BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

K. R. Road, V. V. Pura, Bangalore – 560004

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

VI SEMESTER
MICROWAVE THEORY AND ANTENNAS (21EC62)
APRIL-JULY-2024
Faculty: Prof. Sudha. B, Dept of ETE, BIT

COURSE: MICROWAVE THEORY AND ANTENNAS SUB CODE: 21EC62

SEMESTER: VI CIE MARKS: 50

TOTAL NO. OF LECTURE HOURS: 3 HOURS + 2 HOURS TUTORIAL SEE MARKS: 50

 BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
VISION
To establish and develop the Institute as a center of higher learning, ever abreast with expanding horizon
of knowledge in the field of engineering and technology, with entrepreneurial thinking, leadership
excellence for life-long success and solve societal problem.
MISSION
1. Provide high quality education in the engineering disciplines from the undergraduate through
doctoral levels with creative academic and professional programs.
2. Develop the Institute as a leader in Science, Engineering, Technology and management, Research and
apply knowledge for the benefit of society.
3. Establish mutual beneficial partnerships with industry, alumni, local, state and central governments
by public service assistance and collaborative research.
4. Inculcate personality development through sports, cultural and extracurricular activities and engage
in the social, economic and professional challenges.
 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

VISION
Empower every student to be creative and productive in the field of
Telecommunication Engineering, by imparting excellent Technical Education and
inculcating Human Values
MISSION
M1. To make our Students acquaint with the Global requirements such as Problem
Solving Skills, Cultural Sensitivity, Ethical behavior and Social Responsibility.
M2. To motivate our Students to pursue Higher Education and engage in continuous
upgradation of their Professional Skills.
M3. To encourage students to develop Communication Skills, Professional Values and
Positive Attitude that in turn leads to fostering Leadership Qualities.
 Program specific Outcomes(PSO)
• PSO1: Specify, design, build and test analog, digital
and embedded systems for signal processing

• PSO2: Understand and architect wired and wireless

analog and digital telecommunication systems as
per specifications, and determine their
performance.
 COURSE OUTCOMES
At the end of the course the students will be able to:
• Describe the use and advantages of microwave transmission
• Analyze various parameters related to transmission lines.
• Identify microwave devices for several applications.
• Analyze various antenna parameters and their significance in building
the RF system.
• Identify various antenna configurations for suitable applications
• Make use of Modern Simulation tools to Estimate the Transmission line
and antenna parameters.
 Module -3

• Part-2: Antenna Basics: Introduction, Basic

Antenna Parameters, Patterns, Beam Area,
Radiation Intensity, Beam Efficiency, Directivity
and Gain, Antenna Apertures, Effective Height,
Bandwidth, Radio Communication Link, Antenna
Field Zones. (Text-3: 2.1- 2.7, 2.9-2.11, 2.13). L1,
L2, L3
 TEXT BOOKS/ REFERENCE BOOK
Text Books:
1. Microwave Engineering – Annapurna Das, Sisir K Das TMH Publication, 2nd , 2010

2. Microwave Devices and circuits- Liao / Pearson Education

3. Antennas and Wave Propagation, John D. Krauss, Ronald J Marhefka and Ahmad S Khan,

4th Special Indian Edition , McGraw- Hill Education Pvt Ltd., 2010.

Reference Books:https://www.slideshare.net/jpratt59/antenna-basics

1. Microwave Engineering – David M Pozar, John Wiley India Pvt. Ltd., 3rd

Edition, 2008

2. Microwave Engineering – Sushrut Das, Oxford Higher Education, 2nd Edition, 2015
Module 3-Part-2
Antennas Basics
 Contents-Chapter 2- Antenna basics:
 2.1.Introduction
 2.2.BasicAntenna parameters
 2.3.Patterns of antenna
 2.4. Beam Area/Beam solid angle ῼ𝐴
 2.5. Radiation Intensity
 2.6. Beam efficiency
 2.7. Directivity and Gain
 2.8. Directivity and Resolution
 2.9. Antenna aperture
 2.10. Effective Height
 Radiation efficiency
 2.11. Radio Communication link
 2.13. Antenna temperature and Antenna Field Zones
 2.15. Polarization: Linear elliptical and circular polarization
 Numerical Examples
 Antenna Basics
• Q. What is an Antenna?
• With the help of Maxwell’s equation, explain
how radiation and reception of E M wave
takes place
 INTRODUCTION
An antenna is a transducer that converts
electric current into electromagnetic (EM) waves or
vice versa.
An antenna is considered as a region of transition
between a transmission line and space.
Antenna radiates EM energy in its defined direction
• Consider a two wire transmission line as shown in
fig (1) connected to a radio-frequency generator
(or transmitter).
• The spacing between wires is assumed to be a
small fraction of wavelength.
• As the separation approaches the order of wave
length or more, the wave tends to be radiated so
that opened-out line acts like an antenna which
launches a free space wave.
• The currents on the transmission line flow out on
the antenna and end there, but the fields
associated with them keep on going
Fig-wireless communication link with transmitting and receiving antenna
 Contnd----
• The maximum radiation will occur when the
two wires at the end are flared to form a 180o
angle
• Thus, an antenna is a transition device or
transducer between a guided wave and a free
space wave or vice versa.
Definitions Related to Antenna Radiation pattern
1. Define the following parameters of antenna :
• i) Radiation pattern: Field pattern, Power pattern
• ii) HPBW
• iii) FNBW
• iv)Beam solid angle/Beam area
• v) Beam efficiency
• vi) Isotropic Radiator
• Vii) radiation intensity (U)
2. Explain the following terms as related to antenna system.
• i) Directivity
• ii) Gain
• Iii) Effective Aperture
• iv) effective height
• v) Radiation Resistance
 Radiation pattern
• The energy radiated by an antenna is represented by
the Radiation pattern of the antenna.
• The radiation patterns can be Field patterns or power
patterns.
• Radiation Pattern in 3D:
• Radiation pattern of antenna are three dimensional
quantities involving the variation of field ‘E’ or power ‘P’
as a function of the spherical coordinates (r,𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛷).
• Two dimensional radiation pattern:
– Polar plot

