SECTION A

EXPERIMENT 1
Aim: To determine resistivity of two or three wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus
current.
Apparatus: • A wire of unknown resistance • Battery • Voltmeter • Milliammeter • Rheostat • Plug key •
Connecting wires • Piece of sandpaper
Circuit Diagram

Theory
According to Ohm’s law, the electric current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its ends, provided the physical state (pressure, temperature, and dimensions) of
the conductor remains unchanged. If I is the current flowing through the conductor and V is the potential
difference across its end, then V∝I and hence V = RI Where R is the constant of proportionality and is
termed as the electrical resistance of the conductor. Resistance R depends on the dimensions and material of
the conductor. The relationship between the resistance of a material and its length and area of the cross-
section is given by the formula R=ρl / A’ Where ρ is the specific resistance or resistivity and is a
characteristic of the material of the wire.
Observations :
Range of ammeters = _____ A to _____ A
The Least count of ammeter = _____ A
Range of voltmeter = _____ V to ____
V The Least count of voltmeter = _____ V T
Length of the given wire 1, l = _____ m
S.NO VOLTMETER READING (V) AMMETER R=V/I
READING (I)

MEAN: R
Length of the given wire 2, l = _____ m
S.NO VOLTMETER READING (V) AMMETER R=V/I
READING (I)

MEAN: R
Radius of wire one:
S.no Main scale (A) Circular scale (B) Bx0.001=C A+C =Diameter

Radius=
diameter/2
Radius of wire two:
S.no Main scale (A) Circular scale (B) Bx0.001=C A+C =Diameter

Radius=
diameter/2

CALCULATIONS:
Determine the slope of the graph.
The resistance of the given wire is then equal to the of the slope. From the graph, R = BC/AB = _____ Ω
R/l : from observation table: MEAN R /l=
From Graph= slope/l
Resistivity Þ= Rl/A:
For wire 1= ----ohm-m
For wire 2=-----ohm m
Result
The potential difference across the wire varies linearly with the current.
The resistivity of wires are: wire 1=
Wire 2=
Graph has to be plotted between V & I
Precaution & Sources of error:
Connections should be tight
Voltmeter and ammeter should be connected properly

Experiment – 2
Aim To find resistance of a given wire using metre bridge
Materials Required 1. A metre bridge 2. A Leclanche cell (battery eliminator) 3. A galvanometer 4. A
resistance box 5. A jockey 6. A one-way key 7. A resistance wire
Theory
Metre bridge apparatus is also known as a slide wire bridge. It is fixed on the wooden block and consists of a
long wire with a uniform cross-sectional area. It has two gaps formed using thick metal strips to make
theWheatstone’s bridge. Then according to Wheatstone’s principle, we have: XR=l / (100−l) The unknown
resistance can be calculated as: X=Rl / (100−l) Then the specific resistance of the material of the is
calculated as: ρ=πr2 X / L Where, • L is the length of the wire • r is the radius of the wire
Circuit diagram:

Observations :
S.NO RESISTANCE BALANCING 100-L R=S(L/100-L)
FROM LENGTH L
RESISTANCE
BOX(S)

MEAN R:
Calculations:
MEAN R=-----
Result
The value of unknown resistance X = …….
Precautions & Sources of error:
1. The connections should be neat, tight and clean.
2. Plugs should be tightly connected in the resistance box
3. The wire might be of non-uniform diameter.
 EXPERIMENT 3
AIM:TO VERIFY LAWS OF COMBINATION(SERIES) OF RESISTOR USING A METER BRIDGE.
Materials Required: Meter bridge, galvanometer, one way key, a resistance box, battery, jockey, two
unknown resistance wires, and connecting wires.
Theory: The effective resistance Xs of the combination of two resistors when connected in series can be
calculated by :
Xs = X1+ X2———–(i)
The resistance (X ) of a resistor is given by:

Where ‘l’ is the balancing length and R, the known resistance.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

