Module 1 : Database Management

Systems
Lect 1: Introduction to Database

 Data: known facts that can be recorded and that have implicit
meaning.
o Eg: Text- names, telephone nos, address,
o Image, Video, audio etc
o Flipkart, Amazon, Uber etc contains data
 Database : Collection of related data

◦ Eg : Student database which contains

Roll No Name Dept Marks

Eg 2 :
Roll No Grocery Price Car Model

These are data but not database since they are not related data

Type of Database

 Traditional Database: information is stored and accessed is either textual or numeric.

 Multimedia databases: store images, audio clips, and video streams digitally
 Geographic information systems (GIS) : store and analyze maps, weather data, and
satellite images.
 Database management system (DBMS) is a collection of programs that enables users
to create and maintain a database.

 DBMS is a general-purpose software system that facilitates the

processes of defining, constructing, manipulating, and sharing
databases among various users and applications.
 ◦ Defining a database involves specifying the data types,
structures, and constraints of the data to be stored in the database

Eg: Student database having foll attributes.

Roll no – String
Name – String Roll no Name Marks
Marks - Float

The database definition or descriptive information is also stored by the

DBMS in the form of a database catalog or dictionary; it is called
meta-data

◦ Constructing the database is the process of storing the data on

some storage medium

eg
Roll no Name Marks
1 Akhil 34
2 Sajan 42
3 Vivek 21

 Manipulating a database includes functions such as querying the database to

retrieve specific data, updating the database.

 Sharing a database allows multiple users and programs to access the database
simultaneously.
 An application program accesses the database by sending queries or requests for
data to the DBMS.
 DBMS include protecting the database and maintaining it over a long period of time

Database System Environment

 Characteristics of the Database Approach
 Self-describing nature of a database system

 Insulation between programs and data, and data abstraction

 Support of multiple views of the data

 Sharing of data and multiuser transaction processing

1. Self-describing nature of a database system

 Database system contains not only the database itself but also
a complete definition or description of the database
structure and constraints.
 This definition is stored in the DBMS catalog

 information stored in the catalog is called meta-data and it

describes the structure of the primary database.
2. Insulation between programs and data, and data abstraction

 The structure of database is stored in the DBMS catalog separately from the
access programs.
 This property is called program-data independence.

 Eg: in Student db

Roll Name Marks

no
1 Akhil 34
2 Sajan 42
3 Vivek 21

If we wish to add a new attribute DOB we can do without affecting the data

Roll Name Marks DOB

no

1 Akhil 34
2 Sajan 42
3 Vivek 21

E
\
 This is known an program-data independence
 Users can define operations on data.
 Operations (also called a function or method) is specified in two
parts
 The interface (or signature) of an operation includes the
operation name and the data types of its arguments.
 The implementation (or method) of the operation is
specified separately and can be changed without affecting
the interface.
 User application programs can operate on the data by
invoking these operations through their names and
arguments, regardless of how the operations are
implemented.
 This is termed program-operation independence
 The characteristic that allows program-data independence and
program-operation independence is called data abstraction

3. Support of multiple views of the data

 A database typically has many users, each of whom may

require a different perspective or view of the database.
 A view may be a subset of the database or it may contain
virtual data that is derived from the database files but is not
explicitly stored

Roll no Name Marks

1 Akhil 34
2 Sajan 42
3 Vivek 21

Student database

Name
Akhil
Sajan View 1: Name of the students
Vivek
--
 Roll no Name Marks

2 Sajan 42
View 2: Details of the students with highest mark

4. Sharing of Data and Multiuser Transaction Processing

 The DBMS must include concurrency control software

o to ensure that several users trying to update the same data do
so in a controlled manner so that the result of the updates is
correct
 For example, when several reservation agents try to assign a
seat on an airline flight, the DBMS should ensure that each seat can
be accessed by only one agent at a time for assignment to a
passenger.