– 3dB Plot
 Radiation Patterns
• Radiation pattern of antenna are three dimensional
quantities involving the variation of field ‘E’ or power ‘P’
(proportional to the field squared, E2) as a function of the
spherical coordinates 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛷.
• Fig 2(a) shows a three dimensional (3D) field pattern of a
directional antenna with pattern radius ‘r’ proportional to
the field intensity in the direction 𝜃 and 𝛷.
• The pattern has maximum radiation in ‘z’ at 𝜃 = 0o
• the Maximum radiation in any pattern is contained in the
main beam or lobe accompanied by radiation also in minor
lobes (side and back lobes)
Three dimensional (3D) Field pattern
Main lobe (major lobe): A major lobe is defined
as the radiating lobe containing the direction of
maximum radiation (z-direction with 𝜃 = 0°)
Side lobe: A minor lobe is any lobe except the
main lobe.
A side lobe is a radiation lobe in any direction
other than the major lobe
Back lobe: Back lobe is a minor lobe that is in a
direction opposite to that of the major lobe
Nulls: between the lobes are nulls, where the
field (E) goes to zero
In fig (2a), the radiation in any direction is
specified by the angle 𝜃 and 𝛷. this pattern is
symmetrical in 𝛷 and a function of only ‘𝜃′
 Two dimensional radiation pattern:
• Radiation pattern can be presented as
principal plane patterns
• The principal plane field and power pattern
can be represented in polar coordinator.
• The same pattern can be shown as the decibel
plot in rectangular coordinator as a
logarithmic scale
• Fig 2 (b) and (c) shows the principal plane field
and power pattern in polar coordinates
 Field pattern: En
• Taking a slice through the middle of the 3 D
pattern (fig 2a), results in the 2- dimensional
pattern. E field pattern:
• Fig (a)is a field pattern, proportional to the
electric field “E” in volts/mt with normalized
relative field En (𝜃) = 1 at 𝜃 = 0o
• Dividing the field component by its maximum
value, we obtain a normalized or relative field
pattern which is dimensional less number
with maximum value of unity.
• The normalized field pattern for the ‘ 𝜃′
component of electric field is given by Normalized field pattern
𝐸𝜃 (𝜃,Φ)
equation-1.This pattern is symmetrical in 𝛷 𝐸𝜃 (𝜃, 𝛷)𝑛 = 𝐸 -----(1)
𝜃 (𝜃,Φ) max
 Power pattern (Pn )
• Fig shows a power plot of a directional antenna in
polar coordinates. Power is proportional to E2. The
power plot is normalized with relative power
• Pattern is expressed in terms of power per unit
area (or pointing vector S (𝜃, 𝛷),
• With maximum value of unity. Pn = 1 at 𝜃 = 0o
• The normalized power pattern is
𝑆 (𝜃,𝛷)
Pn (𝜃, 𝛷) = (dimension less)
S 𝜃,𝛷 𝑚𝑎𝑥
• Where 𝑆 𝜃, 𝛷 = pointing vector
• = [𝐸𝜃2 𝜃, 𝛷 + 𝐸𝛷2 (𝜃, 𝛷)]/𝑍𝑜 w/mt2
• 𝑍𝑜 = Intrinsic Impedance of space = 376.7 ῼ ≅
377 ῼ
 Decibel plot:
• The power pattern of a directional antenna can also be representing in rectangular
coordinates as a logarithmic or decibel scale which is called decibel plot.

• Fig shows the decibel plot in rectangular coordinates which gives the minor lobe
levels in more detail. Decibel plots are useful for showing minor lobe levels
 RADIATION INTENSITY-U (𝛉, 𝚽)
• The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle is called
the radiation intensity U (watts per steradian or per square
degree).
• The normalized power pattern can also be expressed in terms of
this parameter as the ratio of the radiation intensity U(𝜃, 𝛷), as a
function of angle, to its maximum value.
𝐔(𝛉,𝚽) 𝐒 (𝛉,𝚽)
Pn (𝛉, 𝚽) = =
𝐔 𝛉,𝜱 𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝐒 𝛉,𝜱 𝒎𝒂𝒙
• the Poynting vector ‘S’ depends on the distance from the antenna
(varying inversely as the square of the distance),
• the radiation intensity U is independent of the distance,
 Definitions relate to patterns
• At distances that are large compared to the
size of the antenna and large compared the
wavelength, the shape of the field pattern is
independent of distance. ( Far Field)
• HPBW and beam width between first nulls
(FNBW) are important pattern parameters.
 Half power Beam width (HPBW)
• Beam width is the aperture angle where most of the
power is radiated.
• Half power Beam width is the angle in which relative
power is 50% of the peak power in the normalized
power pattern of the antenna
• Half power Beam width is measured between two
points on the major lobe of power pattern, where the
power is half of its maximum value.
• It is also called as 3 dB beam width as reduction of
power to half of its maximum is corresponds to – 3 dB
on a decibel plot.
• From field pattern, HPBW level occurs at those angles
1
𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛷 where 𝐸𝜃 (𝜃, 𝛷)𝑛 = 2 = 0.707 of its
peak value
• The unit for HPBW is radians or degrees
• HPBW = 2 𝜃
• In both the principal plane
 First null beam width (FNBW)
• The radiation pattern of the directional antenna has its main lobe/major lobe with
maximum radiation in z- direction (with 𝜃 = 0) and minor lobes (side and back) in other
direction
• Most of the radiation is contained in the main lobe. Between the minor side lobes are
nulls, where the field goes to zero, 𝐸𝑛(𝜃, 𝛷) = 0 or Pn = 0
• The angular distance between the first nulls, adjacent to the lobe is called the “First Null
Beam Width” FNBW
• To measure FNBW from radiation pattern, draw tangents as both sides starting from the
origin of the radiation pattern, tangential to the main beam. The angle between those
two tangents the unit of FNBW is radians or degrees
 Numerical on HPBW and FNBW

1. An antenna has a field pattern given by

E(𝜽) = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽 for 0 ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 𝟗𝟎𝒐

– find the half power beam width (HPBW)

• Solution:
• Given Electric field as
• E(𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 90𝑜
• at half power, the value of E(𝜃) = 0.707
• ∴ E(𝜃) = 0.707 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
• cos 𝜃 = 0.707 = 0.8404
• 𝜃 = cos −1 0.8408 = 32.77o
• 𝜃 = 32.77𝑜
• Half power beam width HPBW = 2𝜃 = 65.54𝑜 ~66𝑜
• HPBW ~ 𝟔𝟔𝟎
 Numerical-2
An antenna has a field pattern given by E(𝜽) =
𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝟐𝜽 for 0 ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 𝟗𝟎𝒐 . 𝐅ind
– a) the half power beam width (HPBW) and

– b) the beam width between first nulls (FNBW)

• E(𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 90𝑜 .

