the better the performance.
The length of the plume is usually measured on the 1.5 M range scale, unless otherwise indicated by the
manufacturer, using the variable range marker. The error, if any, of the variable range marker must, of
course, be found and allowed for. In most radar sets, the length of the plume is between 1000 m and
2000 m. The present length of the plume, expressed as a percentage of the maximum length obtained
in the past, gives the present relative efficiency of the set.

Efficiency % Maximum length in the past = 100 x Present length of plume /

Maximum length in the past'
The working of the echo box is similar to the striking of a bell. Though the time of contact between the
striker and the bell is very short, the ringing sound is heard for considerable time.
The duration of the ringing sound depends on several factors such at the quality of the bell metal, the
power exerted by the striker, the material of the striker, damping factors such as objects in contact with
the bell surface, cracks or defects on the body of the bell, etc. The duration of the ringing sound is,
therefore, a good indication of the overall performance of the bell.
Similarly, the length of the plume indicates the overall performance of the radar set and depends on
several factors such as the power of transmission, proper tuning to obtain the correct IF, the efficiency
of the receiver, etc. Attenuating factors such as water or dirt inside the waveguide, damage to the
waveguide, salt or dirt accumulation on the reflecting surface of the scanner, etc., also will decrease the
length of the plume, thereby indicating a decrease in the overall efficiency of the radar set.
Where it is not possible to fix the echo box at a convenient spot, it may be fitted behind the scanner
and fed through a small piece of waveguide which is opened by a magnetic relay only when the
performance monitor switch is operated. In this case, a cartwheel or sun pattern appears on the PPI
because the echo box rotates along with the scanner. The maximum radius of this pattern, just like the
length of the plume, is an indication of the overall performance of the set.
If a radar set is working with 80% efficiency, it may be approximated that the maximum detection
ranges of targets may be 80% of what they were at 100% efficiency (when the plume was at its
maximum length). This is one of the reasons why the regular filling up of the radar logbook is very
important. However, the detection ranges of targets are also greatly influenced by various external
factors that are discussed at a higher level of training later. Where the efficiency of a radar set falls
below 80%, an investigation must be made and the cause rectified.
A rough idea of the quality of performance may then be obtained by the detection ranges of targets, if
any, that appear on the PPI. The presence of clutter (echoes from sea waves) is proof that the sea is
working reasonably well.
The real benefit of the performance monitor is felt when, in open sea, no targets show up on the PPI,
especially when in fog or when making landfall after a long ocean passage. The absence of paint on the
screen may be due to the fact that there is no target within its detection range or due to malfunction of
components of the radar set. This can only be ascertained by the use of the performance monitor.

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14. SITING OF COMPONENTS
1. SCANNER

The problem of locating a radar scanner on a ship may be discussed under four headings :
a. Vertical positioning,
b. Transverse positioning,
c. Longitudinal positioning
d. Other factors.

1.1. Vertical Positioning:

This refers to height of the scanner above sea level and also height of scanner with respect to
other shipboard objects. Experience has shown that a scanner height between 12 m and 18 m
above sea level gives best all-round radar performance.
A very high scanner would give good detection ranges of all targets but would have three
disadvantages:
1.1.1 The increased length of waveguide would create greater attenuation inside it resulting in loss
of ·power of both, the transmitted pulse and the received echo.
1.1.2 The vertical beam width of a given scanner being fixed, increase in height would cause an
increase in the minimum detection range i.e., the lower edge of the radar beam would strike
the sea surface further away such that targets closer than this point may not be detected by the
radar set.
1.1.3 The amplitude and extent of sea clutter would increase, causing echoes of small targets within
the clutter area to become less conspicuous.
A low radar scanner would give good minimum detection range but will also have two
disadvantages:
1.1.4 Decrease in maximum detection ranges of all targets.
1.1.5 Blind and shadow sectors caused by shipboard obstructions.
Bearing in mind the variation in height above sea level due to change of mean draft and the
optimum height above sea level suggested by the manufacturer. the height of the scanner
above the upper -deck should be decided so that a reasonably good picture is obtained whether
the ship is loaded fully, partly or in ballast.
The scanner should preferably be fitted above the funnel and below the cross-trees in order to
avoid blind sectors caused by them. The cross-trees subtend a large angle at the scanner but by
fitting the scanner below them, the blind sector lies up in space whereas at sea level, only the
shadow sector of the mast will be experienced. If for any reason, the scanner has to be fitted at
a greater height than the cross-trees, it should be sufficiently high up to ensure that the blind
sector, caused by the cross-trees, falls well within the minimum range of the radar set.

1.2. Transverse Positioning

The scanner and the transceiver unit (transmitter-cum-receiver unit) should be as vertically
aligned as possible to keep the length of the waveguide, and the number of bends in it, down
to a minimum. Otherwise, increased attenuation in the waveguide would result.

On ships with centre-line masts, the scanner should be slightly off-centered, to avoid a shadow
sector right ahead. The distance off the centre-line should be kept to .a minimum. Otherwise,
the radar may show a target to be fine on one bow whereas, to an officer standing at the centre

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 of the wheelhouse, the target may visually appear to be fine on the other bow - a very serious
ambiguity.
Where the shadow sector on each bow is inevitable, such as when having bipod masts or goal
posts, it is preferable to have the scanner on the centre-line so that the shadow sectors on
either bow are symmetrical

1.3. Longitudinal Positioning

The scanner should preferably be in a vertical line with the transceiver so as to keep the length
of the waveguide, and the number of bends in it, to a minimum.
On very long ships subject to unusually great trim by the stern, the forecastle may tend to
obstruct the radar beam, especially during pitching. In such cases, it may be advisable to fit the
scanner on top of the foremast. Since the waveguide then cannot come to the bridge, the
transceiver is also fitted on the foremast, inside the sheltered crow's nest or inside a separate
watertight box. The length of the waveguide is then only a meter or so. The leads from the
transceiver to the bridge are then only electrical wires. However, this poses one problem -
maintenance personnel have to climb the mast when required and this is not always practicable
in bad weather very cold weather or rain.
One important point to bear in mind is that, if the scanner is situated on the foremast, visual
beam bearings and radar beam bearings of objects closeby may differ. Though this will not
appreciably affect navigation, it is well worth remembering, especially when in restricted waters
in poor visibility.

1.4. Other factors :

1.4. I. The scanner should be so situated that the observer can easily ensure that the scanner is
clear before switching on the set.
1.4.2. The scanner should be sufficiently far away from all halyards, stays, etc., which may foul
the scanner if they get slack, collapse or part.
1.4.3. The scanner should be well away from all other aerials such as those belonging to Satcom,
VHF, Loran, GPS, domestic receivers, etc.
1.4.4. The scanner should be sufficiently far away from magnetic compasses. Every scanner has
a 'safe compass distance' marked on it.
1.4.5. The scanner should be suitably isolated or fenced off so that nobody doing any job, other
than scanner maintenance, can go near the scanner by mistake. If not, the person will not
only be injured by the rotating scanner but also fall down from such a height and suffer
further injury.
Extensive research has been done on the effects of radiation from pulses transmitted by radar.
It has been said that exposure to continuous, powerful electro-magnetic energy (500 kilowatts
or more, as used in military radars) may cause some ill-effects to human health but pulses
transmitted by commercial marine radar are very short and are relatively weak (25 to 60
kilowatts only) and present no danger at distances beyond about one meter from the scanner.
However, going near a scanner whilst radar is being worked should be discouraged. as a matter
of routine. The energy inside a wave-guide is much more concentrated. Should a wave-guide
be open, whilst the radar is being operated for repairs, etc., one should avoid standing in front
of, specially avoid looking into, the open wave-guide.

