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Edexcel International AS Your notes

Chemistry
1.2 Amount of Substance
Contents
1.2.1 Concentration Calculations
1.2.2 Reacting Mass Calculations
1.2.3 Reacting Volume Calculations
1.2.4 Calculations of Product

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1.2.1 Concentration Calculations

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Concentration Calculations
Amount of substance calculations
As previously discussed, the amount of substance can be defined as the number of particles in a
substance, n, measured in moles (often abbreviated to mol)
In reality, amount of substance is used as a blanket term to cover most chemical calculations,
especially those that involve moles
The two main calculations for amount of substance are:
mass , m
Moles, n =
molar mass , M
Moles, n = concentration x volume
Other common calculations for amount of substance include:
number of particles
Moles, n =
Avogadro 's constant
PV
Moles, n = from the ideal gas equation (PV = nRT)
RT
Concentration calculations
Concentration can be defined as the amount of a substance dissolved in a quantity of liquid
When a mass concentration is calculated, the units are usually g dm-3
Other units are possible such as g cm-3, kg m-3 and sometimes in medicines you might see them as
mg / ml
The equation to calculate mass concentration is:
mass of solute in g
mass concentration in g dm3 =
volume of solution in dm3
When a molar concentration is calculated, the units are mol dm-3
Calculating molar concentrations requires the use of two equations:
mass
number of moles (or amount) =
molar mass
Molar mass is the mass per mole of a substance in g mol-1
number of moles (or amount)
molar concentration in mol dm-3 =
volume of solution in dm3

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Worked example
Your notes
Mass concentration calculations
1. What is the mass concentration when 6.34 g of sodium chloride is dissolved into a 0.250 dm3
solution?
2. A sodium carbonate solution has a mass concentration of 5.2 g dm-3. What is the volume of the
solution made when 250 g of sodium carbonate is used?
3. The mass concentration of a solution is 26.7 g dm-3. What is the mass of sodium bromide in 500
cm3 of solution?

Answer 1

mass (g) 6 . 34
Mass concentration = = = 25.4 g dm-3 (to 3 s.f.)
volume (dm3) 0 . 250
Answer 2

mass (g) 250

Volume of solution = = = 48 dm3
3
mass concentration (g dm ) 5.2
This answer should be given to 2 s.f. as there is a value in the question with only 2 significant figures
Answer 3
Mass = mass concentration (g dm-3) x volume of solution (dm3) = 26.7 x 0.5 = 13.4 g (to 3 s.f.)

The 500 cm3 in the question has to be converted into dm3

500
= 0.5 dm3
1000

Worked example
Molar concentration calculations
1. What is the molar concentration when 6.34 g of sodium chloride is dissolved into a 250 cm3
solution?
2. A sodium carbonate solution has a molar concentration of 1.25 mol dm-3. What is the volume of the
solution made when 250 g of sodium carbonate is used?
3. The molar concentration of a sodium bromide solution is 0.250 mol dm-3. What is the mass of
sodium bromide in 500 cm3 of this solution?

Answer 1

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mass 6 . 34
Number of moles of NaCl = = = 0.1084 moles
molar mass (23. 0 + 35. 5) Your notes
number of moles (or amount) 0 . 1084
Molar concentration in mol dm-3 = = = 0.434
volume of solution in dm3 0 . 250
mol dm-3
Answer 2

mass 250
Number of moles of Na2CO3 = = = 2.358
molar mass (23. 0 × 2) + 12. 0 + (16. 0 × 3)
moles
Volume of solution in dm3
number of moles (or amount) 2 . 358
= = = 1.89 dm3
Molar concentration in mol dm−3 1 . 25
Answer 3
Number of moles of NaBr = molar concentration x volume of solution
= 0.250 x 0.500 = 0.125 moles
Mass of NaBr = number of moles of NaBr x molar mass
= 0.125 x (23.0 + 79.9) = 12.9 g
Parts per million
When expressing extremely low concentrations a unit that can be used is parts per million or ppm
This is useful when giving the concentration of a pollutant in water or the air when the absolute amount
is tiny compared the the volume of water or air
1 ppm is defined as
A mass of 1 mg dissolved in 1 dm3 of water
Since 1 dm3 weighs 1 kg we can also say it is
A mass of 1 mg dissolved in 1 kg of water, or 10-3 g in 103 g which is the same as saying the
concentration is 1 in 106 or 1 in a million

Worked example
The concentration of chlorine in a swimming pool should between between 1 and 3 ppm. Calculate the
maximum mass, in kg, of chlorine that should be present in an olympic swimming pool of size 2.5 million
litres.