1
• 1. To Find HPBW: w.k.t At Half power points, E(𝜃) = = .707
√2

1
• Cos θ =
2 cos 𝜃

1
• 2θ = cos −1 ( )
√2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

1
• θ = ½ cos −1 ( ) ----(1)
√2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃′

• Interacting with 𝜃’ = 0° in a first guess, we get θ as

1
• θ = ½ cos −1 ( ) = 22. 5°
√2𝑐𝑜𝑠0°

• now select 𝜃’ = 22. 5° ----(2)

• θ = ½ cos-1 0.769 = 40.06/2 = 20.0 3° ----(3)

• Repeat the process until θ = 𝜃’ = 20.47 ≅20.5o

• hence HPBW = 2θ = 41o ---(4)

2. To Find FNBW:
• Between the nulls electric field is zero
• ∴ E(𝜃) =0 between the first nulls.
• 0= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝜃-------------(5)
• One option is set 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 0 or 𝜃= 90o . But we cannot
consider this option since at 𝜃= 90o radiation will be
zero and we cannot find FNBW.( no main lobe)
• if we consider
• cos 2θ= 0
• 2θ = cos 2 0 = 90o
• ∴ θ = first null beam width = 90o/2 =45o
• therefore FNBW = 45o
 Illustration of radian steredian

1steradian = (1radian)2
= (180 / π)2
= 3282.8064 square degrees
4π steradians = 3282.8064 x 4π
= 41,253 square degree
 Definition: Beam area: ῼ𝑨 or beam solid angle
• Definition-1:
• To find Beam area( ῼ𝑨 ) [or beam solid angle]

• Any practical antenna when radiates over an area less than the area of the sphere, we
calculate the beam area or beam solid angle ῼ𝑨 of an antenna, by integrating the
normalized power pattern over a sphere (4𝜋𝑆𝑟) gives beam area ῼ𝐴

• Beam area ῼ𝐴 = ‫׬ ׬‬4𝜋 𝑃𝑛 𝜃, 𝛷 𝑑ῼ 𝑆𝑟 ------(5)

𝜋 2𝜋
• Beam solid angle = Beam area ῼ𝐴 = ‫=𝛷׬ 𝜃׬‬0 𝑃𝑛 𝜃, 𝛷 sin 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝛷 --- (6)

• Where 𝑃𝑛 𝜃, 𝛷 is Normalized power

• dῼ = solid angle of sphere 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅𝜱 in Sr

 Beam Area (ῼ𝑨 ) or Beam solid angle:
• Definition-2 of beam area ῼ𝑨 : beam area ῼ𝐴 is the solid angle through which all
the power radiated by the antenna would stream if P (𝜃, 𝛷) maintained its maximum
value over ῼ𝐴 and was zero else where

• Thus the power radiated will be = P (𝜃, 𝛷) ῼ𝐴 watts

• The beam area of the antenna can also be described in terms of half power points of
the main lobe in the two principal planes. The approximate equation for beam area is

Beam area (ῼ𝐴 ~ 𝜃𝐻𝑃 𝛷𝐻𝑃 𝑆𝑟 −−−− −(7)

• Where 𝜃𝐻𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛷𝐻𝑃 are the half power beam width (HPBW) in two principal planes
(neglecting minor lobes)
 Definition: Beam efficiency (𝜺m)
• The (total) beam area ῼ𝐴 or (beam solid angle) consists of main beam
areaῼ𝑀 or (solid angle) Plus the minor lobe area (or solid angle) ῼ𝑚
• ∴ Beam solid angle or total beam area is
• ῼ𝐴 = ῼ𝑀 + ῼ 𝑚 -------(1)
• The ratio of the main beam area to the total beam area is called the
beam efficiency, 𝜺m
ῼ𝑴
• ∴ Beam efficiency = 𝜺m = (dimensionless)
ῼ𝑨
• Stray factor ‘𝜺m’ is the ratio of minor lobe area ῼm
• to the total beam area ῼ𝐴 thus
ῼ𝑚
• Stray factor 𝜺m = ---------(2)
ῼ𝐴
• It follows that 𝜺M+ 𝜺m = 1 ---------(3)
 **Derivations -Directivity ‘D’
• Q) define directivity ‘D’. Obtain the
relationship between directivity and beam
area to show that smaller the beam area
larger is the directivity
• Q) Obtain the relation between directivity and
beam width and also write approximate
equation for estimating Directivity
• Directivity ‘D’ and gain ‘G’ are the most important
parameters of an antenna
• Directivity ‘D’:
• The Directivity ‘D’ of antenna is equal to the ratio of
the maximum power density P (𝜃, 𝛷) max in
(watts/m2) to its average value over a sphere as
observed in the far field of an antenna
𝑷(𝜽,𝚽) 𝐦𝐚𝐱
Directivity ‘D’ = −−− − 1
𝑷(𝜽,𝚽) 𝒂𝒗
• It is a dimensionless ratio whose value is ≥ 1
 Derivation of Directivity from beam area ῼ𝑨
• To find the Directivity from beam area ῼ𝑨 :
• From the equation(1) of directivity ‘D’
• The average power density over a sphere is
𝟏 𝜱=𝟐𝝅 𝜽= 𝝅
• 𝑷(𝜽, 𝛷) av = ‫𝜽 𝑷 𝟎=𝜽׬ 𝟎=𝜱׬‬, 𝜱 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝒅𝜽𝒅𝜱
𝟒𝝅
--- (2)
• We know that 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝛷 is the solid angle in
steradians Sr subtended by a sphere, i.e dῼ =
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝛷 Sr
• Therefore eq (2) can be represented as
1
• 𝑃(𝜃, 𝛷) av = ‫ ׬ ׬‬P 𝜃, Φ dῼ (w 𝑆𝑟−1 )--------(3)
 Contn------
• Substitute eq (3) in eq (1), we get directivity as
( P 𝜃,Φ max )
• D= 1 rearrange the equation
4𝜋
‫ ׬ ׬‬P 𝜃,Φ dῼ
1
• D= 1
4𝜋
‫[׬ ׬‬P 𝜃,Φ /𝑃 𝜃,Φ max)] dῼ

