MAC 409: STATIONS OPERATION AND MANAGEMENT

TOPIC 2 MANAGEMENT THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

1.1 Theoretical Approaches to Management
A theory is an assumption or system of assumptions, accepted principles, and rules of procedure based on
limited information or knowledge, devised to analyze, predict, or otherwise explain the nature or behaviour
of a specified set of phenomena or abstract reasoning. A theory is a body of rules, ideas, principles, and
techniques that applies to a subject, especially when seen as distinct from actual practice. For example, in
astronomy and cosmology there is the Big Bang theory, the Steady-State theory; in the life sciences, there is
the theory of Natural Selection, Conditioning, and Behaviourism, in mass communication we have the many
theories for example, theories of the press, Cultivation theory, Technological determinism theory, Uses and
gratifications theory etc
Management, whether in the media or other organizations, is also practiced under several theories. To
understand contemporary approaches to management, it is helpful to review the major historical
contributions to management theory. Serious management study began near the start of the twentieth century
in the US. This interest coincided with the development of the electronic media in the American society. The
characteristics of the different approaches to management are best thought of as schools which are as
follows:
 Classical School of Management
 Human Relations School
 Modern Approaches

1.2 Classical School of Management

The classical school of management flourished from the late 1800s through the 1920s and it is associated
with the Industrial Revolution, which marked a shift from agrarian-based to industrial-based societies. This
school of management centred on practical measures, that is, on improving the means of production and
increasing productivity among workers. One of the proponents of this school was philosopher Mary Parker
Follett (Follett, 1995; Tonn, 2003). Follett began to author a series of papers and books concerned with
business conflict, authority, power, the place of the individual in society and the group. Her contributions to
management thought and inquiry are now widely recognised as important foundation literature in the field.
Three different approaches to management, developed in three industrialised countries, represent the
classical school: scientific management in the US, administrative management in France, and bureaucratic
management in Germany.

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1.2.1 Scientific management
This presented a systematic approach to the challenge of increasing production. This approach introduced
several practices, including determination of the most effective way to coordinate tasks, careful selection of
employees for different positions, proper training and development of the workforce, and introduction of
economic incentives to motivate employees. Each part of the production process received careful scrutiny
towards the end of greater efficiency. Frederick Taylor, a mechanical engineer, is often referred to as the
father of scientific management (Taylor, 1991). Scientific management also proposed that workers would be
more productive if they received higher wages in return for their labour. The approach viewed the worker
mechanistically, suggesting the management could guarantee more output if better wages were promised in
return. Later approaches proposed that workers need more than just economic incentives to be productive.
Nevertheless, many of Taylor’s principles of scientific management are still used in modern electronic
media organizations, especially in the areas of detailed job descriptions and sophisticated methods of
employee selection, training and development.

1.2.2 Administrative management

Henri Fayol, a French mining executive, approached worker productivity differently from Taylor. As
discussed earlier, Fayol introduced the POC3 model, which detailed the functions of management. To aid
managers in planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling functions, Fayol established a
list of fourteen principles of management. He recognised that management principles must be flexible
enough to accommodate changing circumstances. In that sense, therefore, he was among the first
management theorists to recognise management as a process. The fourteen principles of management are:
1. Division of work: Works should be divided according to specialization
2. Authority and responsibility: The manager has authority to give directions and demand compliance along
with appropriate responsibility.
3. Discipline: Respect and obedience is required of employees and the firm.
4. Unity of command: Orders should be received from a single supervisor.
5. Unity of direction: Similar activities should be under the direction of one leader.
6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest: Interests of a single employee do not outweigh
those of the organization.
7. Remuneration of personnel: Wages are to be fair and equitable to all.
8. Centralization: Each organization must find the level of centralization of authority needed to maximise
employee productivity.
9. Scalar chain: There is a line of authority in an organization, usually top to bottom
10. Order: All necessary materials should be located in the proper place for maximum efficiency.
11. Equity: Fair and equitable treatment is needed for all employees.
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12. Stability of tenure of personnel: Adequate time should be allowed for employees to adjust to new work
and skills demand.
13. Initiative: The ability to implement and develop a plan is crucial.
14. Esprit de corps: A spirit of harmony should be promoted among personnel.

