EC1604

ANTENNAS AND MICROWAVE

ENGINEERING
 UNIT I
INTRODUCTION TO MICROWAVE SYSTEMS AND
ANTENNAS
 Microwave frequency bands  Antenna Noise Temperature and G/T
 Physical concept of radiation  Impedance matching
 Near- and far-field regions  Friis transmission equation
 Fields and Power Radiated by an  Link budget and link margin
Antenna  Noise Characterization of a microwave
 Antenna Pattern Characteristics receiver.
 Antenna Gain and Efficiency
 Aperture Efficiency and Effective
Area

2
 Microwave frequency bands
 The field of radio frequency (RF) and microwave engineering generally covers
the behavior of alternating current signals with frequencies in the range of 100
MHz (1 MHz = 106 Hz) to 1000 GHz (1 GHz = 109 Hz).

 RF frequencies range from very high frequency (VHF) (30–300 MHz) to ultra
high frequency (UHF) (300–3000 MHz).

 The term Microwave is typically used for frequencies between 3 and 300 GHz,
with a corresponding electrical wavelength between λ = c/ f = 10 cm and λ = 1
mm, respectively.

 Signals with wavelengths on the order of millimeters are often referred to as

millimeter waves.

3
Electromagnetic Spectrum

Electromagnetic Spectrum

4
Typical Frequencies

5
Microwave frequency bands

6
 Antenna - Definition
 IEEE Standard Definitions of Terms for Antennas (IEEE Std 145–1983) defines
the antenna or aerial as “a means for radiating or receiving radio waves.”
 An antenna(aerial) is considered as a region of transition between a transmission
line and space.
 Antennas radiate/couple/concentrate/direct electromagnetic energy in the
desired/assigned direction.
 An antenna may be isotropic(also called omni-directional/non-directional) or
anisotropic(directional).
 A radio antenna may be defined as the structure associated with the region of
transition between a guided wave and a free-space wave, or vice versa.
 An antenna converts electrons to photons or vice versa.

7
 Antenna - Definition

Radio or wireless communication link with transmitting and receiving antenna. The
receiving antenna is remote from the transmitting antenna so that the spherical wave
radiated by the transmitting antenna arrives as an essentially plane wave at the
receiving antenna.

8
 Antenna - Definition
 The transmitting antenna is a region of transition from a guided wave on a
transmission line to a free-space wave.
 The receiving antenna is a region of transition from a space wave to a guided wave
on a transmission line.
 Thus, an antenna is a transition device or transducer between a guided wave
and a free-space wave or vice-versa.
 The antenna is a device which interfaces a circuit and space.

9
 Basic Radiation Equation
𝐼 = 𝑞𝑣

𝑑𝐼 𝑑𝑣
𝐿 = 𝐿 𝑞𝑙 ሶ = 𝑄 𝑣ሶ
⇒ 𝐼𝐿
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
where
 L = Length of the current element(m)
 𝐼 ሶ = time-changing current (A s-1)
 Q = Charge(C)
 𝑣ሶ = time change of velocity which equals the acceleration of the charge (m s-2)

 This equation states that to create radiation, there must be a time-varying current
or an acceleration (or deceleration) of charge.

10
 Wire configurations for radiation
1. If a charge is not moving, current is not created and there is no radiation.
2. If charge is moving with a uniform velocity:
a. There is no radiation if the wire is straight, and infinite in extent.
b. There is radiation if the wire is curved, bent, discontinuous, terminated, or
truncated
3. If charge is oscillating in a time-motion, it radiates even if the wire is straight

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Wire configurations for radiation

12
Wire configurations for radiation

13
 Fields from Oscillating Dipole
 Although a charge moving with uniform velocity along a straight conductor does
not radiate, a charge moving back and forth in simple harmonic motion along the
conductor is subject to acceleration (and deceleration) and radiates.

 To illustrate radiation from a dipole antenna, let us consider that the dipole has two
equal charges of opposite sign oscillating up and down in harmonic motion with
instantaneous separation 𝑙 while focusing attention on the electric field.

 For clarity only a single electric field line is shown.