2. DISPLAY

When selecting a site for the display unit, the following points should be considered:

2.1. Magnetic safe distances : The safe distance from magnetic compasses, as stated by the

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 manufacturer, should be maintained.

2.2. Lighting : The amount of light ensuing from the display unit, though small, may interfere with
the keeping of an efficient visual lookout from the wheelhouse at night. An additional light may
also be required at the display unit for carrying out running repairs at night. During daytime, the
opposite happens. The wheelhouse becomes too bright for proper viewing of the radar screen.
The provision of thick curtains, around the display unit, for screening whenever required, will be
a great advantage. Some radar sets have 'daylight viewing displays' that give a very bright
radar picture whereby the use of curtains during daytime is eliminated. In such cases, the curtains
may still be an asset at night.

2.3. Viewing ability from site : The display unit should be so sited that the master. pilot or navigator
can view the radar screen and the visual scene, quickly and easily. To facilitate this, the display
unit should preferably be in line with a large porthole, but sufficiently away from it so as to be
clear of direct sunlight. To protect the display unit from getting wet, inadvertently due to rain or
spray, the porthole in front of it should preferably be of the non-opening type.

2.4. Facilities for viewing radar screen : It should be possible for at least two officers to view the
display simultaneously. As it may be necessary for one officer to observe radar for long periods,
a seat should be made available and the height and angle of the display should be suitable for a
seated observer as well as for a standing observer.

2.5. Facilities for plotting : Suitable facilities for plotting should be provided and kept readily
accessible to the radar observer at all times.

2.6. Comparison with chart : The radar observer may want to compare his radar observation with the
chart and with the position fixing information obtained from other navigational aids. Where the
display unit is in the chartroom, this is no problem at all. However, in most ships, the display
unit is located in the wheelhouse. In such cases, the provision of a small chart-table with a
suitably screened light would be desirable. In many modern ships, the chartroom is a part of the
wheelhouse itself whereby access to the chart-table is quickly and easily available from the
display unit in the wheelhouse.

2.7. Safe distance : The display unit should be sufficiently far away from equipment such as the clear-
view screen, electric telegraph, fans etc., whose sparking could cause interference.

2.8. Access for repairs : Suitable space should be available all round the display unit. for maintenance,
repairs, etc.

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3. TRANSCEIVER

Almost radar sets, the transceiver consists of bulk-head mounted panels which should be sited so as to:
3.1. Be at eye level, for easy maintenance.
3.2. Preferably be in the chart-room so that lights may be used, for running repairs at night, without
disturbing the night vision of the navigating officer and the lookout man.
3.3. Be as directly below the scanner as possible so as to keep the waveguide as short and straight as
possible.
3.4. Be at safe distances from magnetic compasses, as specified by the manufacturer.
3.5. Be away from sources of heat or cold (heaters and air-conditioning ducts) or fumes (as from
batteries, etc.).
3.6. Be free of excessive vibration.
3.7. Be safe from spray, rain, dust, etc.
3.8. Have adequate space around it so that repairs and maintenance may be carried out without
interfering with the navigation of the ship.
3.9. Where the transceiver is mounted remotely, such as on the foremast, etc., a communication link
between its site and the site of the display unit is desirable.

4. MOTOR ALTERNATORS OR INVERTERS

These should be so located that they are protected from weather, well-ventilated and not subjected to
undue vibration, dampness, fumes or excessive changes of temperature. Motor alternators are liable to
cause vibration and noise and hence should be so located that they do not disturb the crew whether on
or off duty.

5. SPARE PARTS

Certain spare parts, particularly spare magnetrons, may seriously affect magnetic compasses. They
should be stored in a specially designed box, in accordance with the safe compass distance marked on
it. Where the manufacturer has not specified a safe compass distance for the spare-parts box, it should
be stored at least 10 meters away from magnetic compasses.

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15. DEVELOPMENTS IN BASIC RADAR
Over the years, many developments have taken place in radar while still using conventional CRTs.
Some of them are:

1. INTERSCAN TECHNIQUES

During the time interval between the completion of a trace and the commencement of the next one,
the transmitter and the receiver are both idle. This period is utilized to carry out various additional
functions. For example when using the 3 mile range scale, the tracing spot takes 37 μ to create one
trace. If the allotted PRF for that range scale is 2000, one pulse leaves the scanner every 1/2000 of a
second or 500 μ. So after every 37 μ, the tracing spot is idle for the next 463 μ. During this interval
between traces (or scans), the tracing spot is used to create several other effects - hence the name
'Interscan techniques'.
Some of the facilities made available by interscan techniques are :
1.1. Electronic bearing line (EBL).
1.2. Electronic range and bearing line (ERBL).
1.3. Electronic map drawing facility.
1.4. Electronic parallel index lines.
1.5. Various symbols and markers for Semi-automatic and Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA).

2. VIDEO PROCESSED DISPLAYS

These are also called synthetic displays because the raw video signals are not fed directly to the display
unit like conventional radar. The radio frequency echoes received from targets are of various shapes
ranging from small spike waves to irregular quadrilaterals. These signals are then :
2. I. Passed through a logarithmic amplifier (see chapter 7). Suitable minimum and maximum
threshold limiting values (min- TL V & max-TL V) are applied throughout. The min-TL V
ensures that very weak signals are eliminated. On the radar screen. most of the sea and rain
clutter thus gets eliminated. The max-TL V ensures that after amplification, the signal strength
shall not be too high. Logarithmic amplification ensures that, at the final output stage, a fair
amount of discrimination is available between weak and strong echoes.
2.2. Digitally converted into square waves.
Video processing of signals allows a clear radar picture with little or no sea clutter and a fair amount of
visible difference between weak and strong echoes. Very bright displays, also called daylight viewing
displays, are thus possible using conventional CRTs without the danger of burning out the phosphor
coating of the screen.

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3. CORRECT ORDER OF MAKING ADJUSTMENTS TO RADAR AND THE
CRITERIA FOR OPTIMUM SETTING OF THE CONTROLS

Radar start-up operating sequences are generally as follows:

(1) Make sure that the antenna is clear of obstacles; turn on the antenna power switch and radar
power switch.
(2) Preheat for 3 minutes, and then transmit.
(3) Set brilliance to proper condition and anti-clutter control to zero position.
(4) Set input information of heading and speed.
(5) Select medium or long range scale. Set the presentation of radar picture.
(6) Set gain so that the sparkled background noise is just visible.
(7) Manual tuning firstly to maximum level of the tuning indicator, and then switch to automatic
tuning.
(8) Select the appropriate range scale according to the needs of the navigation environment.
(9) Adjust A/C sea control to break up the sea clutter into small dots so that small targets become
distinguishable.
(10) Adjust Interference Rejection control if necessary. Choose Interference Rejection level to
reduce interference that has little impact on weak echoes.
(11) Adjust A/C Rain control if necessary to split up unwanted rain echoes into a speckled pattern,
so as to make useful targets distinguishable.