1.2.3 Bureaucratic management

A German sociologist, Max Weber, focused on another aspect of worker productivity—that is,
organizational structure. Weber (1947) theorised that the use of an organization hierarchy or bureaucracy
would enable the organization to produce at its highest level. Weber called for a clear division of labour and
management, a strong central authority, a system of seniority, strict discipline and control, clear policies and
procedures and careful selection of workers based primarily on technical qualifications. His contributions to
management are numerous, manifesting in such visible practices as organizational flow charts, job
descriptions and specific guidelines for promotion and advancement. The classical school of management
concentrated on ways to make organizations more productive. Management was responsible for establishing
clearly defined job responsibilities, maintaining close supervision, monitoring output, and making important
decisions. Individual workers were thought to have little motivation to do their tasks beyond wages and
other economic benefits. These ideas are, however, challenged by the subsequent approach to management.

1.3 Human Relations School of Management

The notion that workers were motivated only by economic factors began to be challenged by management
scholars in the 1930s and 1940s, giving rise to the human relations (or behavioural) school of management.
The human relations school recognised that managers and employees were in fact members of the same
group and thus shared in the accomplishment of organizational objectives. Moreover, employees had needs
other than just wages and benefits; with these needs met, workers would be more effective and the
organization would benefit. Many theories relating to the behavioural aspects of management arose in this
era. A number of the theories represent a micro-perspective—that is, they centre on the individual rather
than the organization. The various branches of this school of thought are discussed below.

1.3.1 The Hawthorne studies

In 1924, the Western Electric Hawthorne plant in Cicero, Illinois, was used to investigate the impact of
illumination (lighting) on worker productivity. The experiments were funded by General Electric, whose
real interest was selling more light bulbs to the public. Efficiency experts at the plant used two different
groups of workers in an experiment. A control group worked under normal lighting conditions while an
experimental group worked under varying degrees of illumination. As lighting increased in the experimental
group, productivity went up. However, productivity in the control group also increased, without any increase
in light.
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After almost two years of study, they concluded that the human aspect of their work affected productivity of
employees more than the physical conditions. In other words, the increased attention and interaction with
supervisors led to the greater productivity. Workers felt a greater affinity to the company when they felt that
managers showed interest in their employees and their work. The term ‘Hawthorne effect’ has come to
describe the impact of management attention on employee productivity. The work represents an important
benchmark in the development of management thoughts, that is, recognising employees have social as well
as physical and monetary needs.