Advantages & Disadvantages of DBMS

Advantages of DBMS

1.Controlling Redundancy
o In traditional file processing every user maintains the copy of same
file
o But in DBMS same copy can be shared among many users, thus
redundancy can be avoided

2. Restricting Unauthorized Access

 ◦ When multiple users share a large database, it is likely that most
users will not be authorized to access all information in the database
◦ Eg: Financial data is confidential, and only authorized persons are
allowed to access such data.

3. Providing Storage Structures for Efficient Query Processing

o DBMS provide specialized data structures and search
techniques to speed up disk search for the desired records.
o indexes are used for this purpose.
o In order to process the database records needed by a particular
query, those records must be copied from disk to main memory.
DBMS often has a buffering or caching module that
maintains parts of the database.

Indexing technique

Buffered storage
4. Providing Backup and Recovery
o DBMS provide facilities for recovering from hardware or software
failures.
o backup and recovery subsystem of the
o DBMS is responsible for recovery.
o For example, if the computer system fails in the middle of a complex
update transaction, the recovery subsystem is responsible for
making sure that the database is restored to the state it was in
before the transaction started executing
5. Providing Multiple User Interfaces

o DBMS provide a variety of user interfaces.

o These include
 query languages for casual users,

 programming language interfaces for programmers,

 menu-driven interfaces for standalone users known as

graphical user interfaces (GUIs).
 Form based interfaces.
6. Enforcing Integrity Constraints

o Most database applications have certain integrity constraints that

must hold for the data
o specifying a data type for each data item is an integrity constraint
o referential integrity constraint : A more complex type of
constraint that frequently occurs involves specifying that a record in
one file must be related to records in other files.
o key or uniqueness constraint :
o This constraint specifies uniqueness on data item values,
 Actors on the Scene
 Database Administrators
 Database Designers
 End Users
o Casual end users
o Naive or parametric end users
o Sophisticated end users
o Standalone users
 System Analysts and Application Programmers
I . Database Administrators
 A person who has such central control over the system is
called a database administrator (DBA).
 Role of DBA

• Schema definition.
o The DBA creates the original database schema by
executing a set of data definition statements in the DDL
• Storage structure and access-method definition.
o The DBA may specify some parameters pertaining to the
physical organization of the data and the indices to be
created.
• Schema and physical-organization modification
o The DBA carries out changes to the schema and physical
organization to reflect the changing needs of the
organization
• Granting of authorization for data access.
o By granting different types of authorization, DBA can
regulate which parts of the database various users can
access
• Routine Maintenance:
o Routine maintenance activities of DBA are
o Periodically backing up the database
o Ensuring that enough free disk space is available for
normal operation
o Monitoring jobs running on the database and ensuring
that performance is not degraded by expensive tasks
submitted by some users

II Database Designers

 Responsible for
 identifying the data to be stored in the database
 choosing appropriate structures to represent and store
this data
 communicate with all database users in order to
understand their requirements and to create a design
that meets these requirements
 III End Users

 They are the people, whose jobs are to access the database for
querying, updating, and generating reports
 Categories of end users
1. Casual end users occasionally access the database,
but they may need different information each time.
 They use a sophisticated database query language to
specify their requests
2. Naive or parametric end users
 constantly query and update the database,
using standard types of queries and updates
 The tasks that such users perform are
a. Bank tellers check account balances and post
withdrawals and deposits
b. Reservation agents for airlines, hotels, and
car rental companies check availability for a
given request and make reservations
3. Sophisticated end users
 They include engineers, scientists, business analysts,
and others
 They familiarize themselves with the facilities of the
DBMS in order to implement their own applications
4. Standalone users
 maintain personal databases by using ready-made
program packages that provide easy-to-use menu-
based or graphics-based interfaces
 An example is the user of a tax package that stores a
variety of personal financial data for tax purposes
IV System Analysts and Application Programmers (Software
Engineers)
 System analysts determine the requirements of end users
and develop specifications that meet these requirements.
 Application programmers implement these specifications as
programs; then they test, debug, document, and maintain
these system.
 Such analysts and programmers—commonly referred to as
software developers or software engineers
 Workers behind the Scene

These are people who work to maintain the database system

environment, and they are not interested in the database content
1. DBMS system designers and implementers
2. Tool developers
3. Operators and maintenance personnel