4. DIFFERENT TYPES OF DISPLAY MODES

(1) Relative-Motion Presentation In relative-motion presentation, CCRP (and the radial scan
centre), which always represents the effective position of the observing ship, is stationary. In
consequence, targets exhibit their motion relative to the observing ship. The targets' motion equals to
the sum of their true velocity vector and the own ship's true velocity vector. In particular, in the
absence of any leeway, the movement of fixed targets at sea is reverse and iso-kinetic with the own
ship, and the movement of target's ship with the same velocity vector of the own ship is stationary. If
CCRP coincides with geometric centre of workspace, it is called centre display mode. Otherwise, it is
called off-centred display mode. On selection of off-centred display, there are more display areas
ahead so that targets can be observed expediently.
a) Relative-Motion Head-Up presentation Relative-motion head-up presentation is often
described as unstabilised mode. Radar can work properly without other sensors information in this
mode. The characteristics are as follows:
I. The characteristics of relative-motion presentation as described. ) indicates the own ship's
II. Heading line connecting CCRP at the top of the display (000 heading. The displayed radar
picture corresponds directly with the scene viewed through the wheelhouse window in this mode
only. The relative bearing of the targets can be obtained in this way.
III. Yawing movements of the ship will cause echo swing. The afterglow trail of targets and
accumulation of echoes will be lead to a false appearance that the bearing of a target is changing,
while in fact the true bearing remains constant. If the ship's course is altering while the heading line
remains constant, the picture will rotate in reverse direction. This will affect observation, especially
when the own ship is altering heading rapidly and significantly and fast and the target's echoes
become blurred.

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IV. Intuitional observation can be obtained; it is applied to collision avoidance at a calm open sea.
V. Unfavourable to position fixing, navigation and environment in which course is changed
frequently, such as a ship entering into port, narrow waterways and mostly coastal waters.
VI. Target trails, anti-clutter control and target tracking (TT), etc. which can work properly only in
stabilised display mode, will be restricted.
For a radar in normal working condition, the Head-up orientation mode is not a regular function in
accordance with IMO radar performance standards. When heading sensor is not functional, this
mode will be used as a backup and fallback mode with an alarm indication.

b) Relative-Motion North-up presentation This is stabilised bearing display mode that

requires access to information of the own ship's heading. Display characteristics are as shown in the
Fig.2-8:
I. The characteristics of relative-motion presentation as described.
II. The top of screen represents the true north; heading line is from CCRP to the own ship's true
heading. The displayed radar picture corresponds directly with the paper chart in use. True bearing of
targets can be obtained directly by bearing measurement.
III. When the ship is yawing in bad weather and rough seas or the own ship is altering course,
heading line is changing with the ship's heading. The echoes are maintained stable and clear to
facilitate observation.

c) Relative-Motion Course-up presentation This is also stabilised bearing display mode

which requires access to the information of the own ship's heading. Display characteristics are as
shown in the Fig.2-9:

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1. The heading line, which represents the own ship's course from CCRP to the own ship's true
heading, points to the top of screen. The bearing scale on the screen is driven by the heading and 000
represents true north. The displayed radar image is similar to the visual observation by the operator
through the bridge. True bearing of targets can be obtained by bearing measurement.
2. When the ship is yawing in bad weather and rough seas or the own ship is altering course, this
mode has the characteristics of north-up orientation. Heading line is changing with the ship's heading.
The echoes are stable and clear to facilitate observation.
3. After the course is altered and the own ship's course is steady, press "course-up" control, and
radar picture will be rotated rapidly and restored to new course-up state. It can avoids the problem of
fuzzy target trailing in Head-up display mode when the ship is altering course.
4. For both navigation and collision avoidance, course-up mode is suitable for open waters. But
in most situations, the true north is inconsistent with the paper chart, which is not conducive to target
identification and position fixing.

(2) TRUE-MOTION PRESENTATION

This display mode requires the own ship's heading and speed to be transmitted to the radar.
In true-motion presentation mode, the CCRP (and the radial scan centre) represents the own ship's
position, and is going ahead with the own ship's course and speed on the screen. If the operator uses
speed through the water (STW), the drifting ship is stationary and the land will move with speed and
reverse direction of current. Water true-motion mode is applied to collision avoidance. STW can be
obtained by the ship's log in water tracking mode.
The speed can also be inputted manually so that the radar can work in water true-motion
presentation. If the operator uses speed over the ground (SOG), the island and other fixed objects are
stationary and the own ship and target ships move in accordance with its track on the screen. Heading
does not indicate the direction of movement of ships on the waters with current. Ground true-
motion mode is applied to narrow waterway and navigation of ship entering and leaving port.
There are many ways to achieve SOG, such as doing correction of set and drift on STW mode, using
ship's log in seabed tracking mode, using electronic position fixing system (EPFS, such as GPS) etc.
SOG can also be obtained by radar ground referencing function. It can check the accuracy of SOG by
observing whether a fixed target drift or not. According to the provision of radar performance
standards, the radial scan centre shall be at any point at least 50% and not exceeding 75% of the
radius from the centre of the operational display area. The radial scan centre can be retuned manually
any time for better observation. On true-motion presentation, the radar can provide the three
orientation modes as described. Since TM head-up presentation does not indicate true movement,
this mode is not available on modern radar. When the own ship's heading information is lost, radar

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 will alarm and carry out Head-up orientation mode. When the own ship's speed information is lost,
radar will also sound alarm and carry out off-centre relative-motion presentation.

5. ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF PRESENTATIONS

Different types of display mode satisfy the different applications of radar.
In relative-motion mode, continuous observation of echoes is useful for determining the risk of
collision and make an early decision to avoid collision. Because radar function is restricted in head-
up orientation mode, the operator shall avoid using this mode when the radar system works
properly.
In coastal waters, when radar position fixing and navigation is conducted with paper charts for target
identification, it is better to use north-up orientation mode. When proceeding along the coast, on
the narrow waterways or on entering/leaving port, with the ship yawing and altering course
frequently, it is better to use course-up orientation mode which is suitable for collision avoidance.
With ECDIS, course-up orientation mode is also suitable for position fixing and navigation. When
conducting collision avoidance in water true-motion mode, the operator can easily and accurately
determine the target ship dynamic movement and make avoidance decisions according to encounter
situations and the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at sea.
In true-motion mode, the motion of target ship is unrelated with the own ship's manoeuvring, which
benefits monitoring the movement of target ship during and after avoidance of the ship. In the
ground true-motion presentation, the operator can monitor the ship's dynamic movement with
respect to coastal and fixed obstruction. This mode is the best choice when the ship navigates in
narrow waterways and in port.
It is worth noting that the operator must strictly distinguish the water stabilised mode and the
ground stabilised mode. Where current is strong, it is recommended to use the sea-stabilised mode
in collision avoidance or the ground stabilised mode in navigation, especially when navigation
environment is restricted and visibility is poor.