Answer:
Step 1: calculate the total mass in mg assuming 3ppm(1 litre is the same as 1 dm3)

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3 x 2.5 x 106 = 7.5 x 106 mg

Step 2: convert the mass into kilograms (1 mg = 10-6 kg) Your notes
7.5 x 106 x 10-6 kg = 7.5 kg
Atmospheric gas concentration
The concentration of atmospheric gases, particularly pollutants, can be measured in parts per million,
ppm
Instead of using mass, the comparison of gas is done by volume
You might see the values quoted in ppmv - the v shows that the value relates to concentration by
volume
A concentration of 1 ppmv means that there is 1 cm3 of a particular gas in 1000000cm3 or 1000 dm3
The equation to calculate the concentration of a gas in ppm is:
volume of gas × 1000000
concentration in ppm =
volume of air
The volumes can be given in any units but they must be the same units, otherwise one of them will
need to be converted

Worked example
Atmospheric gas concentration calculations
Calculate the concentration, in ppm, of the following:
1. A volume of 2.5 dm3 of carbon dioxide in 10000 dm3 of air
2. A volume of 2.5 dm3 of sulfur dioxide in 4000 dm3 of air
3. A volume of 152 cm3 of ozone in 112 dm3 of air

Answer 1
Concentration in ppm
volume of gas × 1000000 2 . 5 × 1000000
= = = 250 ppm
volume of air 10000
Answer 2
Concentration in ppm
volume of gas × 1000000 2 . 5 × 1000000
= = = 625 ppm
volume of air 4000
Answer 3
A volume of 152 cm3 of ozone in 112 dm3 of air

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volume of gas × 1000000 0 . 152 × 1000000

Concentration in ppm = = = 1360
volume of air 112 . 0 Your notes
ppm

Examiner Tip
When completing atmospheric gas calculations, the gas involved does not affect the calculation as
shown by worked examples 1 and 2

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1.2.2 Reacting Mass Calculations

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Reacting Mass Calculations
Chemical equations can be used to calculate the moles or masses of reactants and products
To do this, information given in the question is used to find the amount in moles of the substances being
considered
Then, the ratio between the substances is identified using the balanced chemical equation
Once the moles have been determined they can then be converted into grams using the relative
atomic or relative formula masses

Worked example
Example 1
Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide that can be made by completely burning 6.0 g of magnesium
in oxygen in the following reaction:
2Mg (s) + O2 (g) ⟶ 2 MgO (s)

Answer

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Worked example
Your notes
Example 2
Calculate the mass of aluminium, in tonnes, that can be produced from 51 tonnes of aluminium oxide.
The equation for the reaction is:
2Al2O3 ⟶ 4Al + 3O2

Answer

Examiner Tip
As long as you are consistent it doesn't matter whether you work in grams or tonnes or any other mass
unit as the reacting masses will always be in proportion to the balanced equation.

Balancing Equations using Reacting Masses

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If the masses of reactants and products of a reaction are known then we can use them to write a
balanced equation for that reaction
This is done by converting the masses to moles and simplifying to find the molar ratios Your notes

Worked example
Example 3
A student reacts 1.2 g of carbon with 16.2 g of zinc oxide. The resulting products are 4.4 g of carbon
dioxide and 13 g of zinc.
Determine the balanced equation for the reaction.

Answer

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Your notes

Examiner Tip
These questions look hard but they are actually quite easy to do, as long as you follow the steps and
organise your work neatly.
Remember: The molar ratio of a balanced equation gives you the ratio of the amounts of each
substance in the reaction.