1. DBMS system designers and implementers

 They design and implement the DBMS modules and interfaces
as a software package
 DBMS modules include
 Module for implementing the catalog
 query language processing
 Interface processing
 accessing and buffering data
 controlling concurrency
 handling data recovery and security

2. Tool developers
 Tools are optional packages that are often purchased
separately.

 They include
o packages for database design
o performance monitoring
o natural language or graphical interfaces
o Prototyping
o Simulation, and test data generation.
 In many cases, independent software vendors develop and
market these tools.
 3. Operators and maintenance personnel
◦ responsible for the actual running and maintenance of the
hardware and software environment for the database
system

Structured, Semi Structured & Unstructured data and

DATA MODELS

Data can be classified into three types:

o Structured Data
o Semi-structured Data
o Unstructured Data

Structured Data
o The data is well organized either in the form of tables or some
other way
o Searching & accessing information from such data is very easy
o Eg Relational Database (data stored in tables), spreadsheets
Semi - structured data
o Semi-structured data is information that doesn’t reside in a
relational database but have some organizational
properties that make it easier to analyze.
o It is difficult to store and retrieve
o These data can be stored in a database after processing it
o For example, CSV, XML and web data such as JSON

Unstructured data
o Data which is not organized in a predefined manner
o It is not fit for relational database
o It includes text and multimedia content. For example, e-mail
messages, word processing documents, videos, photos, audio
files, presentations, web pages
DATA MODELS
 Collection of concepts that can be used to describe the structure
of a database
 Structure of a database we mean the data types, relationships,
and constraints that should hold on the data
 Most data models also include a set of basic operations for
specifying retrievals and updates on the database

Categories of Data Model

 Every database and DBMS is based on a
particular data model.
 There are mainly three categories of data model
1. High-level or conceptual data models
2. Low-level or physical data models
3. Representational (or implementation) data models
  Hierarchical data model
 Relational data model
 Network Data model
I. High-level or conceptual data models

 It provides concepts that are close to the way many users

perceive data.
 Conceptual data models use concepts such as
◦ Entities
◦ Attributes, and
◦ Relationships
o An entity represents a real-world object or concept, such as an
employee or a project from the miniworld that is described in the
database.
o An attribute represents some property of interest that describes
an entity, such as the employee’s name or salary.
o A relationship among two or more entities represents an
association among the entities, for example, a works-on relationship
between an employee and a project

II. Representational (or implementation) data models

 It provide concepts that may be understood by end users
but hides the way data is organized within the computer
 It hides some details of data storage but can be
implemented on a computer system
 These are again classified into three types.
◦ Hierarchical data model
◦ Relational data model
◦ Network Data model

A. Hierarchical Model

 Here data is organized in a tree-like structure, where nodes

represent the records and relationship is provided using edges.
 One of the rules of a hierarchical database is that a parent can
have multiple children, but a child can only have one parent.
 For example consider the database which represents an
institutional department. A department has courses and
students, each course has professors

B. Network model
 Every data is represented as collection of records.
 The database structure is like a graph.
 This is similar to the hierarchical model and also provides a tree-
like structure. However, a child is allowed to have more than one
parent.
C. Relational Model
 Data is organized in two-dimensional tables called relations.
 The tables or relation are related to each other.
 Each row represents a record, also referred to as an entity.
 Each column represents a field, also referred to as an attribute.
 A relational DBMS uses multiple tables to organize the data.
 Relationships are used to link the various tables together.
 Relationships are created using a field that uniquely identifies
each record

3. Low-level or physical data models

 It provides concepts that describe the details of how data is
stored in the computer
 Data models are generally meant for computer specialists, not for
typical end users
 It describe how data is stored as files in the computer by
representing information such as
 record formats

 record orderings and

 access paths
 An access path is a structure that makes the search for
particular database records efficient

THREE-SCHEMA ARCHITECTURE
Schema, Instances and Database State

 The description of a database is called the Database schema,

which is specified during database design and is not expected
to change frequently

