Introduction and Background

Management, as a systematic practice, is integral

to the functioning of organizations, societies, and
economies. It involves the planning, organizing,
leading, and controlling of resources to achieve set
goals. While its principles have been evident since
ancient times—seen in the construction of
monumental projects like the Egyptian
pyramids—management as a formalized discipline
emerged during the Industrial Revolution. With
rapid technological advancements, large-scale
production, and the need for efficient resource
allocation, scholars began to investigate ways to
improve productivity and manage labor more
effectively.
The field of management thought has evolved
through distinct phases, each responding to the
challenges of its time. Early theories, such as
Frederick Taylor’s Scientific Management and Henri
Fayol’s Administrative Principles, focused on task
efficiency and organizational structure (Koontz &
Weihrich, 2010). These ideas were complemented
by the Human Relations Movement, which
emphasized the role of motivation and social
dynamics in improving employee performance
(Robbins & Coulter, 2018). Over time, newer
approaches, such as systems theory and
contingency theory, highlighted the complexity
of organizations and the importance of adapting
management strategies to situational factors.
A key aspect of management is the organizational
structure, which defines how tasks, roles, and
authority are arranged within an organization. A
well-designed structure facilitates communication,
decision-making, and efficiency. For instance,
hierarchical structures ensure clarity in roles and
responsibilities, while flat structures promote
collaboration and innovation (Daft, 2020). The type
of structure an organization adopts often depends
on its size, strategy, and environmental complexity.
Understanding these structures is essential for
managers seeking to align their organizations with
dynamic market demands.
In Nigeria, management practices are shaped by
unique challenges such as corruption, poor
infrastructure, skill shortages, and political
instability. Despite its position as Africa’s largest
economy, the country struggles with inefficiencies
in both public and private sector management.
These challenges underscore the need for robust
strategies to enhance accountability, improve
infrastructure, and align education systems with
labor market demands. By addressing these issues,
Nigeria can leverage its abundant human and
natural resources to achieve sustainable
development.
This essay critically examines three interconnected
areas:
1. The evolution of management thought,
exploring its historical development and
contemporary relevance.
2. The elements and types of organizational
structures, analyzing their implications for
performance and adaptability.
3. The management challenges in Nigeria, with
a focus on strategies to overcome these
obstacles and enhance organizational
effectiveness.

Evolution of Management Thought

Introduction
Management is as old as human civilization, rooted
in the need to organize resources and people to
achieve objectives. Whether in constructing ancient
pyramids or operating modern multinational
corporations, effective management is vital for
achieving goals. However, the discipline of
management evolved into a formalized field during
the late 19th and early 20th centuries, shaped by
societal, economic, and technological changes.
The Industrial Revolution was a critical turning
point, transforming economies from agrarian to
industrial and bringing challenges such as large-
scale production, workforce coordination, and
resource optimization. These
developments necessitated systematic
management approaches, leading to the
emergence of various theories and schools of
thought.
This paper critically examines the evolution of
management thought, focusing on major schools
such as classical management, human relations,
and modern theories like systems and
contingency approaches. Each phase reflects
changing priorities—from task optimization to
worker well-being and adaptability. Finally, this
study considers the relevance of these theories in
addressing contemporary challenges, particularly
in Nigeria’s unique socio-economic context.