• Where 𝑃𝑛 𝜃, Φ dῼ = [𝑃 𝜃, Φ /P(𝜃, Φ) max] is the

normalized power pattern of an antenna.
𝟒𝛑
• D= -----4
‫𝛉 𝐧𝐏 ׬ ׬‬,𝚽 𝐝ῼ
 Contn------
• w.k.t the Integral the normalized power pattern over a sphere
4𝜋 Sr gives the beam area ῼ𝐴 𝑖𝑛 𝑆𝑟
• 𝑖. 𝑒. ‫𝜃 𝑛𝑃 ׬ ׬‬, Φ dῼ = ῼ𝐴 Sr
𝟒𝝅
• Therefore Directivity D = ----------(5)
ῼ𝑨
• The eq (5) gives the relation between directivity ‘D’ and beam
area ῼ𝑨 .
• Thus Directivity ‘D’ is the ratio of sphere (4𝜋 Sr) to the
beam area ῼ𝐴 of the antenna
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆
• D= ----(6) (Exact equation of D)
𝐛𝐞𝐚𝐦 𝐚𝐫𝐞𝐚 ῼ𝑨
 Relation between directivity and Half power beam width
• Eq (5) gives exact equation for directivity.
• We can find approximate value of directivity if we know the Half power beam
width (HPBW) of an antenna in two principal planes
• Relation between Half power beam width and directivity
w.k.t. Beam area ῼ𝐴 ~ 𝜃𝐻𝑃 𝛷𝐻𝑃 . Substitute in eq (5) beam area in terms of HPBW
180
4𝜋𝑆𝑟 ( 𝜋 )2 .4𝜋 180 2
• D= = 𝑜 𝛷𝑜 1 Sr = 1 rad2 = ( ) 𝑠𝑞 𝑑𝑒𝑔
𝜃𝐻𝑃 𝛷𝐻𝑃 𝑆𝑟 𝜃𝐻𝑃 𝐻𝑃 𝜋
41,253 (𝑑𝑒𝑔)2
• D≅ 𝑜 𝛷𝑜 ------- (7) (neglecting minor probes)
𝜃𝐻𝑃 𝐻𝑃
180 2
• Where 41,253 (deg)2 is the number of square degrees in Sphere = . 4𝜋 sq
𝜋
degrees
𝑜
• 𝜃𝐻𝑃 = half –power beam width in one principal plane
𝑜
• 𝛷𝐻𝑃 = half –power beam width in other principal plane
• Since eq (7) neglecting minor lobes, a better
approximation for
40000 (𝑑𝑒𝑔)2
• Directivity is D = 𝑜 𝛷𝑜 --------(8)
𝜃𝐻𝑃 𝐻𝑃
Approximate Directivity

• Eq (8) gives approximate Directivity

• The value of ‘D’ always lies between 1 and ∞
 Gain of The Antenna
• Define Gain of Antenna.
• Give the relation between Directivity and
Gain
 Gain of an antenna (G)
• Directivity and gain are related by antenna efficiency or
efficiency factor ‘K’
𝑮
• Antenna Efficiency ‘K’ =
𝑫
∴ Gain = G = K. D ------ (1)
• In practice, G is always less than ‘D’
Efficiency factor of antenna is (0≤ k ≤ 1)
• Definition: Gain can be measured by comparing the
maximum power density of the “Antenna Under Test”
(AUT) with a reference antenna of known gain (such as a
short dipole)
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝐴𝑈𝑇)
• Gain = G = × 𝐺 (𝑟𝑒𝑓. 𝑎𝑛𝑡)--------(2)
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑛𝑎𝑡
• --- antenna gain in usually expressed in dB
 Definition: Radiation Efficiency of antenna (𝜺 r)
• Radiation Resistance of antenna (R r) of the
antenna is the ratio of power radiated by a
given antenna to the square of the current
applied to the antenna
• Rr = Prad / I2 ῼ
𝐼2
• Power loss = PLoss = RL
2
• Pin = Input power in watts = Prad + PLoss
 Antenna efficiency (𝜺 r):
• Antenna efficiency is defined as the ratio of total
power radiated by the antenna to the total power
fed to the antenna. Total power fed to the
antenna is sum of radiated power and the power
loss
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝐼2 𝑅𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
• 𝜀 = = =
𝑃𝑡 𝐼2 𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝑙 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 + 𝑃𝐿𝑑𝑠
𝑅𝑟
• 𝜀 = %
𝑅𝑟 +𝑅𝐿
 Numerical-Antenna efficiency
• Q) A transmitting antenna radiate 40 watts of
power at 50 GHz. Calculate the radiation
resistance of the antenna if it carries a
uniform current of 2 Amps. Also find the
efficiency of the antenna, if the loss resistance
is 1 ῼ
• Solution:-
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
• Radiation resistance = Rr =
𝐼2
40
• Rr = = 10 ῼ
(2)2
• Loss Resistance RL = 1 ῼ
𝑅𝑟
• Radiation efficiency of antenna = 𝜀 =
𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿
10
• = = 0.909
10+1
• 𝜀 = 90.9%
 Numerical-2
• The radiation resistance of Antenna is 72, and the loss
resistance is 8.Find the Directivity if the power gain is 16.
𝑅𝑟 72
• Sol: 𝜀 = Efficiency = = = 0.9
𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿 72+8
• 𝜀 = 90%
• w.k.t gain ‘G’ = KD where K is Efficiency constant
• G=𝜀𝐷
• 𝜀 = 0.9
𝐺
• D = = 16/0.9 = 17.78
𝜀
• Directivity = 17.78
Antenna Aperture (Ae) and aperture efficiency (𝜺𝒂𝒑 )