1.3.2 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

If worker’s motivation is driven by the existence of unsatisfied needs, then it is worthwhile for a manager to
understand which needs are the more important for individual employees. In this regard, Maslow (1954)
developed a model in which basic, low-level needs, such as physiological requirements and safety must be
satisfied before higher-level needs such as self-fulfilment are pursued. In this hierarchical model, when a
need is mostly satisfied, it no longer motivates and the next higher need takes its place (see Figure 1.1).
1. Physical/ Physiological Needs are those required to sustain life – these include air, water, nourishment
and sleep. According to Maslow, if these needs are not satisfied, then one’s motivation will arise from the
quest to satisfy them. Higher needs such as social needs and esteem or the need to satisfy organizational
objectives are not felt until one has met the needs basic to one’s bodily functioning.
2. Security/Safety Needs – once physiological needs are met, one’s attention turns to safety and security in
order to be free from the threat of physical and emotional harm. Such needs might be fulfilled by living in a
safe area, having medical insurance, job security and financial reserves. Thus, if a person feels that he or she
is in harm’s way, higher needs (including organizational needs) will not receive much attention.
3. Social Needs – after a person has met the lower level physiological and safety needs, higher level needs
become important, the first of which are social needs. Social needs are those related to interaction with other
people and may include need for friends, need for belonging, need to give and receive love, etc. This stage
of needs is very critical to the performance of an employee in an organization, as work in such a setting
requires teamwork rather than individual work. Social needs involve all that makes a person feel belonged.
4. Ego/Esteem Needs – once a person feels a sense of ‘belonging,’ the need to feel important arises (Barrett,
2005). Esteem needs may be classified as internal or external. Internal esteem needs are those related to self-
esteem, such as self-respect and achievement. External esteem needs are those such as social status and
recognition (Clark, 1999). Some esteem needs are self- respect, achievement, attention, recognition,
reputation and so on. At this level, the employer of labour must not only recognise the power of incentives
and rewards, he must also, in fact, be seen to committed to such acts.
5. Self-Actualization Needs – this is the apex of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. It is the quest of reaching
one’s full potential as a person. Unlike lower level needs, this need is never fully satisfied, as one grows
psychologically there are always new opportunities to continue to grow. Self-actualized people tend to have
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needs such as truth, justice, wisdom and meaning. They have frequent occurrences of peak experiences,
which are energized moments of profound happiness and harmony.
If Maslow’s theory holds, there are some important implications for management, productivity and
retention. There are opportunities to motivate employees through management style, job design, training
programmes, company events and compensation packages (Internet Center for Management and Business
Administration, 2007) such as:
● Physiological needs: Provide lunch breaks, rest breaks, and wages that are sufficient to purchase the
essentials of life.
● Safety Needs: Provide a safe working environment, proficiency and skill acquisition training, retirement
benefits, and job security.
● Social Needs: Create a sense of community via team-based projects and social events, which would
directly impact on enhanced job experience and, indirectly, on productivity and high retention rate.
● Esteem Needs: Recognize achievements to make employees feel appreciated and valued. Offer job titles
that convey the importance of the position and train them further to give more room for improved
productivity.
● Self-Actualization Needs: Provide employees a challenge and the opportunity to reach their full career
potential.
Moreover, according to the Internet Center for Management and Business Administration (ICMBA, 2007),
while Maslow’s hierarchy makes sense from an intuitive standpoint, there is little evidence to support its
hierarchical aspect. In fact, there is evidence that contradicts the order of needs specified by the model. For
example, some cultures appear to place social needs before any other. Maslow’s hierarchy also has some
difficulty explaining cases such as the ‘starving’ newscaster or producer in which case, a person neglects
lower needs in pursuit of higher ones. Finally, there is little evidence to suggest that people are motivated to
satisfy only one need level at a time, except in situations where there is a conflict between needs
(Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2006). Finally, you must note that even though Maslow’s hierarchy lacks
scientific support, it is quite well-known and is the first theory of motivation to which many people are
exposed.

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Figure 1.1

1.3.3 Herzberg’s hygiene and motivator factors

Frederick Herzberg, another psychologist, studied employee attitudes through a series of intensive
interviews to determine which job variables made workers satisfied or dissatisfied. Herzberg (1966)
identified two sets of motivating factors: hygiene, or maintenance factors, and motivators. The hygiene
factors represent the work environment. They include not just technical and physical conditions but also
such factors as company policies and procedures, supervision, the work itself, wages, and benefits.
Motivators involve aspects of the job such as recognition, achievement, responsibility, and individual
growth. Herzberg called this second set of factors ‘motivators’ to reflect the positive impact they have on
employee satisfaction. Note that his hygiene factors have similarities to the three lower levels (physiological
needs, safety and affiliation) of Maslow’s hierarchy, while the motivators factors represent the two upper
levels (esteem and self-actualization). Thus, from the management perspective, Herzberg’s work suggests
that managers must recognize a dual typology of employee needs (both the hygiene factors and the need for
positive motivation) in order to maintain job satisfaction.