6. RECORD OF RADAR DATA (Radar logbook, radar maintenance records, radar hand-over
records)
(1) Radar logbook : The radar logbook can be available to assist the operator to record daily use. The
form of radar logbook may vary owning to different ship owners. The operator needs to record the
data of switch time, weather, sea condition, the ship's position and specific conditions when using it.
(2) Radar maintenance records : Maintenance records should record the content of scheduled and
unscheduled maintenance work, including time, place, the name and number of consumables
(should be consistent with the record of inventory) and signature, etc. Repair records should
describe in detail the time and place of radar failure, symptoms, repairing time and place and a brief
repairing process, the name and number of replacement parts, service provider and their contact
information, inspection result and signature of acceptance after repairing, etc.
(3) Radar hand-over records : Radar hand-over is part of ship hand-over work. It includes the
relevant materials of radar equipment and hand-over records of current radar working condition.
The records should be co-signed by the shift officers and then archived. The changing history of
performance monitoring data and the revision history of measurement accuracy should be recorded
continuously at work.

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Contents – ARPA
1. DESCRIPTION OF AN ARPA SYSTEM .................................................... 47
1.1 ARPA Systems display characteristics 47
1.2 IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR ARPA 50
1.3 ACQUISITION of targets 54
1.4 Tracking Capabilities and Limitations 55
1.5 Processing Delays 56

2. OPERATE AN ARPA SYSTEM ..................................................... 57

2.1 SETTING UP AND MAINTAINING DISPLAYS 57
2.2 OBTAINING TARGET INFORMATION 59
2.3 ERRORS OF INTERPRETATION (ARPA) 63
2.4 ERRORS IN DISPLAYED DATA (ARPA) 63
2.5 SYSTEM OPERATIONAL TESTS 66
2.6 RISK OF OVER- RELIANCE ON ARPA 68

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1.0 DESCRIPTION OF AN ARPA SYSTEM
1.1 ARPA Systems display characteristics
ARPA:
ARPA is an Automatic RADAR Plotting Aid. It derives the basic information from RADAR (Range
and Bearing), Course (Gyro), Speed (Speed Log) and a Timer and processes the information from these
inputs and provides the output which assists the navigator.

Information from RADAR

 The information obtained from the RADAR is the range and bearing.
 A RADAR observer can use this information to plot own ship‟s position as well as position of
other targets in his vicinity.
 Thus, using the RADAR, observer can follow the movement of targets, and ascertain whether
they present a risk of collision.
 As the pressure on navigators has increased due to increased traffic density, an automatic
means of plotting positions and ascertaining the risk of collision needs to be provided. ARPA
fulfills this need of the navigators.

Basic Layout of ARPA

RADAR
(Range & Bearing)
TARGET’s
LOG True course
(Speed) ARPA Speed
PROCESSOR CPA
GYRO TCPA
(Course) Range
Bearing
Internal Timer
(Time)

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TYPES OF ARPA
There are two basic types of ARPA:
 Stand Alone
 Integrated

Stand Alone
Where an ARPA processor was later added to existing RADAR, mainly to upgrade the equipment to
requirement level, a STAND ALONE ARPA processor was added to the RADAR.
This type is characterized by digital displays that indicate the ARPA data on a panel, which is adjacent
to a RADAR console. This type is generally not seen on merchant ships because they were the first
generation ARPAs, which have now been superseded by integrated units.

Integrated ARPA
Modern RADAR equipment presently fitted on board is integrated, and hence ARPA data is displayed
alongside the RADAR picture in an integral display.

ARPA TERMS:
Acquisition
Acquisition is a process by which a RADAR observer tags the target which he needs to track.
Acquiring a target is done by placing an acquire window over the desired target and clicking. An
acquire window is opened in the display memory, and after a certain processing delay, the ARPA
displays the required data.

Vectors
The movement of the targets can be represented in the form of vectors for a particular time interval.
The vector can be true or relative.

Digital read-out
After the acquisition of target and completion of its tracking, the information of the target in relation to
Range, Bearing, Course, Speed, CPA & TCPA can be displayed on the ARPA panel within 3 minutes,
as per the IMO performance standards.

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Potential points of collision (PPC)
It is the point at which possible collision may take place.

Predicted areas of danger (PAD)

It is the area to be avoided based on CPA and TCPA setting and the relative target speed.

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1.2 IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS FOR AUTOMATIC RADAR
PLOTTING AIDS
Accuracy
Accuracy standards are provided for the ARPA in the IMO Performance standards.
[As on 01/Jan/97, as per IMO assembly resolution A.823 (19)]

Introduction
ARPA should, in order to improve the standards of collision avoidance at sea:
1. Reduce the workload of observers by enabling them automatically to obtain information about
plotted targets, so that they can perform as well with several targets as they can by manually
plotting a single target.
2. Provide continuous, accurate and rapid situation evaluation.

Detection
Where a separate facility is provided for detection of targets, other than by the RADAR, it should have
a performance standard not inferior to that which can be obtained by the use of RADAR display.

Acquisition
Target acquisition may be manual or automatic for relative speeds up to 100 Knots.
However, there should always be a facility to provide for manual acquisition and cancellation. ARPAs
with automatic acquisition should have a facility to suppress acquisition in certain areas.
On any range scale where acquisition is suppressed over a certain area, the area Acquisition should be
defined and indicated on the display.
Automatic or manual acquisition should have a performance not inferior to that which could be
obtained by the use of the RADAR display.

Operational Warnings
The ARPA should have the capability to warn the observer with a visual and audible signal of any
distinguishable target which closes to a range or transits a zone chosen by the observer.
The target causing the warning should be clearly indicated with relevant symbols on the display.
The ARPA should clearly indicate if a tracked target is lost, other than out of range, and the targets last
tracked position should be clearly indicated on the display.
It should be possible for the observer to activate or de-activate the audible warning signal.

Trial Manoeuvre
The ARPA should be capable of simulating the effect on all tracked targets of an own-ship manoeuvre
with or without time delay before manoeuvre without interrupting the updating of target tracking and
display of actual target alphanumeric data.
The situation should be indicated with the relevant symbol on the display.

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The operating manual should contain an explanation of the principles underlying the trial manoeuvre
technique adopted including, if provided, the situation of own ship‟s manoeuvring characteristics.
It should be possible to cancel a trial manoeuvre at any time.