RESULT: r1+r2= 1.53+ 3.37=4.9 ohm

Experimental: 5.8 ohm
Difference: 5.8-4.9= 0.9 ohm
Precautions
1. The connections should be neat, tight and clean.
2. Plugs should be tightly connected in the resistance box.
Sources of error:
.1. The screws of the instrument might be loose.
2. The wire might be of non-uniform diameter
Experiment – 4
Aim To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of merit.
Apparatus :A weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery or battery eliminator, two (10,000 Ω and
200 Ω) resistance boxes, two one-way keys, a rheostat, a screw gauge, a metre scale, an ammeter of given
range, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper.
Theory
 SECTION A
ACTIVITY 1
AIM To assemble the components of a given electrical circuit.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED Resistor, ammeter, (0-1.5A) voltmeter (0-5V ), battery, one way key,
rheostat, sand paper, connecting wires.
DIAGRAM

RESULT The components of the electrical circuit were assembled.

PRECAUTIONS 1. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the positive terminal of ammeter and
positive terminal of the voltmeter.
2. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and the voltmeter should be connected in parallel
with the resistor.
3. Sand paper should be used to clean the ends of connecting wires and leads of the component terminals.
Grease/oil or oxide layer
ACTIVITY 2
AIM To draw the diagram of given open circuit comprising at least a battery, resistor/rheostat, key, ammeter and
voltmeter. Mark the components that are not connected in proper order and correct the circuit and also the circuit
diagram.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED A given open circuit comprising atleast a cell or a battery, plug key, resistor,
rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter, connecting wires and sand paper.
DIAGRAM:

PRINCIPLE An electrical circuit is functional only if all the components of the circuit are connected in proper order,
assuming that all circuit components/devices are in working condition and key is closed. An open circuit means a
break in some part of a circuit which could be deliberate such as a key in open position or a fault such as broken wire
or burnt out component(s) or loose connection. Some of such circuits are given in Figs

OBSERVATIONS:
TABLE 1:

RESULT The electrical circuit assembled as per the corrected circuit diagram is functional.
PRECAUTIONS 1. Ends of the connecting wires should be cleaned with sand paper before making connections.
 2. The positive terminal of the battery should be connected to the positive terminal of the voltmeter and positive
terminal of the ammeter.
3. The ammeter should be connected in series with the resistor and the voltmeter should be connected in parallel
with it.
ACTIVITY 3
AIM To assemble a household circuit comprising three bulbs, three (on/off) switches, a fuse and a power source.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED Three bulbs (40 W, 220 V each), three (on/off) switches, socket, a fuse of 1.0
A, plug, flexible connecting wire, main switch.
PRINCIPLE If P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 , P5 , ... be the power consumed by different domestic electrical appliances in a circuit
then the total power consumption, P at any instant is given by P = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + P5 + ... If electric potential is V,
then current I drawn from the mains is given by = P I V where P is in watt, V in volt and I in ampere. In order to
protect the appliances from damage, when accidentally a high current is drawn (e.g. when the terminals of the
appliance get accidentally connected), a fuse of rating little higher (10 to 20 per cent higher than the current
normally drawn) is connected in series with the set of appliances
DIAGRAM:

RESULT Household circuit assembly is complete and installed with safety.

PRECAUTIONS 1. Care should be taken while working with mains.
2. Carefully determine the rating of the fuse by calculating the maximum current drawn by the circuiT
 SECTION B

1
1

Observations:
S.no Position of Position of Position of Object Image f=uv/u-v
lens(A) object image needle(C) distance distance
needle(B) u= A-B v=A-C

Calculations of focal length

by graphical methods:

From observation table: f=

Result The focal length of the given convex lens is=----------cm
Precautions 1. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as the centre of the lens.
Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm away from the needle.
Sources of error 1. The uprights may not be the vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
 Experiment 2
To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find the focal length.
Materials Required
An optical bench with three uprights, A concave mirror, A mirror holder,Two optical needles
Theory
We use mirror formula for the determination of focal length.
Mirror formula is given as:
1/f=1/v+1/u
From the above equation, we get the focal length as:
f=uv/u+v
Where,
f is the focal length of a concave mirror
u is the distance of object needle from the pole of the mirror
v is the distance of image needle from the pole of the mirror
The value of f will be negative. This is according to the sign-convention, u and v have negative values.
Ray Diagram