14
 Fields from Oscillating Dipole
a) At time 𝑡 = 0, the charges are at maximum separation and undergo maximum
acceleration 𝑣ሶ as they reverse direction. At this time instant, current 𝐼 is zero.
b) At an 1Τ8 − period later, the charges are moving toward each other
c) At an 1Τ4 − period, they pass the midpoint. As this happens, the field lines
detach and new ones of opposite signs are formed. At this time, the equivalent
current 𝐼 is maximum and the charge acceleration is zero.
d) As time progresses to a 1Τ2 − period, the fields continue to move out as in
figure(d) and figure(e).

15
Fields from Oscillating Dipole
Oscillating electric dipole consisting of
two electric charges in simple harmonic
motion, showing propagation of an electric
field line and its detachment(radiation)
from the dipole. Arrows next to the dipole
indicate current (𝐼) direction.
a) Electric field line or wave front with
charges at ends of dipole
b) Wave front moves as charges go in
c) As charges pass the midpoint, the
field lines cut loose
d) Wave fronts moving out

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Fields from Oscillating Dipole

(d) and (e) : Wave fronts moving out

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 Antenna Field Zones
 The fields around an antenna may be divided into two principal regions, one near
the antenna called the near field or Fresnel zone and one at a large distance called
the far field or Fraunhofer zone.

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 Antenna Field Zones
 The boundary between near field and far field may be arbitrarily taken to be at a
radius
2𝐿2
𝑅=
𝜆
 where L = maximum dimension of the antenna, m
 𝜆 = wavelength, m
 In the far or Fraunhofer region, the measurable field components are transverse
to the radial direction from the antenna and all the power flow is directed radially
outward. In the far field, the shape of the field pattern is independent of the
distance.
 In the near or Fresnel region, the longitudinal component of the electric field
may be significant and power flow is not entirely radial. In the near field, the
shape of the field pattern depends, in general on the distance.

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 Antenna Field Zones

Energy flow near a dipole antenna (a) and the radiation field pattern (b). The radius
vector is proportional to the field radiated in that direction.

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 Antenna Field Zones
 Enclosing the antenna in an imaginary sphere, it is as though the region near the
poles of the sphere acts as a reflector.
 On the other hand, the waves expanding perpendicular to the dipole in the
equatorial region of the sphere result in power leakage through the sphere as if
partially transparent in this region.
 This results in reciprocating (oscillating) energy flow near the antenna
accompanied by outward flow in the equatorial region.
 The outward flow accounts for the power radiated from the antenna, while the
reciprocating energy represents reactive power that is trapped near the antenna
like in a resonator.
𝜆
 For a dipole, the energy is stored at one instant of time in the electric-field,
2 1
mainly near the ends of the antenna or maximum charge regions, while a - period
2
later the energy is stored in the magnetic field mainly near the center of the
antenna or maximum current region.

21
Antenna parameters

22
 Radiation Pattern
 An antenna radiation pattern or antenna pattern is defined as “a mathematical
function or a graphical representation of the radiation properties of the antenna
as a function of space coordinates. In most cases, the radiation pattern is
determined in the far-field region and is represented as a function of the
directional coordinates. Radiation properties include power flux density, radiation
intensity, field strength, directivity, phase or polarization.”
 A trace of the received electric (magnetic) field at a constant radius is called the
amplitude field pattern.
 On the other hand, a graph of the spatial variation of the power density along a
constant radius is called an amplitude power pattern.
 Often the field and power patterns are normalized with respect to their maximum
value, yielding normalized field and power patterns. Also, the power pattern is
usually plotted on a logarithmic scale or more commonly in decibels (dB).

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 Radiation Pattern
 Radiation Patterns are three dimensional quantities involving the variation of field
or power (proportional to the field squared) as a function of the spherical co-
ordinates 𝜃 and 𝜙.

For an antenna, the

 field pattern (in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the magnitude of the
electric or magnetic field as a function of the angular space.

 power pattern (in linear scale) typically represents a plot of the square of the
magnitude of the electric or magnetic field as a function of the angular space.

 power pattern (in dB) represents the magnitude of the electric or magnetic field, in
decibels, as a function of the angular space.