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1.3.4 Theory X and Theory Y
McGregor (1960) proposed two theories by which to view employee management and motivation. He
avoided descriptive labels and simply called the theories Theory X and Theory Y. Both of these theories
begin with the premise that management’s role is to assemble the factors of production, including people, for
the economic benefit of the firm. Beyond this point, the two theories of management diverge. Theory X
assumes that the average employee:
● Dislikes work and attempts to avoid it.
● Has no ambition, wants no responsibility, and would rather follow than lead.
● Is self-centred and therefore does not care about organizational goals.
● Resists change.
● Is gullible and not particularly intelligent.

Thus, Theory X assumes that people work only for money and security. Under the theory, management
approaches can range from a hard approach to a soft approach. The hard approach relies on coercion,
implicit threats, close supervision, and tight controls; it is essentially an environment of command and
control. The soft approach, on the other hand, is to be permissive and seek harmony with the hope that in
return employees will cooperate when asked to do so. However, neither of these extremes is optimal. The
hard approach results in hostility, purposely low-output, and hard-line union demands. The soft approach
results in ever-increasing requests for more rewards in exchange for ever-decreasing work output. The
optimal management approach under Theory X probably would be somewhere between these extremes.
However, McGregor (1960) asserts that neither approach is appropriate because the assumptions of Theory
X are not correct.

Drawing on Maslow’s hierarchy, McGregor (1960) argues that a satisfied need no longer motivates. Under
Theory X, the firm relies on money and benefits to satisfy employees’ lower needs, and once those needs are
satisfied the source of motivation is lost. Theory X management styles in fact hinder the satisfaction of
higher-level needs. Consequently, the only way that employees can attempt to satisfy their higher level
needs in their work is by seeking more compensation, so it is quite predictable that they will focus on
monetary rewards. While money may not be the most effective way to self-fulfilmentt, in a Theory X
environment it may be the only way. Under Theory X, people use work to satisfy their lower needs, and seek
to satisfy their higher needs in their leisure time. But it is in satisfying their higher needs that employees can
be most productive. McGregor (1960) makes the point that a command and control environment is not
effective because it relies on lower needs as levers of motivation, but in modern society those needs already
are satisfied and thus no longer are motivators. In this situation, one would expect employees to dislike their
work, avoid responsibility, have no interest in organizational goals, resist change, etc., thus making Theory
X a self-fulfilling prophecy. From this reasoning, McGregor proposed an alternative: Theory Y, in which
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case, the higher-level needs of esteem and self-actualization are continuing needs in that they are never
completely satisfied. As such, it is these higher-level needs through which employees can best be motivated.
Theory Y makes the following general assumptions:
● Work can be as natural as play and rest.
● People will be self-directed to meet their work objectives if they are committed to them.
● People will be committed to their objectives if rewards are in place that address higher needs such as self-
fulfilment.
● Under these conditions, people will seek responsibility.
● Most people can handle responsibility because creativity and ingenuity are common in the population.
Under these assumptions, there is an opportunity to align personal goals with organizational goals by using
the employee’s own quest for fulfilment as the motivator. McGregor stressed that Theory Y management
does not imply a soft approach. He recognized that some people may not have reached the level of maturity
assumed by Theory Y and therefore may need tighter controls that can be relaxed as the employee develops.
The main issues are as follows: if Theory Y holds, an electronic media station can do many things to harness
the motivational energy of its employees, it can:
● decentralize and delegate— for if firms decentralize control and reduce the number of levels of
management, each manager will have more subordinates and consequently will be forced to delegate some
responsibility and decision making to them.
● Enlarge jobs— broadening the scope of a producer’s job, for instance, adds variety and opportunities to
satisfy ego needs.
● Encourage participatory management— consulting station staff in the decision making process taps their
creative capacity and provides them with some control over their work environment.
● Use performance appraisals— having individual broadcaster or journalist set objectives and participate in
the process of evaluating how well they were met.
If properly implemented, such an environment would result in a high level of motivation as employees work
to satisfy their higher level personal needs through their jobs.