• Q) Define antenna aperture. Derive the

expression for aperture efficiency

Antenna Aperture-(Ae)
 Effective/Physical Aperture (Ap):
• physical aperture means, area of the mouth.
• If the antenna is a horn antenna, then the physical aperture=Ap = w x h mt2
• For a dipole, physical aperture means, cross sectional area of the antenna
wire perpendicular to the direction of propagation
• Therefore AP = l x d mt2
• Effective aperture (Ae) is the less than physical aperture
𝐴𝑒
• Aperture efficiency = 𝜀𝑎𝑝 =
𝐴𝑝
• It is the ratio of power delivered to the radiation resistance Rr to the power
delivered to the resistance of antenna Rr + RL
• Efficiency of antenna in terms of resistance is
𝑅𝑟
• 𝜀𝑎𝑝 =
𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿
 Effective aperture and Directivity
• Q) Derive the relationship between antenna
aperture, beam area
• Q) Develop the relation between the
effective aperture Ae and Directivity of an
antenna.
**Relation between Aperture- Beam area – Directivity:
• To derive relation between antenna aperture and beam area(also relation
between Directivity and effective aperture)
• Consider an antenna with effective aperture Ae, which radiates all of its
power in a conical pattern of beam area ῼ𝐴 𝑆𝑟 as shown in fig (2a)
• Assuming a uniform field Ea over the aperture.
• Let Ea be the electric field uniformly Illuminating its aperture
• Let ‘P’ be the power radiated by a directive antenna
• As We can write the equation for power radiated as
𝐸𝑎2
• Power radiated = P = . Ae watts ------(1)
𝑧𝑜
• Where Zo = intrinsic characteristic impedance in ῼ for free space (air/
vacuum)
• For free space (air/vacuum) Zo = 120 𝜋 = 377 ῼ
• If this power is radiated through a solid angle ῼ𝐴 to a point distance ‘r’
from the transmitter (in the far field),
• Assuming a uniform field ‘Er ’ at the receiver, then the power radiated is also
given as
𝐸𝑟2
• Power radiated = P = 𝑟 2 ῼ𝐴 watts –(2)
𝑍𝑜
• Where ῼ𝐴 --- Beam area in steradians
• Equating the eq (1) and (2), we find
𝐸 2𝑎 𝐸𝑟2
• Ae = 𝑟 2 ῼ𝐴 ------- (3)
𝑍𝑜 𝑍𝑜
• As simplification, we can reduce eq (2) as
• 𝐸 2𝑎 Ae = 𝐸𝑟2 𝑟 2 ῼ𝐴 ------(4)
• Since the received field strength is related to the transmitted field strength
according to the expression
𝑬𝒓 𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝒌 𝑨𝒆
𝜶 = ----------(5)
𝑬𝒂 𝝀𝒓 𝒓𝝀
• Where ‘k’ is a constant and for small angles sin 𝜃 = 𝜃
• The constant ‘k’ can be proved to be equal to the effective area ‘Ae’ From eq
(5), we have
𝐴𝑒
• 𝐸𝑟 = 𝐸𝑎 ------(6)
𝑟𝜆
𝐴2 𝑒
• Relation from (6) 𝐸𝑟2 = 2
𝐸𝑎 2 2 substitute in (4)
𝜆 𝑟
• 𝐸𝑎2 𝐴𝑒 = 𝐸𝑟2 𝑟 2 ῼ𝐴
2
2 𝐴 𝑒 2
• 𝐸𝑎2 𝐴𝑒 = 𝐸𝑎 2 2 𝑟 ῼ𝐴
𝜆 𝑟
• Cancelling similar terms and simplifying, we get
• 𝜆2 = 𝐴𝑒 ῼ𝐴 (𝑚𝑡)2 --------(7)
• Aperture – Beam area ῼ𝑨 relation
• Eq (7) gives antenna effective aperture, Beam area ῼ𝐴 relation
• ῼ𝐴 - Beam area, Sr
• λ – wave length, mt
• Ae – effective aperture Ae of antenna, (mt)2
• Thus if Ae is known, we can determine ῼA at a given wave length
• To find out directivity from aperture, consider the equation
4𝜋
• For directivity ‘D’ = ------ (8)
ῼ𝐴
• From eq (7)
• ῼ𝐴 = Beam area of antenna
𝜆2
• ῼ𝐴 = ------ (9)
𝐴𝑒
• Substitute eq (9) in (8)
4𝜋 4𝜋𝐴𝑒
• Directivity ‘D’ = 𝜆2
= ----- (10)
𝜆2
𝐴𝑒
4𝜋𝐴𝑒
• D= ----------Directivity from aperture
𝜆2
• All antennas have an effective aperture which can be calculated or measured
𝐷𝜆2 𝜆2
• For an idealized isotropic antenna D = 1, the effective aperture Ae = 4𝜋 = 4𝜋 = 0.0796 𝜆2 𝑚𝑡 2
• All lossless antennas must have an effective aperture equal to or greater than this

• By reciprocity, the effective aperture of an antenna is the same for receiving and transmitting
• **Three important expressions for the Directivity ‘D’ are