Data Requirements
The observer should be able to select any tracked target to obtain data.
Targets selected should be marked with relevant symbols on the RADAR display.
If data is required for more than one target at the same time each symbol should be separately
identified, for example with a number adjacent to the symbol.
The following data for each selected target should be clearly and unambiguously identified and
displayed immediately and simultaneously in alphanumeric form outside the RADAR area:
 Present range of the target
 Present bearing of the target
 Predicted target range at the closest point of approach (CPA)
 Predicted time to CPA (TCPA)
 Calculated true course of the target
 Calculated true speed of the target
 Display
 The display may be separate or integral part of ship‟s RADAR.
 However, the ARPA display should include all the data required to be provided by a RADAR
display in accordance with the performance standards for navigational RADAR equipment.
 The design should be such that any malfunction of ARPA parts producing data additional to
RADAR as required by the performance standards for navigational equipment should not
affect the integrity of the basic RADAR presentation.
 The ARPA facility should be available on at least 3, 6, and 12 & 24 nautical miles; there should
be a positive indication of the range scale in use.
 ARPA facilities may also be provided on other range scales permitted by the IMO
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS for RADAR equipment.
 The ARPA should be capable of operating with relative motion display with “North Up” and
“Course Up” azimuth stabilization. In addition, the ARPA may also provide for True–Motion
display.
 If True–Motion is provided, the operator should be able to select the display either true or
relative motion. There should be a positive indication of the display mode and orientation in
use.
 The course and speed information generated by the ARPA for acquired targets should be
displayed in a vector or graphic form which clearly indicates the targets predicted motion with
relevant symbols.
 An ARPA presenting information in vector form only should have the option of both TRUE
and RELATIVE vectors.

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  There should be an indication of the vector mode selected and, if true vector mode is selected,
the display should show whether it is sea or ground stabilized.
 An ARPA which is capable of presenting target course and speed information in graphic form
should also on request, provide the targets true and/or relative vector.
 The vectors displayed should be time-adjustable.
 A positive indication of the time scale of the vector in use should be given.
 If stationary targets are being used for ground referencing, this fact should be indicated by the
relevant symbols.
 In this mode, the relative vectors including those of targets used for ground referencing should
be displayed when required.
 The ARPA information should not obscure the visibility of RADAR targets.
 The display of ARPA data should be under the control of the RADAR observer.
 It should be possible to cancel the display of unwanted ARPA data within 3 seconds.
 Means should be provided to adjust independently the brilliance of the ARPA data and
RADAR data, including complete extinction of the ARPA data.
 The method of presentation should ensure that the ARPA data is clearly visible in general to
more than one observer in the conditions of light normally experienced on the bridge of a ship
by day and by night.
 Screening may be provided to shade the display from sunlight but not to the extent that it will
impair the observer‟s ability to maintain a proper lookout.
 The display of the data provided above should include an identification of whether the data
provided is referenced to sea or ground stabilization.

Facilities to adjust the brilliance should be provided.

Provisions should be made to obtain quickly the range and bearing of any object which
appears on the ARPA display.
When a target appears on the RADAR display, and in the case of automatic acquisition, enters within
the acquisition area chosen by the observer or in the case of manual acquisition, has been acquired by
the observer, the ARPA should present in a period of not more than 1 minute an indication of the
target’s motion trend, and display within 3 minutes the targets predicted motion.
After changing range scales on which ARPA facilities are available or resetting the display, the full
plotting information should be displayed within a period of time not exceeding one scan.

Sea and Ground Stabilization

The ARPA should be capable of sea and ground stabilization.
Log and speed indicators providing inputs to ARPA equipment should be capable of providing the
ship‟s speed through the water in the fore and aft directions.
The ground stabilized input may be provided from the Log, from an electronic position fixing system,
if the speed measurement accuracy is in accordance with the performance requirements of navigational
equipment or from tracked stationary targets.
The type of input and stabilization in use should be displayed.

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Connection with Other Equipment
The ARPA should not degrade the performance of any equipment providing sensor inputs, and the
connection of the ARPA to any other equipment should not degrade the performance of that
equipment.
This requirement should be met whether the ARPA is operating or not. Additionally, the ARPA
should be designed to comply with this requirement under fault conditions as far as practicable.
The ARPA should provide an indication when any input from an external sensor is absent.
The ARPA should also repeat any alarm or status messages concerning the quality of the input data
from its external sensors which may influence its operation.

Performance Tests and Warnings

The ARPA should provide suitable warnings of ARPA malfunction to enable the observer to monitor
the proper operation of the system.
Additionally, test programs should be available so that the overall performance of ARPA can be
assessed periodically against a known solution. When a test program is being executed, the relevant test
symbol should be displayed.

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1.3 ACQUISITION of targets
Sequence of Processing Inputs
 RADAR video signals bearing the target information are led into a filter.
 This process removes un-predictable factors like clutter and system noise.
 The RADAR observer selects the target that he needs the ARPA to track. This is called
ACQUISITION.
 By acquisition, the ARPA memorizes the location of the targets and follows its movement.
 It builds up the data of the target and displays it on an integrated display, after an initial
processing delay.
 An internal built-in program tracks the movement of the target and processes the information.
 A target can be „ACQUIRED‟ for tracking either manually or automatically.
 In manual acquisition, a cursor is placed over the target, and clicked using a pointing device.
 This selects the target for tracking which opens a gate in the memory.
 The gate is initially wide in the beginning because the ARPA processor is not certain of the
movement of the target.
 As the ARPA gathers precise data of the movement of the target, the tracking gate becomes
narrow.
 The ARPA predicted positions now have more accuracy.
 Auto Acquisition modes can be either by zones or sectors of by areas.
 When an area is defined for automatic acquisition, the targets that appear within this region are
identified by the order the priority, the targets that are closest being given a lower number than
those further.
 There is generally a limit on the number of targets that can be stored in the ARPA memory.
As targets fill up the memory space, a „Memory Full‟ alarm is activated.

Types of Automatic Acquisition

Zonal

Area
TYPES

Sector

Guard Zone / Fully Automatic

Guard Ring

Area Rejection
Boundary (ARB)
Acquisition by Zone

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Targets can be auto-acquired in a zone. This facility allows the RADAR observer to exclude areas like
land and wake of ship from being acquired.

Acquisition by Area
Two lines called the Area Rejection boundary can be set up on an area of RADAR display. Targets
appearing within this bound will automatically be acquired on entering this zone.

1.4 Tracking Capabilities and Limitations

Tracking
The ARPA should be able automatically track, process simultaneously display and continuously update
the information on at least 20 targets, whether automatically or manually acquired.
All ships/craft ≥10,000 GT the minimum acquired radar target capacity is 40 as per MSC.192 (79)
REVISED PERFORMANCE STANDARDS OF RADAR 1ST JULY 2008 TABLE 1.
If automatic acquisition is provided, description of the criteria of selection of targets for tracking
should be provided to the user.
If the ARPA does not track all targets visible on the display, targets which are being tracked should be
clearly indicated with the relevant symbol on the display.
The reliability of tracking should not be less than those obtainable using manual recordings of
successive target positions obtained from the RADAR display.
The ARPA should continue to track an acquired target which is clearly distinguishable on the display
for 5 out of 10 consecutive scans, provided the target is not subject to target swap.
If the ARPA is unable to place the target in the tracking gate within the next 5 scans of the 10
consecutive scans, a lost target alarm is activated.
Target swap occurs on a weak acquired target moving close to a large target when the acquired targets
vectors shift over the conspicuous target,
The possibility of tracking error, including target swap should be minimized by ARPA design.
A qualitative description of the effects of error sources on the automatic tracking and corresponding
errors should be provided to the user.
The ARPA should be able to display on request with relevant symbols at least four equally time
spaced past positions of any targets being tracked over a period appropriate to the range scale in use.
The time scale of the past positions plot should be indicated. The operating manual should contain an
explanation of what the past position plots represent.