William Ouchi (1981) used characteristics of both Theory X and Theory Y in contrasting the management
styles of American and Japanese organizations. Ouchi (1981) claimed that US organizations could learn
much from the Japanese model of management, which he called Theory Z. Like Theory Y, Theory Z cites
employee participation and individual development as important components of organizational growth.
Interpersonal relations between workers and managers are stressed in Theory Z. However, Ouchi also drew
from Theory X, in that management makes the key decisions in an organization and a strong sense of
authority must be maintained.

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A common criticism of Theory Z is that it fails to recognise the cultural differences between US and
Japanese firms and how these differences are manifested in business organizations and management efforts.
Nevertheless, aspects of Theory Z can be found in many electronic media organizations in such areas as
employee training, various types of fringe benefit programmes, and lines of communication with managers
(which tend to be more direct). The human relations school launched a significant change in management
thought as the focus moved away from production to the role of employees in meeting organizational goals
and objectives. In particular, the ideas of creating a positive working environment and attending to the needs
of the employees represent important contributions of the human relations school to the management
process.

1.4 Modern Approaches to Management

By the 1960s, theorists began to integrate and expand elements of the classical and human relations schools.
This effort, which continues into the twenty-first century (Albarran, 2010), has produced an enormous
amount of literature on modern management thought. This section focuses on several areas that illustrate the
diverse range of modern school of management, such as management effectiveness, systems approaches to
management, total quality management, and leadership.

1.4.1 Management effectiveness

The classical and human relations schools share productivity as a common goal, though they disagree on the
means. The former proposes managerial efficiency and control, while the latter endorses employee needs
and wants. However, nether approach really takes into account the importance of effectiveness, the actual
attainment of organizational goals. Both schools consider effectiveness as a natural and expected outcome.
Thus, modern management scholars have questioned this assumption. Peter Drucker (1973), considered the
father of modern management theory, claimed that effectiveness is the very foundation of success for an
organization, much more critical than organizational efficiency. To this end, Drucker (1986) developed
management by objectives (MBO), which involves a particular type of interaction between managers and
individual employees. In an MBO system, middle and senior-level managers must identify the goals for each
individual area of responsibility and share these goals and expectations with each unit and employee. The
shared objectives are used to guide individual units or departments and serve as a way management can
monitor and evaluate progress.

An important aspect of the MBO approach is the agreement between employees and managers regarding
performance over a set period of time. In this sense, management retains external control while employees
exhibit self-control over how to complete individual objectives. The MBO approach has further utility in
that one can apply it to any organization, regardless of size. Critics of the approach contend that it is time-
consuming to implement and difficult to maintain in organizations that deal with rapidly changing
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environment, such as the electronic media. Nevertheless, one can find traits of MBO in the electronic media,
particularly in the areas of promotion, marketing, and financial planning, where performance objectives are
carefully established and monitored.

1.4.2 Systems approaches to management

The systems approach to management follows a macro perspective; that is, the entire organization is
examined, and the study includes the environment in which the organization operates (Schoderbek,
Schoderbek and Kefalas, 1985). Organizations are similar to one another in that they are engaged in similar
activities involving inputs (eg, labour, capital and equipment), production processes (the conversion of
inputs into some type of product), and output (eg, products, goods, and services). In the systems approach to
management, organizations also study the external environment, evaluating feedback from the environment
in order to identify change and assess goals. Organizations are not isolated entities; they interact
interdependently with other objects and organizations in the environment. They systems approach
recognises the relationship between the organization and its external environment. Though managers cannot
control this environment, they must be aware of environmental factors and how they may impact the
organization.
An organization’s survival is based on its utilization of resources, both internal and external. All
organizations depend on the environment for resources, and media stations are no exception (Turow, 1992).
Much of the uncertainty organizations face is due to environmental factors. Thus, organizations can alter
their interdependence with other organizations in one of two ways: by absorbing other entities, or by
cooperating with other organizations to reach mutual interdependence. Finally, you must understand that
systems theory and the resource dependence perspective help one appreciate the relationship of the
electronic media to other societal systems. The media industry does not operate in isolation but forms part of
a larger system that also includes political, economic, technological and social subsystems. Because systems
approaches are concerned with responding to and interpreting environmental influences on the organization,
electronic media managers at the executive level may find these approaches to management useful.