𝑷 𝜽, 𝜱 𝒎𝒂𝒙
• D= 𝑷 𝜽, 𝜱 𝒂𝒗
(Directivity from radiation pattern

𝟒𝝅
• D = ῼ Directivity from pattern
𝑨

𝟒𝝅𝑨𝒆
• D= 𝝀𝟐
Directivity from aperture

• Directivity is dimensionless number

Effective height (he) or effective length
• The effective height (he) in mts, of an antenna is another
parameter related to the aperture. [Effective height
representing an antenna which has only length as its
dimension, where as effective aperture represents an
antenna, which has an area as its dimension].
• Effective aperture ‘Ae’ is defined for two dimensions and
effective height ‘he’ is defined for one dimension.
• Ex for two dimensional antenna: parabolic reflector/dish
antenna horn etc
• Example for one dimensional antenna where effective
height ‘he’ can be measured is dipole (in one dimension
antenna we neglect depth and width of antenna)
• we consider power in case of two dimension and voltage
received with ‘he’
• The product of the effective height and the
incident electric field E (v/mt) of the same
polarization gives the voltage ‘v’ induced in the
antenna
• Therefore voltage induced ‘V’ = he E ----(1)
• Rearranging the eq we get effective height of an
antenna effective height of an antenna is defined
as the ratio of induced voltage in the antenna to
the incident electric field ‘E’
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
• Effective height ‘he’ = V/E = mts
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
• It is measured in mts
 Contn---
• It can also be measured in terms of induced
maximum current Io , average current Iav and
physical height as ‘hp’ as
𝐼𝑎𝑣
• he = effective height = . hp mts ------(2)
𝐼𝑜
 The Radio communication link
• **Q: state and prove Friis transmission formula
• The usefulness of antenna aperture concept is
explained using Friis transmission formula. The radio
communication link is shown in fig2.14.
• The formula gives the power received over a radio
communication link
• Assuming lossless, matched antenna, let the
transmitter feed a power ‘𝑃𝑡’ to a transmitting
antenna of effective aperture 𝐴𝑒𝑡.
• At a distance ‘r’ a receiving antenna of effective
aperture ‘Ae’ intercepts some of the power radiated
by the transmitting antenna and delivers it to the
receiver
• Assuming that power P is transmitted by an isotropic
antenna. At distance r from the antenna, the power density
(power per unit area) available at the receiving antenna is
𝑃𝑡
• Sr = w/mt2 -----------(1)
4𝜋𝑟 2
• Sr ---power density at a distance ‘r’ from isotropic
antennas.
• If a directive antenna with a gain Gt is used for transmitting
the power, then
• The power density at the receiving antenna is
𝑃𝑡∗Gt
• Sr = 2
2 w/mt ------(2)
4𝜋𝑟
• The power per unit area available at the receiving antenna
Will be increased due to antenna gain Gt
• Now this power is intercepted by a receiving antenna of
effective aperture’ Aer’
• Therefore Power collected received by the lossless
receiving antenna of effective aperture Aer is
• Pr = power density (Sr) x Aer
𝑃𝑡.𝐺𝑡.𝐴𝑒𝑟
• Power received = Pr = (w) --------(3)
4𝜋𝑟 2
• The gain of the transmitting antenna ‘Gt’ can be expressed
in term of effective area of transmitter antenna ‘Aet’, as
4𝜋𝐴𝑒𝑡
• Gt = ------(4)
𝜆2
• Substitute eq (4) in (3) to find Friis transmission
formula
𝑃𝑡.𝐴𝑒𝑟.4𝜋𝐴𝑒𝑡 𝑃𝑡.𝐴𝑒𝑟.𝐴𝑒𝑡
• Pr = = watts -----(5)
4𝜋𝑟 2 𝜆2 𝑟 2 𝜆2
𝑃𝑟 𝐴𝑒𝑟.𝐴𝑒𝑡
• = 2 2 (dimensionless) ------(6)
𝑃𝑡 𝑟 𝜆
• Eq (6) gives the Friis transmission formula
• Where Pt ---- transmitted power (w)
• Pr --- received power (w)
• Aet – effective aperture of transmitting antenna , mt2
• Aer -- effective aperture of receiving antenna , mt2
• r - distance between antenna, mt
• λ = wave length of operation, mt
 Numerical
• Q: A radio link has a) 15 w transmitter
connected to an antenna of 2.5 m2 effective
aperture at 5 GHz. The receiving antenna has
an effective aperture of 0.5 m2 and is located
at a 15 km line of sight distance from the
transmitting antenna.
• Assuming loss less, matched antenna, find
power delivered to the receiver.
• Sol:-
• Pt = 15 w Aet = 2.5 m2
• Aer = 0.5 m2
• r = 15 km
• Power received/Power delivered to the receiver is
𝑃𝑡.𝐴𝑒𝑟.𝐴𝑒𝑡
• Pr =
𝑟 2 𝜆2
15 × 0.5 (2.5)
• =
15 × 103 2 (0.06)2
• Pr = 23𝜇𝑤
 Pr in terms of Gt.Gr
• Power received ‘Pr’ can be expressed in terms of
Gain Gt.Gr of transmitting and receiving antenna.
4𝜋𝐴𝑒𝑡 𝐺𝑡𝜆2 𝐺𝑟 𝜆2
• W.k.t Gt = ; Aet = and Aer =
𝜆2 4𝜋 4𝜋
substitute in eq (6)
𝑃𝑟 𝐺𝑡𝜆2 𝐺𝑟𝜆2 1 𝐺𝑡𝐺𝑟 𝜆2
• = . . 2 2 = ----(7)
𝑃𝑡 4𝜋 4𝜋 𝑟 𝜆 (4𝜋)2 𝜆2
 Numerical-2
• Q:The power received by the receiving
antenna at a distance of 0.5 km over a free
space at a frequency of 1GHz is 10.8 mw.
Calculate the power transmitted by the
antenna if gain of transmitting and receiving
antenna is 25dB and 20dB respectively
• Given: Pr = 10.8 mw; f = 1GHz; λ = C/F = 0.3 mt
• r = 0.5 km; Pt = ?
• Gt = 25 dB; Gr = 20dB
20Τ
• 25 dB = 10logGt Gr = 10 10 = 100
25Τ
• Gt = 10 10 = 316
• Gt = 316; Gr = 100
• Therefore Power transmitted is
𝑃𝑟 𝐺𝑡𝐺𝑟 𝜆2 𝑃𝑟(4𝜋)2 𝑟 2
• = 2 2 ; Pt =
𝑃𝑡 (4𝜋) 𝜆 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 𝜆2
10.8×10−8 ×10 (4𝜋)2 (0.5 × 103 )2
• Pt =
316 100 (0.3)2
• = 149.9 ≅ 150 𝑤
 Numerical-3
• Q3: The effective aperture of transmitting and
receiving antenna in a communication system
are 8 𝜆2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 12 𝜆2 respectively with a
separation of 1.5 km between them. the𝐸𝑀
wave is travelling with a frequency of 6 MHz
and the total in put power is 25 kw. Find the
power received by the receiving antenna
• Sol:-
• Aet = 8 𝜆2 Aer = 12𝜆2
3 × 108
• r = 1.5 km; f = 6 MHz; λ = C/f = = 50
6 × 106
• Pt = 25 kw Pr = ?
𝑃𝑡 𝐴𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑒𝑡 25 x 103 x 12𝜆2 x 8𝜆2 2
• Pr = = = 1.066𝜆
𝑟 2 𝜆2 2 2
(1.3𝑥10^3) 𝜆
• Pr = 1.066(50)2 = 2.667Kw
 Duality of antenna

https://www.slideshare.net/jpratt59/antenna-basics
Derivations: Effective aperture ‘Ae’ and directivity of a short
dipole antenna
• Q: Show that maximum effective aperture of
short dipole is 0.119 𝜆2
• Q: show that maximum effective
aperture(Aem) of short dipole is equal to
0.119 𝜆2 or D = 1.5
 Effective aperture ‘Ae’ and directivity of a short dipole antenna
• The short dipole antenna is
one that is short when
compared to a wavelength ‘λ’
at the operating
frequency.[less than λ/10
long]
• The short dipole antenna
consists of two co-linear
conductors that are placed
end to end, but with a small
gap between them for the
• Derivation for maximum effective aperture (Aem )and Directivity of short dipole antenna :

• Fig (b ) shows a short dipole with uniform current induced by the incident wave.

• The current at the dipole is assumed constant and in the same phase over its entire
length.