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1.2.3 Reacting Volume Calculations

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Reacting Volume Calculations
Reacting volume calculations are commonly associated with the reactions of gases
All gases occupy the same volume under the same conditions
At room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.), the molar gas volume of any gas is 24.0 dm3
Room temperature and pressure are 293 K / 20 oC and 101.3 kPa respectively
At standard temperature and pressure (s.t.p.), the molar gas volume of any gas is 22.4 dm3
Standard temperature and pressure are 273 K / 0 oC and 101.3 kPa respectively
The equation to calculate the number of moles for any volume of gas is:
Volume of gas (dm3)
Number of moles =
Molar gas volume (dm3)

Worked example
Molar gas volume calculations
Calculate the number of moles present in 4.5 dm3 of carbon dioxide at:
1. Room temperature and pressure
2. Standard temperature and pressure

Answers

Volume of gas (dm3) 4.5

1. Number of moles = = = 0.1875 moles
Molar gas volume (dm3) 24
Volume of gas (dm3) 4.5
2. Number of moles = = = 0.201 moles (to 3 s.f.)
Molar gas volume (dm3) 22. 4
Volumes of gas can also be calculated using
Number of moles calculations
Volume calculations
This can help determine the size of the equipment that you use in an experiment

Worked example
Calculating gas volumes from moles
Calculate the volume of gas produced when 1.50 g of sodium reacts with water at standard
temperature and pressure.

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Answer
Step 1: Write the balanced equation for the reaction Your notes
2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)
Step 2: Calculate the number of moles of sodium

mass (g) 1.5

Number of moles = = = 0.0652 moles (to 3s.f.)
molar mass (g mol−1) 23. 0
Step 3: Use the stoichiometry of the equation to calculate the number of moles of hydrogen
The stoichiometric ratio of Na : H2 is 2 : 1
0 . 0652
Therefore, the number of moles of hydrogen is = 0.0326 moles
2
Step 4: Calculate the volume of hydrogen gas evolved
Volume of gas = number of moles x molar gas volume
Volume of gas = 0.0326 x 22.4 = 0.730 dm3 (to 3s.f.)

Worked example
Calculating gas volumes from other volumes
Calculate the total volume of gas produced when 6.50 dm3 of propane combusts completely

Answer
Step 1: Write the balanced equation for the reaction
C3H8 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 3CO2 (g) + 4H2O (g)
Step 2: Determine the number of moles of gas produced
One mole of propane produces 3 moles of carbon dioxide and 4 moles of water
Therefore, one mole of propane produces a total of 7 moles of gas
Step 3: Calculate the volume of gas that is produced
6.50 dm3 of propane will produce 7 x 6.50 dm3 of gas = 45.5 dm3 gas

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The Ideal Gas Expression

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Kinetic theory of gases
The kinetic theory of gases states that molecules in gases are constantly moving
The theory makes the following assumptions:
That gas molecules are moving very fast and randomly
That molecules hardly have any volume
That gas molecules do not attract or repel each other (no intermolecular forces)
No kinetic energy is lost when the gas molecules collide with each other (elastic collisions)
The temperature of the gas is related to the average kinetic energy of the molecules
Gases that follow the kinetic theory of gases are called ideal gases
However, in reality gases do not fit this description exactly but may come very close and are called real
gases

Ideal gas equation

The ideal gas equation shows the relationship between pressure, volume, temperature and number of
moles of gas of an ideal gas:
PV = nRT
P = pressure (pascals, Pa)
V = volume (m3)
n = number of moles of gas (mol)
R = gas constant (8.31 J K-1 mol-1)
T = temperature (kelvin, K)

Worked example
Calculating the volume of a gas
Calculate the volume occupied by 0.781 mol of oxygen at a pressure of 220 kPa and a temperature of
21 °C

Answer
Step 1: Rearrange the ideal gas equation to find volume of gas

nRT
V=
P
Step 2: Calculate the volume the oxygen gas occupies

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P = 220 kPa = 220 000 Pa

n = 0.781 mol
R = 8.31 J K-1 mol-1 Your notes
T = 21 oC = 294 K
0 . 781 × 8 . 31 × 294
V= = 0 . 00867 m3 = 8 . 67 dm3
220000

Worked example
Calculating the molar mass of a gas
A flask of volume 1000 cm3 contains 6.39 g of a gas. The pressure in the flask was 300 kPa and the
temperature was 23 °C.
Calculate the relative molecular mass of the gas.

Answer
Step 1: Rearrange the ideal gas equation to find the number of moles of gas

PV
n=
RT
Step 2: Calculate the number of moles of gas
P = 300 kPa = 300 000 Pa
V = 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3 = 0.001 m3
R = 8.31 J K-1 mol-1
T = 23 oC = 296 K
300000 × 0 . 001
n= = 0 . 12 mol
8 . 31 × 296
Step 3: Calculate the molar mass using the number of moles of gas

mass
n=
molar mass
6 . 39
molar mass = = 53. 25 g mol−1
0 . 12

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
To calculate the temperature in Kelvin, add 273 to the Celsius temperature, e.g. 100 oC is 373 Kelvin.
You must be able to rearrange the ideal gas equation to work out all parts of it.
The units are incredibly important in this equation - make sure you know what units you should use, and
do the necessary conversions when doing your calculations!