1.4.3 Total Quality Management (TQM)

TQM can best be described as a series of approaches that emphasize quality in organization, especially in
regard to producing products and serving both external and internal customers (Weaver, 1991). In TQM,
managers combine strategic approaches to deliver the best products and services continuously improving
every part of an operation (Hand, 1992). While management implements and leads TQM in an organization,
every employee must be responsible for quality. Used effectively, TQM helps an organization maintain a
competitive edge. A number of management scholars have contributed to an understanding of TQM, which
is widely used. Considered the pioneer of modern quality control, Walter Shewart originally worked for Bell
Labs, where his early work focused on control charts built on statistical analyses. Joseph Juran (1988) and
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Edwards Deming (1982) contributed to Shewart’s work, primarily with Japanese industries. Deming linked
the ideas of quality, productivity, market share and jobs; Juran (1988) contributed a better understanding of
planning, control and improvement in the quality process. The popularity of TQM in the US increased
during the early 1980, when US businesses and industry were suffering from issues regarding declined
quality. Organizations adopt quality control procedures and strategies to reverse the negative image
associated with poor quality product. TQM is still used as a way of encouraging and demanding high quality
in the products and services of an organization. TQM has many areas of potential application in the media,
from the actual production of media content and advertising to the use of mission statements and public
relations activities.

1.4.4 Strategic management

This is primarily concerned with developing tools and techniques to analyse firms, industries, and
competition and developing strategies to gain a competitive advantage. Perhaps the most significant scholar
in the area of strategic management is Michael Porter, whose seminal works in 1980 and 1985 represent the
foundation literature in this area. In terms of application to media station operations, strategic planning is
one outgrowth of strategic management that has found wide application. In its simplest form, strategic
planning involves a scanning of the external and internal environments by focussing on a firm’s individual
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (a SWOT analysis).

1.4.5 Leadership
The relationship between management and leadership represents further refinement of modern management
thought. Leadership, according to Hersey, Blanchard and Johnson (2008:6) ‘occurs whenever one person
attempts to influence the behaviour of an individual or a group, regardless of the reason.’ There is wide
agreement that the most successful organizations have strong, effective leaders. Most organisations contain
both formal and informal leaders, both those in recognised managerial positions and those not in such
positions but who show wisdom and experience. Bennis (1994) claimed that leadership consists of three
basic qualities: vision, passion, and integrity. In terms of vision, leaders have an understanding of where
they want to go and will not let setbacks or obstacles deter their progress. Passion is another trait of a good
leader. A person who loves what he does is said to be passionate about such a work. Integrity is made up of
self-knowledge, candour and maturity (Bennis, 1994:40-41). A good leader also exhibits curiosity and
daring. Curious leaders never stop learning about their organization. They also are willing to take risks and
are not afraid of failure. Leaders look upon mistakes as a way to learn. Thus, Bennis (1994) makes several
distinctions between someone who is a manager and the one who is a leader. To him, a leader innovates,
while a manager administers. Leaders offer a long-range perspective, while managers exhibit a short-range
view. Leaders originate, while managers imitate. Bennis then argues that most business schools—and

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education in general—focus on narrow aspects of training rather than on development of leadership
qualities.