• The terminating resistance is equal to the dipole radiation resistance Rr

• Antenna loss resistance RL is zero

• The incident wave is assumed to be linearly polarized with ‘E’ in the Y-direction

• Power delivered to the load (with RI = Rr) is

𝑉2
• P = power delivered = w ----(1)
4 𝑅𝑟

• V – Induced voltage
• In terms of effective aperture the same power is given by
• P = S Ae ---------(2)
• Where Ae --- effective aperture of the antennas
• S --- pointing vector (power density in w/mt2 ) of the incident wave
at dipole
• Equating eq (1) and (2)
𝑉2
• = S Ae
4𝑅𝑟
• The maximum effective aperture is
𝑉2
• Aem = mt2 -------(3)
4𝑆𝑅𝑟
• Where the effective value of induced voltage ‘V’ can be given in
terms of length ‘l’ of dipole and electric field intensity ‘E’ as
• Effective induce voltage = V = El --------(4)
• Effective induced voltage is the product of effective field intensity
‘E’ at the dipole and its length ‘l’
• W.k.t The radiation resistance Rr of a short dipole of length ‘l’ with
uniform current is
80 𝜋2 𝑙 2 𝐼𝑎𝑣 2
• Rr = ( )
𝜆2 𝐼𝑜
𝐼𝑎𝑣 2 𝑙 2
• = 790 ( ) ( ) ῼ ------ (5)
𝐼𝑜 𝜆
• Where λ = wave length
• 𝐼𝑎𝑣 = 𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 and 𝐼𝑂 = terminal current
• The power density or pointing vector ‘S’ of the incident wave at the
dipole is related to the field intensity ‘E’ as
𝐸2
• S= w/mt2 ------(6)
𝑍𝑜
• Zo --- Z = intrinsic impedance of the media
• Substituting (4), (5), (6) in (3) assuming Iav = Io for maximum effective
aperture of a short dipole and for free space medium Z = 120 𝜋ῼ weight
 𝐸 2 𝑙 2 𝜆2 𝑧 120 𝜋 𝜆2
• ∴ Aem = 2 =
4 𝐸 790 𝑙 2 320 𝜋2
3 2
• Aem = 𝜆 = 0.119 𝜆2 ----- (7)
8𝜋
• Maximum effective aperture ( Aem) of a short dipole is
• Aem = 0.119 𝜆2
• Directivity of short dipole:
4𝜋𝐴𝑒 4𝜋 (0.119 𝜆2 )
• D= = = 1.5 ----(8)
𝜆2 𝜆2
• D = 1.5 for a short dipole
• Proved
 ***Derivation: Effective aperture (Ae )and
Directivity(D) of a linear λ/2 dipole
Q: with a neat diagram, obtain an
expression for maximum effective
aperture Aem of a λ/2 dipole
Q: Prove that max effective
aperture for a λ/2 antenna is 0.13
𝜆2
• A dipole with length l = λ/2 which is called a half wave dipole
• A plane wave is incident as the antenna in ‘x’ direction
• The wave is linearly polarized with ‘E’ in the Y-direction
• The infinite small voltage ‘dv’ induced by the incident wave in
an infinitesimal element of length ‘dY’ as the antenna is
2𝜋𝑦
• dv = Edy cos ------ (1)
𝜆
• (Infinitesimal Induced voltage)
• It is assumed that the infinitesimal voltage induced is
proportional to the current at the infinitesimal element as
given by the current distribution eq (1)
• [we can find effective aperture Ae and Directivity]
• The total induced voltage in ‘V’, it is given by integrating eq (1) over the length
of the antenna
𝜆ൗ 2𝜋𝑦
• V = 2 ‫ 𝐸 𝑜׬‬cos(
4
) 𝑑𝑦 ----(2)
𝜆
2𝜋𝑦
sin( 𝜆 ) 𝜆ൗ 𝜆 2𝜋𝑦 𝜆ൗ4
• = 2 E [ 2𝜋 4
] 𝑜 = 2E [sin ]
( ൗ𝜆 ) 2𝜋 𝜆 𝑜
𝜆 2𝜋 𝜆 𝐸𝜆
• = 2E [sin - sin(0)] = [sin( 𝜋/2) − sin(𝑜)]
2𝜋 𝜆 4 𝜋
𝐸𝜆 𝐸𝜆
• V = [ 1 -0] = ------(3)
𝜋 𝜋
𝜆
• The value of the radiations resistance ‘Rr’ of the linear dipole will be taken
2
as 73ῼ
• The terminating resistance RT is assumed equal to Rr
• RT = Rr ------(4) (maximum power transfer)
• Under this condition the maximum effective aperture of antenna is
𝑉2
• Aemax = ------ (5)
4𝑅𝑟𝑆
• In terms of Electricfield, the pointing vector ‘S’
𝐸2
• Is = S w/mt2 ----(6)
𝑍𝑜
• Zo -- intrinsic free space impedance = 120 𝜋ῼ
𝐸𝜆 𝐸2
• Substitute (3) and (6) in (5) i. e.; V = ; Rr = 73 ῼ S = ;
𝜋 𝑍𝑜
• Zo = 120 𝜋
𝑉2
• Aem =
4 𝑆𝑅𝑟
𝐸 2 𝜆2 120 𝜋 120 𝜋 30
• = = 𝜆2 ( ) = 𝜆2 proved
𝜋2 ×4 𝐸 2 .73 292𝜋2 73𝜋

• Aem = 0.13 𝜆2 ---(7)

• Equation (7) gives max effective aperture of 𝝀/𝟐 dipole antenna

 ii) Directivity of λ/2 dipole antenna

• w.k.t Directivity
4𝜋𝐴𝑒
• D= ; substitute Ae = 0.13λ/2
𝜆2
4𝜋 ×0.13 𝜆2
• D= = 1.63
𝜆2
• D = 1.63 for a half wave (λ/2) dipole
 NUMERICAL
• Q: an antenna of gain ‘G’ radiates ‘wt’ watts
of power.Show that the free space intensity
‘E’ at a distance of ‘r’ meters is given by
√30 𝑊𝑡.𝐺
E= V/mt
𝑟
• Sol;- pointing vector ‘S’ or power density in W/mt2 is
𝐸2
• S= ----(1)
𝑍
• In terms of effective aperture, power radiated is
• Pr = Aer S
𝑃𝑟
• Or S = -----(2)
𝐴𝑒𝑟
• Equate (1) and (2)

𝐸2 𝑃𝑟
• =
𝑍 𝐴𝑒𝑟
𝑍.𝑃𝑟
• E = electrical field intensity V/m =
𝐴𝑒𝑟
• 𝑍𝑜 = Z = 120 𝜋ῼ for free space
𝑃𝑟.120𝜋
• E= ----- (3)
𝐴𝑒𝑟
• From Friis transmission formula, here Pt = Wt watts Transmitted
power
𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐴𝑒𝑟
• Pr =
4𝜋𝑟 2
𝑊𝑡 𝐺𝑡.𝐴𝑒𝑟
• Pr = -------(4)
4𝜋𝑟 2
• Substitute eq (4) in (3)
𝑊𝑡 𝐺𝑡𝐴𝑒𝑟.120𝜋
• E= = 30 𝑊𝑡. 𝐺/ 𝑟 2 V/m
4𝜋𝑟 2 (𝐴𝑒𝑟)
30 𝑊𝑡.𝐺
• E= V/ mt proved
𝑟
Directivity from radiation intensity (U): Numerical