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1.5 Processing Delays
There is a delay in the display of processed ARPA data after target acquisition.
There is also delay in the display of new data when the target ship manoeuvres
Full accuracy of derived information may not be attained for up to three minutes after acquisition or
manoeuvre of the target.

Tracking Gate
The tracking gate is an area of the ARPA memory where it expects the target to be. On initially
acquiring a target, the tracking gate is wide because of uncertainty of motion of target. As the ARPA
becomes more certain of the motion trend of the target, the tracking gate narrows down, at which stage
the displayed information is most accurate.

Rate Aiding
Rate aiding is a process by which the tracking gate is placed over the subsequent expected position of
the target. As the ARPA gains confidence in its ability to predict the motion of the target, the tracking
gate narrows, during which time if the target manoeuvres, and gets out of the tracking gate, the tracking
gate is automatically widened to search the target. If the ARPA is unable to place the target in the
tracking gate within the next 5 scans of the 10 consecutive scans, a lost target alarm is activated.

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2.0 OPERATE AN ARPA SYSTEM
2.1 Setting Up and Maintaining Displays
There is no standard ARPA model. Modern ARPAs far exceed the minimum IMO Performance
Standards. The sequence of setting up of ARPA varies with manufacturer and hence the ARPA
manual must be understood thoroughly if the full potential of the equipment is to be utilized.
Coming up is a general sequence of setting up the ARPA.

Step 1: Set Up the Basic RADAR

The RADAR equipment that supplies the basic input data to the ARPA equipment must be set up and
tuned properly.
If the RADAR is not set up correctly it may not pick up weak target echoes.
ARPA cannot acquire and track a target if it does not show up as a RADAR echo.
The ARPA user may be unaware of this and placing undue reliance on the set will lead to potentially
dangerous situation.

Step 2: Select an appropriate

 Display Presentation
 Range Scale
Display presentation includes mode and orientation. This is dependent on the user‟s preference.
A North-up, true motion presentation will perhaps be best when navigating in poor visibility, when
both navigational obstructions and traffic have to be considered.
In general, true motion is more suitable for use with lower range scales and in congested coastal waters
rather than in open sea.
A Course-Up, relative motion presentation is ideal for comparing the RADAR picture with the view
through the bridge windows; for example, when encountering traffic in open sea conditions or when
navigating through a buoyed channel.
In most other conditions, a North-up, relative motion presentation is considered to be the best.
The 12-mile range scale is recommended for normal as it provides ample area under observation
allowing the effective use of ARPA in assisting in navigation. Use shorter range scales when monitoring
a close-quarters situation, when negotiating narrow channels or for position fixing. Switch back to a
longer range scale as soon as the situation permits. Range scales longer than the 12-mile must be used
occasionally for long range scanning to obtain early warning of the risk of collision.

Step 3: Check Inputs

Ensure that the Gyro Compass and Log are functioning correctly and rectify any errors.
Check that their inputs to the ARPA tally with the master equipment.
The speed input to the ARPA for collision avoidance should be the ship's speed through the water.

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This is to match the Gyro input which provides the ship's Course. All Logs provide the ship's speed
through the water except the Doppler Log in the ground-lock mode (when it provides the ship's speed
over ground).
Therefore, the Doppler Log should be in the water track mode when used to provide speed input to
the ARPA for collision avoidance. For manual speed input, enter the ship's present speed through the
water.

Step 4: Set up the ARPA

 Select the acquisition mode - either manual or automatic. In the manual mode, manually
acquire all targets using the joystick and cursor. In case of the automatic mode, set up the auto-
acquire areas or exclusion zones depending on the ARPA set.
 Set the guard rings - fixed and/or variable at the desired distance off.
 Set the minimum safe CPA and TCPA limits. This also sets the PAD miss-distance if this
facility is available.
 Select the vector mode (true or relative) or PADs if available.
 Set vector length in minutes. A default vector length may automatically appear on switching
on.
 Stars or similar symbols instead of vectors for all tracked targets indicate vector length is set to
zero.
 Ground-stabilize the picture if required for narrow channel transit, anchoring, berthing etc.
wherever precise navigation and vessel‟s position monitoring is required.
 Switch-on past positions i.e. target History or Trails if necessary.
 Carry out operational tests before using ARPA data.

NOTES ON ARPA SET-UP POINTS

Auto Acquisition
In case, the vessel is in open waters, acquisition may be set for entire RADAR screen.
However, in coastal areas or in areas of heavy traffic or in bad weather, the user will limit auto
acquisition in sectors and also set exclusion zones.

Cautions
The RADAR observer should never neglect to monitor the raw RADAR display.
It is dangerous to rely completely on ARPA auto-acquisition facility as a lookout aid.

Minimum safe CPA & TCPA

There are no fixed guidelines for setting up of minimum safe CPA and TCPA limits.
The observer, in consultation with the Master, decides this, considering the handling characteristic of
the vessel, her response to the helm, and the prevailing traffic conditions.
The Danger Target Alarm sounds only when both the minimum safe CPA and TCPA settings are
violated by the target data.

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The larger the setting of CPA, the safer is the passing distance. The longer the TCPA setting, the
earlier will be the alarm activation. In open sea conditions, a setting of CPA 3.0 NM and TCPA 30
minutes may be appropriate. In congested areas, both CPA & TCPA will need to be earlier.

CPA Cut-off Limit

A target 8 miles off, the CPA calculated by the ARPA can be in error by up to 0.7 NM. While most sets
have better accuracy than this, it is prudent to always exceed this amount by a fair margin when setting
the CPA limit. For example, set CPA at not less than 1.0 NM.

TCPA Cut-off Limit

The Accuracy permits a maximum error in TCPA of 1 minute for a target 8 NM off having a TCPA of
24 minutes.
As this is not a considerable amount, one needs to consider the time required to take an avoiding
action.
This also depends on the manoeuvring characteristics of own ship.
A 10 minute TCPA cut-off limit may be appropriate.
The above cut-off limits further are reduced only in exceptional circumstances like narrow channels
and very congested waters.

2.2 Obtaining TARGET Information

After setting up the ARPA, the user will want to effectively maintain the ARPA display and obtain
information from the ARPA.
The following are among the important points to remember in this regard:
In the manual acquisition mode, continue acquiring recently appeared targets. Cancel tracked targets
that are non-dangerous or well past and clear to free memory space for more targets to be acquired.
In the auto-acquire mode, the user must check from time to time that auto-acquisition is functioning
correctly. He may also have to adjust the auto-acquire areas or the exclusion zones as circumstances
change.