 A Schema is represented in a Schema Digram

 The data in the database at a particular moment in time is called

a database state or snapshot
 Instance is the snapshot of a database at a particular moment.
 THREE SCHEMA ARCHITECTURE

 This architecture is proposed

to achieve the
characteristics of
database approach
 The goal of the three-schema
architecture is to separate
the user applications and
the physical database
 In this architecture, schemas
can
be defined at the following
three levels
o External Level
o Conceptual Level
o Internal Level

INTERNAL LEVEL

 It uses low level /physical

data model
 It has an internal schema,
which describes the
physical storage
structure of the database
 This level describes how
data is stored in the
database.
 It deals with the data structures and the file organizations used to
store data on storage device
 This level is concerned with things such as
 Storage space allocation for data and indexes
 Record description for storage
 Record Placement
 Data encryption and data decryption

CONCEPTUAL LEVEL
 It uses representational/Implementational data model
 The conceptual level has a conceptual schema, which
describes the structure of the whole database for users
 hides the details of physical storage structures and concentrates
on describing entities, data types, relationships, user operations,
and constraints
 describes what data is stored in the database and the
relationships among
the data.
 The conceptual level
represents
• All entities, their
attributes and their
relationships
• The constraints on the
data
• Semantic information
about the data
• Security and integrity
information

EXTERNAL OR VIEW LEVEL

 It uses
HighLevel/Conceptual
data Model
 Describes the part of the
database that a particular
user group is interested in
and hides the rest of the
database from that user
group
  DBMS must transform a request specified on an external schema
into a request against the conceptual schema, and then
into a request on the internal schema for processing over the
stored database
 If the request is a database retrieval, the data extracted from the
stored database must be reformatted to match the user’s
external view.

Mappings
 The processes of transforming requests and results between
levels are called mappings
 These mappings may be time-consuming

DATA INDEPENDENCE
 Data independence is the capacity to change the schema at one
level of a database system without having to change the
schema at the next higher level.
 There are two types of data independence.
i. Logical data independence
ii. Physical data independence
1. Logical Data Independence

 The capacity to change the conceptual schema without

having to change external schemas or application programs
 Refers to the immunity of external schemas to changes
made in the conceptual schema.

 Eg: We may change the conceptual schema to expand the

database (by adding a record type or data item), or to reduce the
database (by removing a record type or data item).
 After the conceptual schema undergoes a logical reorganization,
application programs that reference the external schema
constructs must work as before

2. Physical Data Independence

 It is the capacity to change the internal schema without
having to change the conceptual schema or
 it refers to the immunity of conceptual schemas to the
changes of internal schema
 Eg : for example, by creating additional access structures—to
improve the
performance of retrieval or update.
 If the same data as before remains in the database, we should not
have to change the conceptual schema

Database Architectures

 DBMS architecture are of different types

 Centralized DBMSs Architecture
 Basic Client/Server Architectures
 Two-Tier Client/Server Architectures
 Three-Tier and n-Tier Architectures
1. Centralized DBMSs Architecture

• All the DBMS functionality, application program execution, and user

interface processing were carried out on one machine
• A centralized database is stored at a single location such as a
mainframe computer.
• It is maintained and modified from that location only and
usually accessed using an internet connection such as a LAN or
WAN.
• The centralized database is used by organizations such as colleges,
companies, banks etc.
2. Basic Client/Server Architectures

• The client/server architecture was developed to deal with

computing environments in which a large number of PCs,
workstations, file servers, printers, database servers, Web servers,
e-mail servers, and other software and equipment are connected via
a network
• The idea is to define specialized servers with specific
functionalities
• The resources provided by specialized servers can be accessed by
many client machines.
• Eg
o file server maintains the files of the client machines.
o printer server is connected to various printers
• The client machines provide the user with the appropriate
interfaces to utilize these servers