The Evolution of Management Thought

1. Classical Management Theories
The classical school of management emerged
during the late 19th century as industrialization
created the need for efficient large-scale
operations. These theories prioritized productivity,
standardization, and organizational hierarchy. Key
contributors include Frederick Winslow Taylor,
Henri Fayol, and Max Weber, whose ideas formed
the foundation for modern management practices.
Scientific Management
Frederick Winslow Taylor’s scientific management
is a cornerstone of classical theory. Published in
The Principles of Scientific Management (1911),
Taylor’s approach aimed to optimize tasks using
data and observation, emphasizing efficiency and
eliminating “soldiering” (deliberate
underperformance by workers).
Key Principles:
1. Time and Motion Studies: Taylor analyzed
tasks to identify the most efficient methods.
For instance, he redesigned shovels for
steelworkers, increasing productivity while
reducing physical strain.
2. Standardization: Taylor advocated creating
uniform procedures for all tasks to ensure
consistency and predictability.
3. Scientific Selection and Training: He
emphasized hiring workers based on aptitude and
providing them with specialized training.
Strengths and Impacts:
Taylor’s principles revolutionized industries,
particularly manufacturing. Henry Ford applied
Taylorism in his assembly lines, significantly
increasing car production and reducing costs.
Criticism:
Despite its success, scientific management faced
backlash for dehumanizing workers. Employees
were often treated like machines, leading to
dissatisfaction and high turnover rates. The focus
on efficiency overshadowed the importance of
worker well-being, a limitation addressed in later
theories.
Administrative Principles
Henri Fayol’s administrative principles shifted the
focus from task optimization to organizational
management. In General and Industrial
Management (1949), Fayol outlined 14 principles of
management, such as:
• Division of Work: Specialization improves
efficiency.
• Unity of Command: Employees should report
to one supervisor to avoid confusion.
• Esprit de Corps: Promoting team spirit
enhances harmony and cooperation.
Fayol’s principles remain relevant in fields like
project management, where clear roles and
coordination are essential. Unlike Taylor, Fayol
considered management applicable at all
organizational levels, not just the shop floor.
Bureaucratic Management
Max Weber introduced bureaucratic management,
advocating for formal structures, clear hierarchies,
and rules to ensure consistency. His model
emphasized:
1. Authority Based on Expertise: Positions were
based on merit rather than personal connections.
2. Hierarchy: Organizations should have defined
chains of command.
3. Impersonality: Decisions should follow
established rules, not personal preferences.
Applications and Criticisms:
Bureaucracy is prevalent in government institutions
and large corporations, ensuring accountability and
order.
However, excessive bureaucracy can lead to
inefficiency, rigidity, and resistance to innovation,
as seen in some public sector organizations.

2. Human Relations Movement

The classical approach’s focus on efficiency often
neglected the human side of work. This led to the
emergence of the Human Relations Movement,
which emphasized the psychological and social
aspects of employee behavior.
The Hawthorne Studies
Elton Mayo’s Hawthorne Studies (1924–1932) at
Western Electric’s Hawthorne Works marked a
turning point in management thought. Initially
aimed at studying the effects of lighting on
productivity, the research revealed that
productivity increased due to psychological factors
like attention and recognition, not physical
conditions.
Key Findings:
• The Hawthorne Effect: Workers performed
better when they felt observed and valued.
• Social Interactions: Group cohesion and
supportive supervisors significantly influenced
productivity.
Applications:
Modern companies, such as Google, emphasize
employee well-being and collaboration, reflecting
lessons from the Human Relations Movement.
However, critics argue that focusing too much on
morale can sometimes detract from organizational
objectives.

3. Modern Management Theories

Modern theories address the complexities of
globalized economies, technological advancements,
and dynamic environments. These approaches
emphasize adaptability, systems thinking, and
continuous improvement.
Systems Theory
Systems theory views organizations as
interdependent entities that interact with their
environment. Developed by Ludwig von Bertalanffy
and applied to management by Kast and
Rosenzweig, this theory explains how changes in
one part of an organization affect the whole.
Applications:
Toyota’s Just-in-Time (JIT) production system
exemplifies systems theory, aligning internal
processes with external demands.
Contingency Theory
Contingency theory rejects one-size-fits-all
solutions, arguing that management practices
depend on situational factors. For example, a
startup may thrive with a flat structure, while a
multinational corporation requires hierarchical
systems.
Total Quality Management (TQM)
TQM emphasizes customer satisfaction, employee
involvement, and continuous improvement.
Companies like Apple and Toyota have used TQM to
maintain high quality and innovation.
Elements of Organizational
Structures and Their Types

Introduction
Organizational structure is the backbone of every
institution, determining how resources, roles, and
responsibilities are organized to achieve strategic
objectives. At its core, it defines how work flows
within an organization, influencing efficiency,
communication, and adaptability. Over time,
organizations have adopted various structures to
align with their objectives, the nature of their
operations, and external environmental factors.
The concept of organizational structure has evolved
in parallel with management thought, which has
moved from rigid hierarchies to more flexible,
networked systems in response to globalization,
technological advancement, and workforce
diversification. Effective structures balance
efficiency with adaptability, ensuring smooth
operations while fostering innovation and growth.
This essay critically discusses the core elements
that define organizational structures, examines the
major types of structures in detail, and evaluates
their advantages, disadvantages, and applications.
It also highlights the
importance of aligning organizational structure
with strategy to ensure long-term success.

The Elements of Organizational Structures

Organizational structures are shaped by several
core elements that influence their efficiency,
flexibility, and overall effectiveness. These
elements provide the foundation for how work is
divided, coordinated, and supervised within a
business.

