COMPUTER GRAPHICS

Bindhu A S
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Mechanical
Engineering
JSS STU MYSORE
 The graphics software :
is the collection of programs written to make it
convenient for a user to operate the computer graphics system
🞄 It includes Programmes to generate images on the screen.
🞄 To accomplish various types of interaction between the user and the
system.
⦁ The graphics software for a particular computer graphics system
is very much a function of the type of hardware used in the
system.
◦ The software must be written specifically for the type of CRT
and the types of input devices used in the system.
◦ The differences between a storage tube and a refresh tube
would also influence the graphics software.
1. Simplicity: The graphic software should be easy
to use.
2. Consistency : The package should operate in
consistent and predictable way to the user.
3. Completeness: there should be no inconvenient
omissions in the set of graphics functions.
4. Robustness: The graphic system should be
tolerant of minor instances of misuse by the
operator.
5. Performance: with in limitations imposed by the
system hardware, the performance should be
exploited as much as possible by software.
Graphic programs should be efficient and speed
of response should be fast and consistent.
6. Economy: Graphic programs should not be so
large or expensive as to make their use
prohibitive.
 IN THE OPERATION OF THE GRAPHICS SYSTEM BY THE USER,
A VARIETY OF ACTIVITIES TAKE PLACE, WHICH CAN BE
DIVIDED INTO THREE CATEGORIES:

◦ 1. Interact with the graphics terminal to create and alter

images on the screen
◦ 2. Construct a model of something physical out of the
images on the screen. The models are sometimes called
application models.
◦ 3. Enter the model into computer memory and/or
secondary storage
according to a conceptual model suggested by Foley and
Van Dam:
1. The graphics package
2. The application program
3. The application data base
⦁ The central module is the application program.
⦁ It controls the storage of data into and
retrieves dataout
of the application data base.
⦁ The application program is implemented by the user to
construct the model of a physical entity whose image 'is to be
⦁ viewed on theprograms
Application graphics-screen
are written for particular problem
areas. Problem areas in engineering design would include
architecture, construction, mechanical components,
electronics, chemical engineering, and aerospace
engineering.
⦁ It is the software support between the user and the graphics
terminal
⦁ It manages the graphical interaction between the user and the
system
⦁ It also serves as the interface between the user and the
application software.
The graphics package consists of input subroutines and output
subroutines.
 The input routines :accept input commands and data from
the user and forward them to the application program.
 The output subroutines: control the display terminal and
convert the application models into two-dimensional or
three-dimensional graphical pictures.
APPLICATION OF DATA BASE:
⦁ The data base contains mathematical, numerical, and logical
definitions of the application models, such as electronic
circuits, mechanical components, automobile bodies, and so
forth.
⦁ It also includes alphanumeric information associated with the
models, such as bills of materials, mass properties, and other
data.
⦁ The contents of the data base can be readily displayed on the
CRT or plotted out in hard-copy form.
⦁ Some of the common function sets
are:
◦ Generation of graphic
◦ Elements Transformations Display
◦ Control and windowing functions
◦ Segmenting functions
◦ User input functions
Generation of Graphic Element :
 A graphic element in computer graphic is a basic image
such as a dot , line segment, circle and so forth.

 The collection of elements in the system could also

include alphanumeric characters and special symbols.
 There is often a special hardware component in the
graphic system associated with the display of many of
the element. This hardware component is called
Graphics Card.
 Primitive is the term generally used to refer to a graphic
element.
Elements Transformations Display:

 Transformations are used to change the

image on the display screen and
reposition the item in the data base.

 These transformation include enlargement

and reduction of the image by process
called scaling, repositioning the image by
translation and rotation.
Display Control and Windowing Function:

 The function set provides the user with the

ability to view the image from the desire angle
and at the desired magnification.

 This is sometimes referred to as windowing

because the graphic screen is like a window
being used to observe the graphic model.

 Scaling and zooming

 Another aspect of display control is hidden line

removal.
Segmenting Function:

 Segmenting functions provide users with

the capability to selectively replace, delete,
or otherwise modify portions of the image.

 The term segment refers to a particular

portion of the image which as been
identified for the purpose of modifying it.
User Input Functions:

 User input functions constitute a critical set of

functions in the graphics package because they
permit the operator to enter commands or data
to system.