Observations
S.no Position of Position of Position of Object Image f=uv/u+v
mirror (A) object needle image needle(C) distance distance
(B) u= A-B v=A-C

RESULT: The focal length of concave mirror is:-------

b 1. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same height as the centre of the lens.
Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a distance at least 30 cm away from the needle.
Sources of error 1. The uprights may not be the vertical.
2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.
Experiment – 3
Aim To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of
incidence and the angle of deviation.
Apparatus Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half-metre scale, office pins,
graph paper and a protractor.
Theory The refractive index in) of the material of the prism is given by where, Dm angle of minimum
deviation and A angle of the prism.
Ray Diagram:

Observations:

Result i-D graph indicates that as the angle of incidence (i) increases, the angle of deviation (D) first
decreases, attains a minimum value (Dm ) and then starts increasing for further increase in angle of
incidence.
Angle of minimum deviation, Dm = ……..
Precautions 1. The angle of incidence should lie between 35°-60°.
The pins should be fixed vertical.
Sources of error
1. Pin pricks may be thick.
2. Measurement of angles may be wrong
Experiment – 4
Aim To draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias
Apparatus A p-n junction (semi-conductor) diode, a 3 volt battery, a 50 volt battery, a high resistance
rheostat, one 0-3 volt voltmeter, one 0-50 volt voltmeter, one 0-100 mA ammeter, one 0-100 μA ammeter,
one way key, connecting wires and pieces of sand paper.
Theory
Forward bias characteristics. When the p -section of the diode is connected to positive terminal of a battery
and n-section is connected to negative terminal of the battery then junction is said to be forward biased.
With increase in bias voltage, the forward current increases slowly in the beginning and then rapidly. At
about 0.7 V for Si diode (0.2 V for Ge), the current increases suddenly. The value of forward bias voltage, at
which the forward current increases rapidly, is called cut in voltage or threshold voltage.
Reverse bias characteristics. When the p -section of the diode is connected to negative terminal of high
voltage battery and n-section of the diode is connected to positive terminal of the same battery, then junction
is said to be reverse biased. When reverse bias voltage increases, initially there is a very small reverse
current flow, which remains almost constant with bias. But when reverse bias voltage increases to
sufficiently high value, the reverse current suddenly increases to a large value. This voltage at which
breakdown of junction diode occurs (suddenly large current flow) is called zener breakdown
Observations For forward-bias Range of voltmeter = …..V Least count of voltmeter = …..V V Range of
milli-ammeter = …..mA Least count of milli-ammeter = …..mA
FORWARD BIAS:
s.no V I

For reverse-bias Range of voltmeter = …..V

Least count of voltmeter = …..V
Range of micro-ammeter = …..μA
Least count of micro-ammeter = …..μA
REVERSE BIAS:
s.no V I

Result: p-n junction characteristics studied.

Precautions 1. All connections should be neat, clean and tight. 2. Key should be used in circuit and opened
when the circuit is not being used. 3. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied. 4.
Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
Sources of error The junction diode supplied may be faulty.
SECTION B
ACTIVITY 1
AIM To identify a diode, a LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such items.
APPARATUS AND MATERIAL REQUIRED Multimeter, a collection of diode, LED, transistor, IC, resistor and capacitor.
PRINCIPLE A diode is a two terminal device. It conducts when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse
biased. It does not emit light while conducting. A LED (light emitting diode) is also a two terminal device. It conducts
when forward biased and does not conduct when reverse biased. It emits light while conducting. A transistor is a
three terminal device. The terminals represent emitter (E), base (B) and collector (C). An IC (integrated circuit) is a
multi-terminal device in the form of a chip. But some may have only three terminals, e.g. 7805, 7806, 7809, 7912. A
resistor is a two terminal device. It conducts equally in both directions. A capacitor is a two terminal device. It does
not conduct but stores some charge when dc voltage is applied.
DIAGRAM:
OBSERVATION