1. Division of Labor
Division of labor refers to breaking down
organizational tasks into smaller, specialized
roles. This specialization allows employees to
focus on specific duties, leading to greater
efficiency and productivity.
Explanation and Critical Analysis
• Advantages:
• Increases expertise: Employees become
proficient in specific tasks, improving efficiency.
• Facilitates training: Specialization simplifies
training processes as employees only need to
master a narrow skill set.
• Enhances productivity: Focused efforts reduce
errors and increase output.
• Challenges:
• Monotony: Performing repetitive tasks can
lead to employee dissatisfaction and boredom.
• Interdependence: Over-specialization creates
dependency between departments, and delays in
one area can disrupt the entire workflow.
• Limited innovation: Employees with narrowly
defined roles may lack exposure to broader
organizational goals, stifling creativity.
Example: In automotive manufacturing, division of
labor is evident in assembly lines, where workers
are assigned specific roles such as installing
engines or painting car exteriors. This approach,
pioneered by Henry Ford, revolutionized production
efficiency but also faced criticism for treating
workers as cogs in a machine.

2. Hierarchy of Authority
 Hierarchy of authority refers to the chain of
command that defines reporting relationships
within an organization. It determines who has
decision-making power and accountability at
various levels.
Explanation and Critical Analysis
• Advantages:
• Clarity of roles: Employees understand their
responsibilities and who they report to, reducing
confusion.
• Accountability: Clear reporting lines
ensure that individuals are held responsible for
their actions.
• Control: Hierarchies facilitate supervision
and coordination, ensuring alignment with
organizational goals.
• Challenges:
• Rigidity: Tall hierarchies can stifle
innovation and slow decision-making, especially in
dynamic environments.
• Communication barriers: Information may
be distorted or delayed as it travels through
multiple layers of management.
Example: Traditional corporations like General
Electric operate under well-defined hierarchical
systems, where decision-making authority flows
from senior executives to middle managers and
frontline employees. While this
ensures control, it may limit adaptability in rapidly
changing markets.

3. Centralization and Decentralization

Centralization refers to concentrating decision-
making power at the top of the organizational
hierarchy, while decentralization involves
distributing decision-making authority across
various levels.
Centralization
• Advantages:
• Uniformity: Ensures
consistency in decision-making and
policy implementation.
• Focused expertise: Strategic decisions are
made by experienced leaders at the top.
• Challenges:
• Delays: Centralized decision-making
can be time-consuming, particularly in large
organizations.
 • Lack of flexibility: Local managers may
struggle to respond to unique challenges in their
regions.
Decentralization
• Advantages:
• Empowers lower-level managers:
Promotes innovation and faster decision-
making.
• Improves adaptability: Decentralized
structures are better suited to dynamic
environments.
• Challenges:
• Inconsistency: Decentralization may lead to
variations in how policies are implemented across
regions.
• Coordination challenges: Greater
autonomy at lower levels can complicate
efforts to align with overall strategy.
Example: Multinational corporations like Nestlé use
decentralization to empower regional managers,
enabling them to adapt products and marketing
strategies to local tastes and preferences.
However, decisions related to global branding
remain centralized.
4. Span of Control
Span of control refers to the number of employees
that a manager supervises. It can be categorized
into:
• Narrow Span of Control: Few
subordinates per manager, allowing close
supervision.
• Wide Span of Control: Many
subordinates per manager, promoting
autonomy.
Critical Analysis
• Advantages of Narrow Span:
• Facilitates detailed supervision and support.
• Suitable for complex tasks requiring close
monitoring.
• Disadvantages of Narrow Span:
• Increases costs due to the need for more
managers.
• Slows communication as more levels are
added to the hierarchy.
• Advantages of Wide Span:
• Encourages employee autonomy and
 responsibility.
• Reduces overhead costs by minimizing
management layers.
• Disadvantages of Wide Span:
• Overburdened managers may struggle to
provide adequate support.
Example: A startup with a flat hierarchy often
employs a wide span of control, fostering
collaboration and quick decision-making.

5. Formalization
Formalization refers to the extent to which rules,
policies, and procedures govern an organization’s
activities.
Critical Analysis
• Advantages:
• Enhances consistency and predictability in
operations.
• Reduces ambiguity, providing employees
with clear guidelines.
• Challenges:
• Reduces flexibility, hindering
innovation and responsiveness.
• Bureaucracy can demotivate employees,
especially in creative industries.
Example: Government institutions like the United
Nations rely on high levels of formalization to
maintain order and consistency across diverse
regions.