 The input is made through input devices like

keyboard, light-pen, digitizer, mouse, scanner
etc..

 The user input functions must be written

specifically for the particular compliment of input
devices used on the system.
⦁ Geometry construction refers to the process of
obtaining the desired image on the graphic terminal.
Though the geometry construction involves the use
of graphics elements, it is possible with defining the
graphics element and editing the geometry.

Use of graphics Elements in Model Building:

⦁ First, as each new element is being called but before

it is added to the model, the user can specify its size,
its position and its orientation. These specifications
are necessary to form the model to the proper shape
and scale.
⦁ The second aspect of the geometry construction
process is that graphic elements can be
subtracted as well as added.

⦁ Another feature available during model building

is the capability to group several elements
together into units which are sometime called
cells.

⦁ A cell in this context, refer to a combination of

elements which can be called to use any where in
the model.
⦁ Figure show the construction feature for a
two dimensional object, C.
⦁ The object is drawn by subtracting circle B
from rectangle A.
Different methods of defining graphic elements
like
⦁ Points

⦁ lines

⦁ Arcs and circles

⦁ Curves

⦁ Surfaces
Common editing commands:
⦁ Move

⦁ Copy

⦁ Rotate

⦁ Mirror

⦁ Delete

⦁ Remove

⦁ Trim

⦁ Scale
⦁ Geometric modelling refers to a set of
techniques concerned mainly with
developing efficient representations of
geometric aspects of a design. Therefore,
geometric modelling is a fundamental part
of all CAD tools.

⦁ It is the basis of many applications like

mass property calculations, FEM analysis,
mechanism analysis and NC programming
The basic geometric modelling approaches
available to designers on CAD/CAM systems
are:
1. Wire-frame modeling.
2. Surface modeling.
3. Solid modeling.
🠜 Developed in 1960s and referred as
“a stick figure” or “an edge representation”

🠜 Model consists entirely of

points, lines, arcs and circles, conics, and
curves.

🠜 In 3D wireframe model, an object is not

recorded as a solid. Instead the vertices that
define the boundary of the object, or the
intersections of the edges of the object boundary
are recorded as a collection of points and their
connectivity.
⦁ Example
Two basic approaches to the problem of solid
modelling have been developed:
1) Constructive solid geometry (CSG or C-rep),
also called the building block Approach
2) Boundary representation (B-rep)
Constructive Solid
Geometry
⦁ With proliferation of computer to do
a number of a tasks related to design to
and manufacturing, it becomes a necessity
to have a means of communication between
the various system in the same plant or
between different plants.

⦁ To avoid duplication of effort involved

in geometric model creation it is necessary
to interchange information between
different system.
IGES
IGES (Initial Graphics Exchange Specification) was the first
specification for CAD data exchange published in 1980 as a
NBS (National Bureau of Standards) report in USA.

IGES version 1.0 was accepted and released in 1981 as an

ANSI standard.

All major CAD vendors support IGES and it is currently by

far the most widespread standard for CAD data exchange.

IGES was originally developed for the exchange of drafting

data like 2D/3D wireframe models, text, dimensioning data,
and a limited class of surfaces.
Standard for the Exchange of Product model Data (STEP)
What is STEP ?

 Stands for Standard for Exchange of Product data (ISO

10303).
 International effort to develop standards for computer
interpretable representation and exchange of product data.
The broad scope of STEP is as follows:
1. The standard method of representing the information
necessary to completely define a product throughout
its entire life, i.e., from the product conception to the
end of useful life.

2. Standard methods for exchanging the data

electronically between two different systems
STEP (Standard for the Exchange of Product model data)

 STEP is a new International Standard (ISO 10303) for representing and

exchanging product model information.

 It includes an object-flavored data specification language, EXPRESS,

to describe the representation of the data.

 STEP defines also implementation methods, for instance, a physical

transfer file, and offers different resources, e.g. geometric and
topological representation.

 The development of STEP started in 1984 as a worldwide

collaboration.

 The goal was to define a standard to cover all aspects of a product (i.e.
geometry, topology, tolerances, materials, etc.), during its lifetime.
 Implementation methods are used for data exchange.

 The representation offers a definition of product information to many

applications.