Monitoring a Target
There are four ways to monitor a target and check if it is a danger target.
 The danger target alarm
 Extend relative vectors (to monitor CPA & TCPA)
 Extend true vectors (check if ends of targets‟ and own-ship vectors meet)
 Alpha-numeric (which give data of a limited number of targets at a time)

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Monitoring Danger Target
For a danger target:
 true vectors to decide which is the give-way vessel
 use past positions if the target is the give-way vessel, to determine if and when it manoeuvres
 Use the trial manoeuvres facility if the own-ship is the give-way vessel, to help take avoiding
action
 Switch from relative vectors to true vectors occasionally to understand targets' headings. If
PADs are in use, occasionally switch to the vector mode.

Information of Targets can be obtained in True and Relative Motion. As per the requirement vectors
can be set for true or relative vectors.
True vectors are used to show the course and speed of the targets and relative vectors is used for ease
of determination of CPA & TCPA information of the targets. Also, Relative vectors provide the
information that how the target is going to pass from the own ship.
The Vector time or PAD time can be increased or decreased to determine the threat of collision.

Target History
History of the target is equally time spaced previous positions of the target. Looking at the history, an
observer is able to derive the information about the motion of the target.

Target Swap
When a large target moves within the tracking gate of a weak acquired, the vector of the weak target
sometimes shifts over to the strong target, indicating misleading data of the target. This is called Target
swap.

Trails
Trails are the tracks over which the target has moved. Trails are indicated by a line of different shades
which on observation yields the information about the previous course and speed of the target. If the
target has reduced speed, the length of the shaded lines would be of different length, but a straight line.
If the target has altered course, the trails would be curved. Trail is generated on joining points that
indicating target history.

Trial manoeuvres
It is the simulation facility on the ARPA whereby observe can simulate (without actually doing) change
of own ship‟s course or speed with or without time delay and find the change in the target data due to
this.
This facility can be utilized by the ARPA operator to early determine the change in target data due to
future alteration of course and /or speed of own vessel.

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Operational Warnings and Alarms
The ARPA operational warnings and alarms warn the user of certain dangers or occurrences. Some of
these are specified in the Performance Standards while several are not.

Specified Alarms
There are four ARPA alarms specified in the Performance Standards:

Operational Warnings:
1. The Guard Zone Alarm
2. The Danger Target Alarm
3. The Lost Target Alarm

Performance Warnings:
The ARPA Malfunction Alarm

It should be possible to activate or de-activate the operational alarms (first 3).

On most ARPA equipment, the audible alarms can be de-activated when required, to avoid disturbing
bridge personnel.
The visual alarm, however, will continue to flash unless acknowledged by the observer.

Alarm 1 - The Guard Zone Alarm

This alarm is activated on target‟s entry inside a guard zone or on target crossing a guard ring.
The alarm should be visual and/or audible. The target causing the warning is identified by a flashing
symbol.

Alarm 2 - The Danger Target Alarm

This alarm is activated on violation of both CPA and TCPA limits.
The alarm should be visual and/or audible. The target causing the alarm is identified on the display,
generally by a flashing vector.

Alarm 3 - The Lost Target Alarm

If a target returns echo less than 5 times in 10 consecutive scans, it will stop being tracked and will be
considered to be „LOST‟. If a target is lost, other than out of range, the Lost Target Alarm is activated.
Though the type of alarm signal is not specified, generally both visual and audible alarms are provided.
The lost target's last tracked position should be clearly indicated on the display and this may be done by
a distinct flashing symbol.

The ARPA Malfunction Alarm

When the self-diagnostic test detects a fault condition, ARPA Malfunction Alarm gets activated.

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Non-specified Alarms
As with the specified alarms, these alarms are generally visual and audible.
Again, it may be possible to de-activate only the audible part of the alarm.
Lost Fixed Point Alarm
This is activated if the fixed target used to ground reference the RADAR picture is lost.
The last tracked position of the fixed target is indicated on the display by a symbol.
Target Overflow /Tracks Full Alarm
If the tracking register is full and an additional target is acquired manually (or automatically on some
sets), the Target Overflow Alarm is set off.
Sensor Input Failure Alarm
This alarm activates if the inputs from the Gyro or Log are not received by the ARPA.
Anchor Watch Alarm
Activated on own ship dragging anchor. This facility is set by acquiring one or more fixed objects.
With the fixed object moving indicating dragging anchor, the alarm is activated. To allow for the own
ship's anchor turning circle, the allowance in the fixed objects movement can be selected.
This may be introduced either directly or in the form of a turning circle drawn around the electronic
centre.
Off-Track Alarm
While using the mapping facility, this alarm warns the operator if the vessel strays beyond the safe limit
off the mapped track marked on the display.

OPERATIONAL WARNINGS
In case of the following operational warnings take steps as stated:
Lost Target Alarm:
Identify the lost target and investigate the reason it was lost; this may include possibilities like target
swap and fading. Re-acquire the target, if necessary.
Lost Fixed Point:
Investigate the reason it was lost. Make use of ground reference again, preferably on a better fixed
target.
In Case Of ARPA Malfunction
If the malfunction alarm goes off or if the ARPA data is found to be incorrect, the user should
switch off the ARPA and only monitor the raw RADAR display.

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2.3 ERROR OF INTERPRETATION (ARPA)
1. Failure to detect or acquire a target
2. Incorrect use of vectors
3. Confusion - trial mode or actual
4. Error in use of past position
5. Error in use of trails
6. Re-acquired lost target
7. Over-reliance on ARPA data
8. Over-reliance on Auto-acquisition
9. False reliance on sensor input alarm

2.4 ERRORS IN DISPLAYED DATA (ARPA)

Errors in Displayed Data
These are errors due to the equipment and may be divided into the following categories:
A. Errors due to RADAR
B. Errors due to inputs (Gyro and Log)
C. Errors due to ARPA processing

A - Errors due to RADAR

a) Target Glint or Scintillation
The ARPA selects the centre of the echo as the position of a tracked target. It is possible that the
centre of the echo shifts as the echo is sent back by different parts of the ship when the target rolls,
pitches and yaws or when she alters course. This shift is called target glint or scintillation and is
interpreted by the ARPA as a movement of the ship creating slight inaccuracies in ARPA data for that
target.
b) Errors in Bearing
Errors in bearing due to the RADAR result in target positions painted incorrectly on either side of its
correct relative track. This leads to errors in ARPA data, notably in CPA and true course of target.
Error in the target's true course is greatest when the target is on a reciprocal course and end-on or
nearly end-on.
Causes of Bearing Errors
i) Backlash In Gearing
The antenna drives an azimuth transmitter that transmits the direction of the RADAR beam (antenna
direction) to the display unit.
The transmission drive between the antenna and transmitter is by means of gears. Normally there is
continuous gear tooth contact.
Sometimes aerodynamic forces may cause breaks in this contact causing backlash between the antenna
and the azimuth transmitter giving rise to an error in bearing.
Modern transmissions have reduced this problem.