RESULT A diode, a LED, a transistor, an IC, a resistor and a capacitor are identified respectively from a mixed
collection.
PRECAUTION While obtaining resistance of any component, clean its leads properly.
SOURCES OF ERROR 1. When the metal ends of a multimeter leads are touched, the multimeter should show zero
resistance. If it does not show it, bring the pointer to zero using ‘Zero Adj knob’ on the multimeter. If it is not done,
the resistance measurements are not reliable. 2. While checking resistance of a component, avoid touching either of
the metal ends of the multimeter leads. Body resistance in parallel with component resistance can affect the
resistance measurement

ACTIVITY 2
AIM To observe refraction and lateral deviation of a beam of light incident obliquely on a glass slab. APPARATUS AND
MATERIAL REQUIRED Drawing board, rectangular glass slab, white sheet of paper, adhesive tape (cello-tape), drawing
pins, a metre scale, alpins, protractor, sharp pencil and eraser.
PRINCIPLE When a ray of light is incident on a rectangular glass slab, it is refracted through it. It emerges out of the
slab parallel to the direction of the incident ray. The emergent ray suffers only a lateral displacement. For a given angle
of incidence and a pair of media, the lateral deviation is proportional to the thickness of the glass slab.
 ACTIVITY 3
AIM To study the nature and size of the image formed by (i) a convex lens (ii) a concave mirror on a screen by using a
candle and a screen (for different distances of the candle from the lens/mirror). (i) To study nature and the size of the
image formed by a convex lens. (for different distances of the candle from the lens) APPARATUS AND MATERIAL
REQUIRED A candle, match box, a small candle-stand, a convex lens of small focal length and known thickness, a screen
with a stand, metre scale.
PRINCIPLE The position, nature and size of the image of an object formed by a thin convex lens varies with the
change in the position of the object.
RESULT 1. As the object moves towards the focus of the lens the size of the image increases and it moves away from
the focus. In all these positions image is real and inverted and is formed on the other side of the lens.
2. When the object is brought too close to the lens, the image on the other side is not seen.
3. When the object is at a distance less than the focal length, the image formed is virtual, enlarged and erect. It is
formed on the same side of the lens as that of the object.
PRECAUTIONS 1. This experiment should be performed at a shaded place where no direct light reaches (preferably in
a dark room) otherwise the images may not be distinctly visible.
2. While estimating the rough value of focal length f of the lens by focusing the Sun, do not look at the image directly
as it may hurt eyes.
Suggested Investigatory Projects(ANY ONE)
1. To study various factors on which the internal resistance/EMF of a cell depends.
2. To study the variations in current flowing in a circuit containing an LDR because of a variation in (a) the power of
the incandescent lamp, used to 'illuminate' the LDR (keeping all the lamps at a fixed distance). (b) the distance of a
incandescent lamp (of fixed power) used to 'illuminate' the LDR.
3. To find the refractive indices of (a) water (b) oil (transparent) using a plane mirror, an equiconvex lens (made from
a glass of known refractive index) and an adjustable object needle.
4. To investigate the relation between the ratio of (i) output and input voltage and (ii) number of turns in the secondary
coil and primary coil of a self-designed transformer.
5. To investigate the dependence of the angle of deviation on the angle of incidence using a hollow prism filled one by
one, with different transparent fluids.
6. To estimate the charge induced on each one of the two identical Styrofoam (or pith) balls suspended in a vertical
plane by making use of Coulomb's law.
7. To study the factor on which the self-inductance of a coil depends by observing the effect of this coil, when put in
series with a resistor/(bulb) in a circuit fed up by an A.C. source of adjustable frequency.
8. To study the earth's magnetic field using a compass needle -bar magnet by plotting magnetic field lines and tangent
galvanometer