• A client is typically a user machine that provides user interface

capabilities and local processing.
• When a client requires access to additional functionality— such
as database access— that does not exist at that machine, it
connects to a server that provides the needed functionality.
• A server is a system containing both hardware and software that
can provide services to the client machines
Two-Tier Client/Server Architectures
 Multiple clients are connected to a database server
 The user interface programs and application programs can run on
the client side
 Query provided in the client side is processed by the database
server
 When DBMS access is required, the program establishes a
connection to the
 DBMS
 A standard called Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) allows
client-side programs to communicate with DBMS,.
 Most DBMS vendors provide ODBC drivers for their systems
 This architecture is called Two tier because software components
are distributed over two systems: Client &
Server
Three-Tier and n-Tier Architectures
 It adds an intermediate layer between the client and the
database server.
 This intermediate layer or middle tier is called the application
server or the Web server, depending on the application.
 Web server plays an intermediary role by running application
programs and storing business rules (procedures or
constraints) that are used to access data from the database
server.
 It can also improve database security by checking a client’s
credentials before forwarding a request to the database server

 Clients contain GUI interfaces and some additional application-

specific business rules.
  The Application server accepts requests from the client,
processes the request and sends database queries and
commands to the database server,
 Response from the database is partially processed by
database server which is passed to the clients, where it may be
processed further and filtered to be presented to users in GUI
format
CLASSIFICATION OF DBMS

DBMS can be classified based on several criteria .

1. Based on Data Model
2. Based on number of users
3. Based on Database distribution
4. Based on cost
5. Based on access path
6. Based on purpose

1. Based on Data Model

 Relational DBMS: It is most commonly used commercial DBMS.
 Object DBMS: The object data model has been implemented in
some commercial systems using object- oriented concepts.
 Hierarchical DBMS: Many legacy applications still run on database
systems based on the hierarchical data models. Examples of
hierarchical DBMSs include IMS (IBM)
 Network DBMS: The network data model was used by many
vendors and by the products like IDMS, DMS 1100
2. Based on Number of Users
 Single-user systems support only one user at a time and are
mostly used with PCs.
 Multiuser systems, which include the majority of DBMSs, support
concurrent multiple users
3. Based on Database distribution
 Centralized DBMS: Centralized DBMS can support multiple users,
but the DBMS and the database reside totally at a single
computer site.
 Distributed DBMS: A distributed DBMS (DDBMS) can have the
actual database and DBMS software distributed over many sites,
connected by a computer network.
 Homogeneous DDBMSs use the same DBMS software at all the
sites, whereas heterogeneous DDBMSs can use different DBMS
software at each site
 4. Based on cost
 Open Source (Free) DBMS products like MySQL and PostgreSQL
that are supported by third-party vendors with additional
services.
 RDBMS products are available as free examination 30-day copy
versions as well as personal versions, which may cost under $100
and allow a fair amount of functionality.

5. Based on access path

 DBMS can be classified based on the types of access path

options for storing files.
 Access paths are the alternative ways for retrieving specific
record from a relation/table
 One well-known family of DBMSs is based on inverted file
structures.
6. Based on purpose
 DBMS can be general purpose or special purpose.
 When performance is a primary consideration, a special-
purpose DBMS can be designed and built for a specific
application
 such a system cannot be used for other applications without
major changes.
 Many airline reservations and telephone directory systems
are special-purpose DBMSs. These fall into the category of online
transaction processing (OLTP) systems

Database Languages

Database languages can be classified into three categories.

1. Data Definition Language (DDL)

2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)
3. Data Control Language (DCL)

1. Data definition language (DDL)

 • A database schema can be specified by a by a special language
called a data definition language
• DDL is a set of commands to create, modify and delete
database structure but not data
• When data values are stored in a database, it must satisfy certain
consistency constraints. DDL provides facilities to specify such
constraints
• Domain constraints, integrity constraints, authorization etc.
are different constraints.
• It is used by the DBA and by database designers to define both
conceptual and internal schemas