Types of Organizational Structures

Organizations implement various structures
depending on their goals, size, and external
environment. These structures influence how
employees interact, how decisions are made, and
how resources are allocated.

1. Functional Structure
A functional structure organizes employees based
on specialized functions such as marketing,
operations, and finance.
Advantages
• Promotes expertise within departments.
• Simplifies coordination within
functions. Challenges
• Creates silos that hinder cross-
departmental collaboration.
• Limits focus on broader organizational goals.
Example: Dell operates with a functional structure,
grouping employees into departments focused on
hardware development, software support, and
customer service.

2. Divisional Structure
A divisional structure groups activities based on
products, services, or geographic locations.
Advantages
• Focuses on specific markets or products.
• Enhances accountability within
divisions. Challenges
• Duplicates resources across divisions,
increasing costs.
• Potential conflicts between divisions.
Example: Unilever divides its operations into
product divisions like food, home care, and
personal care.
3. Matrix Structure
Combines functional and divisional structures, with
employees reporting to multiple managers.
Advantages
• Facilitates resource sharing and collaboration.
• Improves flexibility in managing complex
projects. Challenges
• Dual reporting lines can create confusion.
• Requires strong leadership and communication.
Example: NASA’s matrix structure helps manage
interdepartmental collaborations in space
exploration projects.