One other area of leadership studies involves transactional and transformational leadership. Transactional
leadership assumes people are motivated by rewards as well as punishment, and that systems work best with
a defined chain of command. Transactional leaders make clear to their subordinates what is required of them
and rewards or punishes as needed. Transformational leadership ideally follows transactional leadership; the
difference is that the latter is more focused on management practices, while the former involves vision and
passion, and subordinates accept the vision of the leader. Transformational leadership must constantly sell
their vision and lead the change needed in an organization (Bass, 1985, 1990; Burns, 1978). Max De Pree
(1989) defines leadership as an art. He claims that liberating people (employees) to do what is required of
them is the most effective type of leadership and management possible. He also identifies the leader as a
servant in that the person removes obstacles that prevent employees from reaching their objectives. To De
Pree (1989), the leader enables followers to realise their full potential.

1.5 Management in the Twenty-first Century

With regard to how management would evolve in the twenty-first century, Drucker (2000) called for a new
management model, as well as a new economic theory to guide businesses. He claimed that schools have
become antiquated, failing to prepare people for the new managerial environment. In examining
management challenges for the twenty-first century, Drucker (1999) argued that given the sweeping social,
political and economic changes affecting the world at the end of the twentieth century, there are few
certainties in management and strategic thinking. He stated, ‘One cannot manage change… one can only be
ahead of it’ (Drucker, 1999:73). He thus maintained that managers must become change leaders, seizing
opportunities and understanding how to effect change successfully in their organizations.

Clearly, electronic media managers would agree with Drucker (1999) that in order to be successful, the
ability to cope with and use change as a competitive advantage is critical. The challenge is how to embrace
change successfully. A critical change issue for managers in the 21st century is determining when to focus
on the external environment and when to focus on the internal environment. At the end of the day,
management is concerned with working with and through other people to accomplish organizational
objectives. In a study of some four hundred companies and eight thousand individual managers across many
industries, Buckingham and Coffman (1999) identified four key characteristics of great managers: those who
were particularly adept
● at selecting the right talent,
● defining clear expectations,
● focusing on each individual’s strength, and
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● helping them find the right fit in the organization.

Therefore, the authors’ findings have particular implications for electronic media management, helping to
focus attention on the importance of quality employees in meeting organizational objectives.
Furthermore, the variability of electronic media stations in terms of the number of employees, market
rankings, qualitative characteristics and organizational culture requires individual analysis of each operation
to discern what style of management will work best. At best, a synthesis of approaches drawn from the
classical, behavioural and modern schools of management seems the most beneficial. Management is a
constant, ongoing process subject to refinement and change. The changing nature of the electronic media
industry today and its complex structures preclude the use of a general theory or set of guidelines for
management. At best, media station managers draw from all the three schools of thoughts discussed in this
topic in developing their own management style and adapt as new situations and experiences warrant
change.

Summary
The topic discussed the various theoretical approaches to management; from the classical school (scientific,
administrative, and bureaucratic management), through the human relations school (the Hawthorne studies,
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Herzberg’s hygiene and motivator factors, theories X and Y and theory Z) to
the modern school of thoughts (management effectiveness, systems approaches to management, total quality
management, strategic management and leadership). And of course, we also discussed certain aspects of
management in the twenty-first century. Management was examined as an art, or science, of achieving goals
through people. Hence, managers are expected to ensure greater productivity or ‘continuous improvement’.

Conclusion
Managing is one of the most important human activities. From the time immemorial management has been
essential in ensuring the coordination of individual efforts. As society continuously relied on group effort,
and as many organized groups have become large, the task of managers has been increasing in importance
and complexity. Henceforth, managerial theory has become crucial in the way managers manage complex
organizations. Note that a theory is a body of rules, ideas, principles, and techniques that applies to a subject,
especially when seen as distinct from actual practice. There is no one method of management that is
considered the best. The application is often where the differences arise.

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