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1.2.4 Calculations of Product

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Calculating Yield & Atom Economy
Percentage yield
In a lot of reactions, not all reactants react to form products which can be due to several factors:
Other reactions take place simultaneously
The reaction does not go to completion
Products are lost during separation and purification
The percentage yield shows how much of a particular product you get from the reactants compared
to the maximum theoretical amount that you can get:
actual yield
percentage yield = × 100
theoretical yield
The actual yield is the number of moles or mass of product obtained experimentally
The theoretical yield is the number of moles or mass obtained by a reacting mass calculation

Worked example
In an experiment to displace copper from copper(II) sulfate, 6.5 g of zinc was added to an excess of
copper(II) sulfate solution. The resulting copper was filtered off, washed and dried. The mass of
copper obtained was 4.8 g.
Calculate the percentage yield of copper.

Answer:
Step 1: The balanced symbol equation is:
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

Step 2: Calculate the amount of zinc reacted in moles

6.5 g
number of moles = = 0 . 10 mol
65. 4 g mol −1
Step 3: Calculate the maximum amount of copper that could be formed from the molar ratio:

Since the ratio of Zn(s) to Cu(s) is 1:1 a maximum of 0.10 moles can be produced
Step 4: Calculate the maximum mass of copper that could be formed (theoretical yield)
mass = mol x M
mass = 0.10 mol x 63.55 g mol-1

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mass = 6.4 g (2 sig figs)

Step 5: Calculate the percentage yield of copper Your notes

4.8 g
percentage yield = × 100 = 75%
6.4 g

Examiner Tip
It is possible to calculate a percentage yield that is greater than 100%. This would be an error which
could occur when preparing crystals due to:
The crystals may still be dry when weighed
There are impurities in the crystals
The mass of the filter paper or container could mistakingly be included in the total mass of the
product

Atom economy
The atom economy of a reaction shows how many of the atoms used in the reaction become the
desired product
The rest of the atoms or mass is wasted
It is found directly from the balanced equation by calculating the Mr of the desired product

molecular mass of desired product

Atom economy = × 100
sum of molecular masses of ALL reactants
In addition reactions, the atom economy will always be 100% because all of the atoms are used to
make the desired product
Whenever there is only one product, the atom economy will always be 100%
For example, in the reaction between ethene and bromine:
CH2=CH2 + Br2 → CH2BrCH2Br
The atom economy could also be calculated using mass, instead or Mr
In this case, you would divide the mass of the desired product formed by the total mass of all
reactants, and then multiply by 100
Questions about atom economy often ask in qualitative or quantitative terms

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Worked example
Your notes
Qualitative atom economy
Ethanol can be produced by various reactions, such as:

Hydration of ethene: C2H4 + H2O → C2H5OH

Substitution of bromoethane: C2H5Br + NaOH → C2H5OH + NaBr

Explain which reaction has a higher atom economy.

Answer
Hydration of ethene has a higher atom economy (of 100%) because all of the reactants are
converted into products, whereas the substitution of bromoethane produces NaBr as a waste
product

Worked example
Quantitative atom economy

The blast furnace uses carbon monoxide to reduce iron(III) oxide to iron.

Fe2O3 + 3CO → 2Fe + 3CO2

Calculate the atom economy for this reaction, assuming that iron is the desired product.

(Ar / Mr data: Fe2O3 = 159.6, CO = 28.0, Fe = 55.8, CO2 = 44.0)

Answer
Step 1: Write the equation:

molecular mass of desired product

Atom economy = × 100
sum of molecular masses of ALL reactants
Step 2: Substitute values and evaluate:

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2 × 55. 8
Atom economy = × 100 = 45. 9%
159 . 6 + (3 × 28. 0) Your notes

Examiner Tip
Careful: Sometimes a question may ask you to show your working when calculating atom economy.
In this case, even if it is an addition reaction and it is obvious that the atom economy is 100%, you will
still need to show your working.

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