Conclusion
Organizational structures are vital for operational
efficiency, employee satisfaction, and achieving
strategic objectives. The choice of structure
depends on an organization’s goals, size, and
environment. While traditional hierarchies offer
control, modern structures like matrix and network
systems provide flexibility to navigate today’s
dynamic world.
Management Problems in Nigeria:
Challenges and Strategies to
Overcome Them
Introduction
Management plays a pivotal role in the success of
any organization or nation. In Nigeria, a country
with abundant natural and human resources,
management problems persist across various
sectors, hindering economic growth, development,
and overall societal well-being. These problems are
rooted in systemic inefficiencies, corruption, and a
lack of visionary leadership. However, identifying
these challenges and implementing strategic
solutions is vital to ensuring sustainable
development.
This essay critically examines the major
management problems in Nigeria, exploring their
causes, implications, and the strategies required to
address them effectively.
Drawing on theoretical frameworks and real-world
examples, the discussion will shed light on how
Nigeria can overcome these obstacles to achieve
greater efficiency and progress.
Key Management Problems in Nigeria
1. Poor Leadership and Governance
Nigeria has faced decades of poor leadership,
marked by a lack of accountability, corruption, and
short-sighted decision-making. This has resulted in
weak institutions and poor implementation of
policies.
Critical Analysis
• Lack of Visionary Leadership: Many Nigerian
leaders prioritize personal gain over national
interests, neglecting long-term planning.
• Weak Governance Structures: Inefficient
public institutions and poor regulatory
frameworks have perpetuated a culture of
impunity.
• Political Instability: Frequent changes in
leadership and policy inconsistency create
uncertainty, discouraging both local and foreign
investments.
Example: The mismanagement of Nigeria’s oil
revenues highlights how poor governance can
exacerbate poverty despite resource wealth.
Strategy for Improvement:
• Leadership Training: Investing in
leadership development programs to
cultivate ethical, visionary leaders.
• Strengthening Institutions: Empowering anti-
corruption agencies like the EFCC (Economic and
Financial Crimes Commission) to operate
independently.
• Policy Consistency: Implementing clear,
long-term policies that remain unaffected by
political transitions.
2. Corruption
Corruption is a pervasive issue in Nigeria, affecting
both the public and private sectors. It undermines
trust, diverts resources, and impedes economic
development.
Critical Analysis
• Systemic Nature: Corruption is deeply
entrenched, from low-level bribery to high-level
embezzlement.
• Economic Impact: Mismanagement of funds
limits investments in critical sectors like
education, healthcare, and infrastructure.
• Erosion of Public Trust: Citizens lose
confidence in government institutions, reducing
civic engagement.
Example: Transparency International ranked
Nigeria 150th out of 180 countries in its 2022
Corruption Perceptions Index, reflecting the scale of
the problem.
Strategy for Improvement:
• Anti-Corruption Campaigns: Educating citizens
on the dangers of corruption and promoting
whistleblower protections.
• Digital Governance: Implementing e-
governance systems to reduce human interaction
in processes prone to corruption, such as tax
collection.
• Judicial Reforms: Strengthening the judiciary to
ensure swift and impartial trials for corruption
cases.
3. Inefficient Bureaucracy
Nigeria’s bureaucratic systems are often
characterized by excessive red tape, slow decision-
making, and a lack of accountability, which
hampers productivity and innovation.
Critical Analysis
• Delays in Service Delivery: Excessive
paperwork and poor coordination among
government agencies delay project approvals and
service delivery.
• Overstaffing with Underperformance: Many
public institutions are overstaffed but lack
competent personnel.
• Resistance to Change: Bureaucratic inertia
makes it difficult to implement modern
management practices.
Example: The Nigerian Ports Authority (NPA)
has long been criticized for delays and
inefficiencies in clearing goods, impacting
trade and economic growth.
Strategy for Improvement:
• Streamlining Processes: Simplifying
bureaucratic procedures to enhance
efficiency.
• Capacity Building: Training public sector
employees to improve their skills and
performance.
• Performance-Based Incentives: Rewarding
employees based on their contributions to
organizational goals.
4. Inadequate Infrastructure
Poor infrastructure remains a major barrier to
effective management and economic growth in
Nigeria.
Critical Analysis
• Transportation Challenges: Bad roads,
unreliable rail systems, and poorly maintained
ports increase costs and delays for businesses.
• Energy Deficits: Frequent power outages
hinder industrial production and small-scale
businesses.
• Communication Gaps: Limited access to
reliable internet and communication networks
affects information flow.
Example: Nigeria’s power sector is infamous for its
inability to provide stable electricity, forcing
businesses to rely on expensive generators.
Strategy for Improvement:
• Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs):
Collaborating with private firms to fund and
manage infrastructure projects.
• Investment in Renewable Energy: Expanding
solar and wind energy projects to supplement the
national grid.
• Infrastructure Maintenance Plans: Allocating
budgets for routine maintenance to prevent
infrastructure decay.
5. Insecurity
Insecurity has become a major challenge in Nigeria,
affecting businesses, investments, and the quality
of life.
Critical Analysis
• Terrorism and Insurgency: Groups like Boko
Haram and bandits create instability,
particularly in the northern regions.
• Kidnapping and Armed Robbery: These crimes
disrupt business operations and scare away
investors.
• Resource Conflicts: Disputes over land and
natural resources fuel violence in various parts
of the country.
Example: The Niger Delta region has long been
plagued by militancy, resulting in disruptions to oil
production, a key revenue source for Nigeria.
Strategy for Improvement:
• Strengthening Security Forces: Providing
adequate training, equipment, and funding to
security personnel.
• Community Engagement: Involving local
communities in peacebuilding initiatives.
• Addressing Root Causes: Tackling poverty
and unemployment, which often drive
individuals to criminal activities.
6. Human Capital Challenges