2. Data Manipulation Language (DML)

 DML is a language that enables users to access or manipulate data

 Through DML we can
o Insert new data in the database
o Modify the data already stored in the database
o Delete data
o Retrieve the information
 There are two main types of DMLs.
o Procedural DML
o Non procedural DML

i. Low level or Procedural DML

 Require a user to specify what data are needed and how

to get those data.
 It requires writing procedures or methods to specify what
data is needed.
 A low level or procedural DML must be embedded in a general-
purpose programming language

ii. High level or Non Procedural DML

 Requires a user to specify what data are needed without
specifying how to get those data.
 A query is a statement requesting the retrieval of information.
 High level DMLs, such as SQL, can specify and retrieve many
records in a single DML statement.
  therefore, they are called set-at-a-time or set-oriented
DMLs

3. Data Control language (DCL)

 It is the language that controls access to the data and to the

database.
 DCL statements are grouped with the DML statements.
 Through DCL we can
o Commit: Save work done
o Rollback: restore database to original since the last commit

ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP MODEL

 Entity-Relationship (ER) model is a popular high-level conceptual

data model
 Diagrammatic notation associated with an E-R model is known as
E-R Diagram
 The E-R model describes data as Entities, Attributes and
Relationships.

Entity Relationship Diagram (E-R Diagram)

 It is not a technical method

 It is used for designing a database
 Diagrammatic representation and easy to understand for non-
technical users
 Collection of entities and their properties called attributes
and relationship between them
 Diagrammatic representation and easy to understand for non-
technical users
Entity
 Entity is a thing in the real world with an independent existence.
 for example, a particular person, car, house or employee
 For example, if we say that a customer buys goods, it means
customers and goods are entities.
 In E-R diagrams, entities are represented using rectangles

CUSTOMER GOODS
Attributes
 Each entity has attributes—the particular properties that describe
it.
 For example, an EMPLOYEE entity may be described by the
employee’s name, age, address, salary, and job.
 In E-R diagrams attributes are drawn in elliptical shapes along
with the entity rectangles
 Derived attributes are represented by dotted attributes

Complex Attributes
 It is a combination of composite and multi-valued attribute.
 Group components of a composite attribute between parentheses
() and separating the components with commas, and by
displaying multivalued attributes between braces { }.
 Eg :
Address_phone({phone_no},{Address(Flat no,city,state)})

Entity Types and Entity Sets

 An entity type defines a collection of entities that have the

same attributes or properties.

 Each entity type in the database is described by its name and

attributes.

 Entity Set is the collection of same type of entities, i.e their

attributes are same is called entity set
Key Attributes of an Entity

 An entity type usually has one or more attributes whose

values are distinct for each individual entity in the entity set.
 Such an attribute is called a key attribute, and its values can be
used to identify each entity uniquely

Roll Name Age

no
1 Akhil S 21
2 Akhil 20
3 Anand 21

In ER diagrammatic notation, each key attribute has its name

underlined inside the oval
 Value Sets (Domains) of Attributes

 Each simple attribute of an entity type is associated with a value set

(or domain of values), which specifies the set of values that may be
assigned to that attribute for each individual entity.
 For example, if the range of ages allowed for employees is between
16 and 70, we can specify the value set of the Age attribute of
EMPLOYEE to be the set of integer numbers between 16 and 70.

Emp No Ename Age

E101 Rahul 17
E102 Ramesh 23
E103 Samuel 14
(Error)
 Consider a database
application COMPANY which keeps track of a company’s employees,
departments, and projects. Suppose that after the requirements
collection and analysis phase, the database designers provide the
following description.

1. The company is organized into departments. Each department

has a unique name, a unique number, and a particular employee
who manages the department. We keep track of the start date
when that employee began managing the department. A
department may have several locations.

2. A department controls a number of projects, each of which has a

unique name, a unique number, and a single location.
 We store each employee’s name, Social Security number, address,
salary, sex (gender), and birth date. An employee is assigned to one
department, but may work on several projects, which are not
necessarily controlled by the same department. We keep track of the
current number of hours per week that an employee works on each
project. We also keep track of the direct supervisor of each employee
(who is another employee).

We want to keep track of the dependents of each employee for insurance

purposes. We keep each dependent’s first name, sex, birth date, and
relationship to the employee

Relationship in DBMS
 Whenever an attribute of one entity type refers to another
entity type, some relationship exists.
 the attribute Department of EMPLOYEE refers to the
department for which the employee works
 RELATIONSHIP
Relationship is the association among several entities.