 STEP provides also a basis for archiving product information and a

methodology for the conformance testing of implementations.

 EXPRESS is a formal data specification language used to specify the

representation of product information.

 The use of a formal data specification language facilitates development

of implementation.

 It also enables consistency of representation.

 STEP specifies the implementation methods used for data exchange that
support the representation of product information.
 STEP does not only define the geometric shape of a
product: it also includes topology, features, tolerance
specifications, material properties, etc. necessary to
completely define a product for the purposes of design,
analysis, manufacture, test, inspection and product support.

 The majority of CAD system vendors has implemented or is

implementing STEP pre- and postprocessors for their CAD
systems.

 STEP is an evolving standard that will cover the whole

product life cycle in terms of data sharing, storage and
exchange.

 It is the most important and largest effort ever established in

engineering domain and will replace current CAD exchange
standards.
 STEP is a collection of standards to represent and
exchange product information.

 The main parts of STEP are already international

standards, while many parts are still under development.

 The objective of STEP is to offer system-independent

mechanism to describe the product information in
computer aided systems throughout its lifetime.

 It separates the representation of product information

from the implementation methods.
STEP in Manufacturing
 Function
 Specifications & Constraints
 Geometry
 Design History
 Material
 Assembly & Bill of Materials
 Tolerances & Surface Finish
 Process data
 Business Information
DXF (Data Exchange Format)

 DXF was originally developed by Autodesk, Inc., the

vendor of AutoCAD.

 It has become a "de-facto" standard among most CAD

vendors and is in wide use to exchange 2D/3D wireframe
data.

 All implementations of AutoCAD accept this format and are

able to convert it to and from their internal representation.

 A DXF file is a complete representation of the AutoCAD

drawing database thus some features or concepts can't be
used by other CAD systems.
 A DXF file consists of six sections:
 Header
 classes
 Tables
 Blocks
 Entities and
 Objects

 Header Section
 The header section contains general information about the
drawing.
 It consists of the AutoCAD database version number and a
number of system variables
 Each parameter has a variable name and an associated value.
 This information is used for database conversion purpose.
Classes section

 It holds the information for application-defined classes.

 Whose instances appear in BLOCKS, ENTITIES and
OBJECTS section of database.
 A class dimension is permanently fixed in the class
hierarchy.

Table section
 The table section contains definitions of following symbol
tables which directly relates to the object types available in
AutoCAD
 line types table
 layer table
 text style table
 view table
 user Coordinate system table
 Viewport configuration table
 Dimension style table
 Application Identification table
 Block reference table

Block & Entitles section

 The block section contains entities for block definitions.

 These entities define the blocks used in the drawing.
 The format of the entities in the block section is identical to
entities in the entity section.
 The entity section contains the drawing entities, including any
block references.
 Items in the entity section exist also in the block section and the
appearance of entities in the two sections is identical.
Objects Section
 It contains the non graphical objects in the drawing
 All objects that are not entities or symbol table records or
symbol tables are stored in this section

A DXF file is composed of many groups, each of which occupies

two lines in the DXF file. The first line group code and the
second line group value
 Variables, table entries, and entities are described by a group
that introduces the item, giving its type and/or name, followed
by multiple groups that supply the values associated with the
item.
 In addition, special groups are used for separators such as
markers for the beginning and end of sections, tables, and the
file itself.
 Group codes are used to describe the type of the value, and the
general use of the group.
DMIS

 Dimensional Measurement Interface Specification (DMIS)

is a new standard in communication being established by
CAM-I for manufacturing.

 This standard tries to establish a means of knowing what

has been made by the CAM process.

 The objectives of DMIS is to provide a bi-directional

communication of inspection data between computer
systems and inspection equipment so as see what has been
made and what is to be made.

 The database in the form of geometric instructions and

manufacturing information is used by some of the part
programming systems for automatically converting into
CNC program
Dimensional Measurement Interface Specification
(DMIS) is a new standard in communication being
established by CAM-I for manufacturing.

This standard tries to establish a means of

knowing what has been made by the CAM
process.

The objectives – is to provide a bi-directional

communication of inspection data between
computer systems and inspection equipment.
Introduction Of Measurement In Product Development Cycle
THANK YOU