Nigeria faces significant challenges in developing
and utilizing its human capital effectively.
Critical Analysis
• Low Investment in Education: Poor funding for
schools and universities has led to a decline in the
quality of education.
• Brain Drain: Skilled professionals, especially
in healthcare and technology, migrate to other
countries in search of better opportunities.
• High Unemployment: Many graduates struggle
to find jobs due to a mismatch between
educational curricula and market needs.
Example: The exodus of Nigerian doctors to
countries like the UK and Canada has created a
shortage of healthcare professionals, exacerbating
the country’s health crises.
Strategy for Improvement:
• Education Reforms: Aligning curricula with
market demands and investing in vocational
training.
• Incentives for Retention: Offering competitive
salaries and benefits to reduce brain drain.
• Job Creation: Encouraging entrepreneurship
and supporting small businesses to generate
employment.
7. Weak Policy Implementation
While Nigeria has several well-crafted policies, poor
implementation often renders them ineffective.
Critical Analysis
• Lack of Political Will: Policies are often
abandoned due to changing leadership priorities.
• Inadequate Resources: Funding constraints
prevent the full implementation of programs.
• Corruption and Nepotism: Resources meant for
policy execution are frequently misappropriated.
Example: The Agricultural Transformation Agenda,
launched to boost food production, faced setbacks
due to mismanagement and lack of follow-through.
Strategy for Improvement:
• Monitoring and Evaluation: Establishing
systems to track policy implementation and
outcomes.
• Stakeholder Collaboration: Involving private
sector players and NGOs in policy execution.
• Transparent Budgeting: Ensuring funds are
allocated and used as intended.
Conclusion
The management problems in Nigeria stem from a
combination of systemic inefficiencies, poor
leadership, and inadequate infrastructure. These
challenges hinder economic growth, discourage
investments, and reduce the quality of life for
citizens. However, with targeted strategies such as
leadership development, anti-corruption measures,
infrastructure investment, and education reforms,
Nigeria can overcome these obstacles and unlock
its full potential. A holistic approach that combines
government efforts, private sector collaboration,
and citizen engagement is essential for sustainable
progress.
Summary
1. Evolution of Management Thought
Management as a discipline has evolved
significantly, influenced by changing societal,
industrial, and technological contexts. The
evolution is categorized into four main eras:
• Classical Approach: Focused on efficiency
through division of labor, specialization, and a
hierarchical structure, as seen in Taylor’s
scientific management and Fayol’s
administrative principles.
• Behavioral Approach: Highlighted the human
side of management, emphasizing motivation,
teamwork, and leadership, inspired by the
Hawthorne Studies.
• Quantitative Approach: Applied mathematical
and statistical tools for decision-making, leading
to operations research and systems
management.
• Modern Approach: Emphasizes adaptability,
innovation, and collaboration through
contingency theory, systems theory, and total
quality management (TQM).
2. Elements of Organizational Structures and
Their Types
Organizational structures define how tasks are
coordinated and managed within an entity. The key
elements include:
• Hierarchy: Establishes authority levels and
chains of command.
• Specialization: Divides labor to ensure
efficiency.
• Centralization vs. Decentralization:
Determines decision-making authority
distribution.
• Formalization: Defines the degree of reliance
on rules and procedures.
• Span of Control: Refers to the number of
subordinates reporting to a manager.
Types of Organizational Structures
1. Functional Structure: Groups employees by
specific functions (e.g., marketing, finance).
2. Divisional Structure: Organized by products,
services, or regions.
3. Matrix Structure: Combines functional and
divisional structures, allowing dual reporting.
4. Flat Structure: Has fewer hierarchical levels,
promoting flexibility and faster decision-making.
5. Network Structure: Relies on external
partnerships for key operations.
Each structure has its advantages and drawbacks,
and organizations must choose one that aligns with
their goals, culture, and operational needs.
3. Management Problems in Nigeria,
Challenges, and Strategies
Nigeria’s management challenges are significant,
hindering economic and social progress.
Key Problems
1. Poor Leadership and Governance: Weak
institutions and policy inconsistency.
2. Corruption: Systemic mismanagement of
resources.
3. Inefficient Bureaucracy: Excessive red tape
and slow decision-making.
4. Inadequate Infrastructure: Poor roads, power
outages, and communication gaps.
5. Insecurity: Terrorism, armed robbery, and
resource conflicts.
6. Human Capital Challenges: Brain
drain, unemployment, and low
education investment.
7. Weak Policy Implementation:
Inconsistent and underfunded policies.
Strategies to Overcome Challenges
• Leadership Training and Institutional
Reforms: To foster accountability and
visionary governance.
• Infrastructure Investments: Through public-
private partnerships and renewable energy
projects.
• Educational and Human Capital
Development: By aligning curricula with market
needs and reducing brain drain.
• Anti-Corruption Initiatives: Utilizing e-
governance and enforcing judicial accountability.
• Security Enhancements: Strengthening security
forces and addressing root causes of violence.
• Efficient Bureaucracy: Simplifying
processes and improving capacity through
training.
By addressing these challenges holistically, Nigeria
can unlock its potential for sustainable
development.
References
1. Koontz, H., & Weihrich, H. (2015).
Essentials of Management: An International
Perspective (9th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
2. Daft, R. L. (2021). Organization Theory and
Design (13th ed.). Cengage Learning.
3. Mullins, L. J. (2016). Management and
Organizational Behavior (11th ed.). Pearson
Education.
4. Mintzberg, H. (1993). Structure in Fives:
Designing Effective Organizations. Prentice-
Hall.
5. Drucker, P. F. (2006). The Practice of
Management. HarperBusiness.
6. Stoner, J. A. F., Freeman, R. E., & Gilbert,
D. R. (2013). Management. Pearson
Education.
7. Adebayo, A. (2001). Principles and Practice of
Public Administration in Nigeria. Spectrum Books.
8. Transparency International. (2022). Corruption
Perceptions Index 2022.
9. World Bank. (2022). Nigeria Development
Update.