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ii) Own Ship’s Motion Causes Antenna Tilt and Rolling Parallax
Own ship's motion tilts the axis of rotation of the RADAR antenna causing a bearing error.
This error is zero when the target is ahead, astern and abeam and is maximum when the target is 45° on
the bow and astern. For example, a target at a relative bearing of 45° and own ship's roll of 7.5° would
have a maximum bearing error of -0.25°.
Own ship's rolling also shifts the RADAR antenna transversely off the own ship's fore and aft line
causing a bearing error due to parallax.
This error varies directly as the height of the antenna and the angle of roll and inversely as the range of
the target.

iii) Asymmetrical Antenna Beam

The ARPA normally takes the bearing of the target as that of the centre of the echo. In case the
antenna beam is asymmetrical about the line perpendicular to the antenna, the apparent position of the
target may shift depending on the echo strength, creating errors in bearing.

IV) Azimuth Quantization Error

The bearing data of the target (antenna direction signal from the azimuth transmitter) must be
converted from analogue to digital form before it is input to the ARPA computer.
This process of conversion, called quantization, may introduce a small error called Azimuth
Quantization Error.

c) Errors in Range
Errors in range due to RADAR cause the target's relative track to be incorrect creating errors in
displayed data, notably in TCPA.
Errors in range may be due to the following causes:
i) Own Ship’s Motion
When the own ship rolls, the antenna is shifted transversely away from the fore and aft line. This
moves the antenna towards or away from the target resulting in a displayed range that is slightly in
excess of or less than the correct range.
Pitch error is much less significant.
ii) Range Quantization Error
The quantization of the target's range data from an analogue to a digital signal may give rise to a small
range quantization error.

B - Errors Due To Inputs

Errors due to wrong inputs of course and/or speed affects all targets displayed true course and speed
(true vectors) but will not affect their displayed relative track (relative vectors).
The only exception to this is if the ARPA smoothes and stores true tracks (and there is a fluctuating
input; in most instances due to the Log.
In this case, the relative vectors will be in error till the input stabilizes for a full smoothing period. As
long as the input error is fixed and not fluctuating, the relative vectors are still correct.

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It is important to note that sensor input alarms only operate on failure of input. They do not warn
against inaccurate input.

i) Errors Due To The Gyro Include The Following:

1. Fixed Gyro error.
2. Random Gyro errors due to the ship's roll, pitch and yaw.
3. Misalignment between the Master Gyro and the input to the ARPA.

ii) Error due to the log includes the following:

1. Calibrated fixed Log error
2. Misalignment between the Log and the input to the ARPA
3. Fluctuations in Log input due to various causes, e.g. bad weather

iii) Error due to wrong manual speed input

The speed input to the ARPA should be the correct ship's speed through the water.
This is so as to combine it with the Gyro input i.e. the course through the water. If the observer inputs
any other speed it will create errors.

C - Errors due to ARPA Processing

Target Swap
Target swap occurs on a weak acquired target moving close to a large target when the acquired targets
vectors shift over the conspicuous target, indicating an error of displayed data.
Lost Target
Changing over from a longer RADAR range scale to a shorter one reduces the RADAR pulse length.
This may result in a weak echo being filtered out completely.
The ARPA will then be unable to track the target and will activate the lost target alarm.
Own Ship's Manoeuvre
In general, the relative and true data provided by the ARPA is correct when the own ship and the target
ship maintain their course and speed for the full smoothing period.
A manoeuvre by the own ship produces temporarily unreliable ARPA data during and shortly after the
manoeuvre.
Own ship's manoeuvre will alter the relative tracks of all targets.
Though the smoothing period reduces, the smoothing filter will combine the original track and the new
track of each target. This results in the generation of mean track.
After the own ship has steadied on the new course or speed, a full smoothing period has to elapse
before the relative vector represents the correct data.
All targets' true data (true vectors) will also be similarly affected due to the varying input of own ship's
course and/or speed. In case of a tracker storing true data, the target's true track is more reliable as it is
independent of the own ship's course and speed.

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Also, note that during a manoeuvre, the own ship's movement may not be exactly the same as that fed
in by the Gyro and Log.

Target's Manoeuvre
A target's manoeuvre leads to unreliable data for that target only. This is in contrast to a manoeuvre by
the own ship where all targets' data are affected.
After the target's manoeuvre is completed, ARPA data for this target is accurate only after a full
smoothing period has passed.

2.5 SYSTEM OPERATIONAL TESTS

Routine Testing
Carry out ARPA performance tests on switching on the equipment and occasionally thereafter as long
as the ARPA is in use.
These tests include:
 The self-diagnostic test
 The manual tests as recommended in the operational manual
 Performance monitor tests of the RADAR
 Compare automatic plotting with manual Radar plotting

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2.6 RISK OF OVER- RELIANCE ON ARPA
1. Limitations of radar: The use of an ARPA is subject to all the limitations of ordinary,
shipborne radar. These include minimum detection range, maximum detection range, range
accuracy, bearing accuracy, range discrimination, bearing discrimination, blind and shadow
sectors, shadow areas, roll/pitch up to +/- 10 degrees only, etc.
2. Range Scale: The use of ARPA is not available on all range scales but limited to a few only
such as 3, 6, 12 & 24 M. In practice however, this is considered quite adequate by most
mariners.
3. Gyro stabilization: An ARPA works only on gyro-stabilized displays. It is not available for use
on unstabilised displays. Whereas this is not important under normal circumstances, it does
pose a problem when the gyrocompass is either inoperative or is wandering. The navigator has
no choice but to use the Head up Display but without ARPA.
4. Off when the radar set is on standby: When the radar set is put on standby, there is no
transmission or reception of radio waves. Since the input of information to the computer is
interrupted, the ARPA cannot function and goes off.
5. Input Errors: The computer of the ARPA processes the information fed to it. It cannot detect
any input errors such as gyro error, log error, etc. Failure of the ship's speed-log and Gyro
compass should cause the “Equipment failure alarm” to be activated.
6. Assumptions: It must be remembered that all predictions obtained by use of ARPA are made
on the assumption that all targets which are being tracked would maintain course and speed
during the intervening period. Such predictions include CPA and TCPA, bow crossing range
and time, relative and true vectors and trial manoeuvres.
7. Computer tracking capacity: The computer can keep track of only a limited number of targets.
Manufacturers generally give more capacity than the minimum requirements.
8. Maximum speed: Some ARPAs can track a target only if the target's speed is below 60 knots
whereas others can do so up to 100 knots.
9. Target Swap: When two targets, which are being tracked, pass very close to each other, it is
possible that the computer exchanges the stored information and subsequent readouts of each
would then give the values of the other.
This is also possible when a target, which is being tracked, passes very close to one which is
not, more so if the latter gives stronger echoes than the former.
10. Scintillation: An ARPA makes very accurate calculations but based on the information
obtained by it, or supplied to it. It assumes that the position of a target is that position from
which the strongest echo is received.
It may happen that the strongest echo is returned by different parts of large ship at different
times due to change of aspect as a result of yaw, pitch, roll etc. This is called “Target glint or
Scintillation” and would cause the computer to assume that the target's position has changed,
resulting in slight inaccuracy in the readouts given.
11. Guard Zones: When set to guard all-round the ship, any target which approaches through the
guard zone would activate the “Intruder alarm”. However, if the range of first detection of a
target happens to be less than the value of range set for the guard ring, it would pop up inside
the guard ring, without passing through the guard zone, and thus not activate the “Intruder
alarm”.

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