• Q: Find the directivity of the system if the

radiation intensity is
• U = Um sin 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛷 for 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋
• 0<𝛷≤𝜋
 4𝜋
• Sol: - Directivity D = where ῼ𝐴 = Beam area in Sr
ῼ𝐴
• We have U = Um sin 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛷 ------(1)
• Beam area ῼ𝐴 = ‫𝜃 𝑛𝑃 ׬ ׬‬, 𝛷 𝑑ῼ
𝑈 𝜃,𝛷
• We have 𝑃𝑛 𝜃, 𝛷 = normalized power =
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜃,𝛷
𝑈
• 𝑃𝑛 𝜃, 𝛷 = = sin 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛷
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
• Therefore
𝜋 𝜋
• ῼ𝐴 = ‫=𝜃׬‬0 ‫=𝛷׬‬0 sin 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛷 dῼ
𝜋 𝜋
• = ‫=𝜃׬‬0 ‫=𝛷׬‬0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛷 d𝜃d𝛷
𝜋 𝜋
• = ‫=𝜃׬‬0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃𝑑𝜃 ‫=𝛷׬‬0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛷𝑑𝛷
2
 Contnd--
𝜋 (1− cos 2𝜃) 𝜋 (1− cos 2𝛷)
• ῼ𝐴 =‫׬‬0 𝑑𝜃 ‫׬‬0 𝑑𝛷
2 2
1
• = [(𝜃)𝜋0 - (𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃/2)𝜋0 ] [(𝛷)𝜋0 - (𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝛷/2)𝜋0 ]
4
1 𝜋2 𝜋2
• = [(𝜋 − 0) × (𝜋 – 0)] = = Sr
4 4 4
4𝜋 4𝜋∗4
• Directivity = = 2 = 16/ 𝜋 = 5.09
ῼ𝐴 𝜋
• ∴D = 5.09
ii) approximate method
41,253
• D≅ 𝑜 𝛷𝑜 sq degree (By neglecting minor
𝜃𝐻𝑃 𝐻𝑃
lobes)
40,000
• D≅ 𝑜 𝛷𝑜 sq degree (By considering minor
𝜃𝐻𝑃 𝐻𝑃
lobes)
• W.k.t U = Um sin 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛷
• 𝜃 00 30o 45o 60o 90o
1 √3
• sin 𝜃 0 ½ 1
√2 2
• 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 0 ¼ ½ ¾ 1
• 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛷 0 ¼ ½ ¾ 1

• At halfpower;
• sin 𝜃 = 30o
• HPBW = 𝜃𝐻𝑃 = 2 𝜃 2x30= 60o

• From the table:𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝛷 = 45𝑜

• 2𝛷 = 90o =𝛷𝐻𝑃
41,253 41,253
• D= 𝜃𝑜 𝑜 = = 7.69
𝐻𝑃 𝛷𝐻𝑃 60𝑥90
 NUMERICAL-2
• Q:Calculate directivity of the source with the
pattern U = Um sin 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝛷 Using i) exact
method and i) approximate method take
• 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋 and 0 ≤ 𝛷 ≤ 𝜋
• Sol:- Exact method:
3 4𝜋
• We have U = Um sin 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝛷; D = ------(1)
ῼ𝐴
𝑈
• Pn = normalized power = = sin 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝛷 ---(2)
𝑈𝑚
• Beam area ῼ𝐴 = ‫𝜃 𝑛𝑃 ׬ ׬‬, 𝛷 𝑑ῼ where dῼ
= solid angle = sin 𝜃d𝜃𝑑𝛷
𝜋 𝜋
• ‫=𝜃׬‬0 ‫=𝛷׬‬0 𝑃𝑛 𝜃, 𝛷 sin 𝜃d𝜃𝑑𝛷 ------(3)
𝜋 𝜋
• ῼ𝐴 = ‫=𝜃׬‬0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑑𝜃 ‫=𝛷׬‬0 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝛷𝑑𝛷
 𝜋 𝜋
• ῼ𝐴 = ‫=𝜃׬‬0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝜃 ‫=𝛷׬‬0 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝛷 𝑑𝛷
2
𝜋 (1− cos 2𝜃) 𝜋1
• = ‫׬‬0 d𝜃 ‫׬‬0 (3 sin 𝛷 − sin 3𝛷)𝑑𝛷
2 4
1 sin 2𝜃 𝜋 cos 3𝛷 𝜋
• = [(𝜃 − )0 × (−3 cos 𝛷 + )0
8 2 3
1 1 1
• = [((𝜋) ×{3-(-3) + (- -( )}]
8 3 3
1 2 2𝜋
• ῼ𝐴 = (𝜋) 6 − = 𝑆𝑟 −−− −(4)
8 3 3
4𝜋 4𝜋
• Therefore Directivity ‘D’ = = × 3 = 6
ῼ𝐴 2𝜋
• D = 6 --------(5)
 Contn---
• ii) approximate method
41,253
• D≅ 𝑜 𝛷𝑜 sq degree (By neglecting minor
𝜃𝐻𝑃 𝐻𝑃
lobes)
40,000
• D≅ 𝑜 𝛷𝑜 sq degree (By considering minor
𝜃𝐻𝑃 𝐻𝑃
lobes)
 ANTENNA FIELD ZONES
• The fields around an antenna may be divided into two principal regions,

one near the antenna is called the near field or Fresnel zone and one at a

large distance is called the far field or Fraunhofer zone.

• The boundary between the two may be arbitrarily taken to
be at a radius: R=2L2/λ
• L = maximum dimension of the antenna, m
• λ = wavelength, m
• In the far or Fraunhofer region, all power flow is directed
radially outward.
• In the far field the shape of the field pattern is
independent of the distance.
• In the near or Fresnel region, the longitudinal component
of the electric field may be significant and power flow is
not entirely radial.
• In the near field, the shape of the field pattern depends, in
general, on the distance.
 Near Field (Fresnel’s Region)
• Power flow is not entirely radiated.
• Shape of field pattern is dependent of radial distance.
• There is an energy reciprocating b/n antenna and space.
• Reactive energy.
Far field (Fraunhofer’s region)
• Real power flow is directed radially outwork.
• Shape of the field pattern is independent of distance.
• The outward power flow represents radiated energy.
Thank you