In ER diagram Relationship is represented in diamond

Eg1

Eg2
Relationship Type

The relationship which is associating with different entities

Relationship Set
A relationship set is a set of relationships of the same type.

Degree of a Relationship Type

 The degree of a relationship type is the number of participating

entity types.
 3 Types
o Unary relationship
o Binary relationship
 o Ternary Relationship

Unary relationship
 Association is maintained within a single entity.
Binary relationship
 Association is maintained within two entities.

Ternary Relationship
 Association is maintained within three entities

Constraints on Binary Relationship Types

 Relationship types have certain constraints that limit the possible
combinations of entities that may participate in the
corresponding relationship set.
 We can distinguish two main types of binary relationship constraints:
o cardinality ratio
o Participation constraint
Cardinality ratio
 The cardinality ratio for a binary relationship specifies the
maximum number of relationship instances to which an
entity can take part in it.
 The no of entities to which another entity can be associated via a
relationship set
 The possible cardinality ratios for a binary relationship types are
o One to one (1:1)
o One to many (1:N)
o Many to one (N:1)
o Many to many (M:N)

1. One to one:
 An entity A is associated with atmost one entity in B and an
entity in B is associated with atmost one entity in A.

 A customer can borrow a single loan,

 A single loan can be borrowed by a customer
2. One to Many:
 An entity A is associated with any no of entities in B and an entity

in B can be associated with atmost one entity in A.

3. Many to one:

 An entity in A is associated with atmost one entity in B. An entity

in B can be associated with any no of entities in A.
4. Many to Many:
 An entity in A is associated with any no of entities in B and an
entity in B is associated with any no of entities in A.
 PARTICIPATION CONSTRAINTS
 This constraint specifies the minimum number of relationship
instances that each entity can participate in,
 Also called the minimum cardinality constraint.
 There are two types of participation constraints—total and partial.
  Total Participation:
o if every entity in the entity type participates in at least one
relationship in the relationship type
o Represented by double lines in ER Diagram
 Partial Participation:
o Some entities may not participate in any relationship in the
relationship type
o Represented by single line in ER Diagram
Eg1

 Entity Project should have atlease one department, So Project has

Total Participation
 There can be no Department which is assigned any project , So
Department has Partial Participation

 In ER diagrams, total participation is displayed as a double line

connecting the participating entity type to the relationship, whereas
partial participation is represented by a single line.

 Eg2

 Entity Department should have atlease one Employee as Manager,

So Department has Total Participation
 Not all Employee Manages a department. So Employee has Partial
Participation
E-R Diagram Construction
 Example 1
The company database keeps track of company’s employee, department
and projects We store Employee’s name, ssn,address,salary,gender,date
of birth, age. An employee is assigned to one department, but may work
on several projects which are not necessarily controlled by the same
department. A particular employee manages the department. Each
department has a unique name, unique number and several locations.
The department controls number of projects each of which has a unique
name, unique number and a single location. We want to keep track of the
dependents of each employee for insurance purpose. We keep each
dependent’s first name, sex,birth date and relationship to employee
Example 2
A company has the following scenario: There are a set of salespersons.
Some of them manage other salespersons. However, a salesperson
cannot have more than one manager. A salesperson can be an agent for
many customers. A customer is managed by exactly one salesperson. A
customer can place any number of orders. An order can be placed by
exactly one customer. Each order lists one or more items. An item may be
listed in many orders. An item is assembled from different parts and parts
can be common for many items. One or more employees assemble an
item from parts. A supplier can supply different parts in certain quantities.
A part may be supplied by different suppliers.
Alternative Notations for ER Diagrams
 One alternative ER notation for specifying structural constraints on
relationships, which replaces the cardinality ratio (1:1, 1:N, M:N)
with (min,max) notation
 The minimum number of times an entity can appear in a relation is
represented by min
 The maximum time it an entity can appear in a relation is max.
 If m = 0 it denotes partial participation,
 if m >0 it denotes total participation of the entity.

From the above E R diagram using min-max notation