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Radiation Pattern

25
Radiation Pattern

26
 Radiation Pattern
To find the points where the pattern achieves its half-power (−3 dB points), relative
to the maximum value of the pattern, you set the value of the

 field pattern at 0.707 value of its maximum

 power pattern (in a linear scale) at its 0.5 value of its maximum

 power pattern (in dB) at −3 dB value of its maximum

27
 Radiation Pattern
 Normalized Field Pattern
𝐸𝜃 (𝜃, 𝜙)
𝐸𝜃 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑛 = (𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠)
𝐸𝜃 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑚𝑎𝑥
 Normalized Power Pattern
𝑆(𝜃, 𝜙)
𝑃𝑛 (𝜃, 𝜙) = (𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠)
𝑆 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐸𝜃2 (𝜃,𝜙)+𝐸𝜙
2
(𝜃,𝜙)
where 𝑆(𝜃, 𝜙) = Poynting vector = 𝑊𝑚−2
𝑍0
𝑍0 = Intrinsic Impedance of free space = 376.7 Ω

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 Radiation Pattern Lobes
 A radiation lobe is a “portion of the radiation pattern bounded by regions of
relatively weak radiation intensity.”

 A major lobe (also called main beam) is defined as “the radiation lobe containing
the direction of maximum radiation.”

 A minor lobe is any lobe except a major lobe. Minor lobes usually represent
radiation in undesired directions, and they should be minimized.

 A side lobe is “a radiation lobe in any direction other than the intended lobe.” Side
lobes are normally the largest of the minor lobes.

 A back lobe is “a radiation lobe whose axis makes an angle of approximately 1800
with respect to the beam of an antenna.”
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 Radiation Pattern Lobes

Radiation lobes and beamwidths of an antenna amplitude pattern in polar form

30
 Radiation Pattern Lobes

Linear plot of power pattern and its associated lobes and beamwidths

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 Beamwidth
 The beamwidth of a pattern is defined as the angular separation between two
identical points on opposite side of the pattern maximum.
 Half-Power Beamwidth (HPBW) is defined by IEEE as: “In a plane containing
the direction of the maximum of a beam, the angle between the two directions in
which the radiation intensity is one-half value of the beam.”
 HPBW⇒ Angular measurement between the directions in which the antenna is
radiating half of the maximum power.
 The angular separation between the first nulls of the pattern (angular measurement
between the directions in which the antenna is radiating no power) is referred to
as the First-Null Beamwidth (FNBW).
 The beamwidth of an antenna is a very important figure of merit and often is used
as a trade-off between it and the side lobe level; that is, as the beamwidth
decreases, the side lobe increases and vice versa.

32
 Beamwidth
 In addition, the beamwidth of the antenna is also used to describe the resolution
capabilities of the antenna to distinguish between two adjacent radiating sources
or radar targets.
 The most common resolution criterion states that the resolution capability of an
antenna to distinguish between two sources is equal to half the first-null
beamwidth (FNBW/2), which is usually used to approximate the half-power
beamwidth (HPBW).
 That is, two sources separated by angular distances equal or greater than FNBW/2
≈ HPBW of an antenna with a uniform distribution can be resolved.

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 Example 1 𝜽

An antenna has a field pattern given by

𝐸 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑓𝑜𝑟 00 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 900
𝑯𝑷𝑩𝑾
Find the half-power beamwidth (HPBW).
Solution: 𝑬 𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜽

𝐸 𝜃 𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 0.707

⟹ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 = 0.707
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 0.707

𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 0.707 = 330

⟹ 𝐻𝑃𝐵𝑊 = 2𝜃 = 660

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 Beam Area (or Beam Solid Angle)
 The arc of a circle as seen from the center of the circle subtends an angle. Thus,
referring to the following figure (a), the arc length 𝜃𝑟 subtends the angle 𝜃. The
total angle in the circle is 2𝜋 rad (or 3600 ) and the total arc length is 2𝜋𝑟
(=circumference)

 An area A of the surface of a sphere as seen from the center of the sphere subtends
a solid angle 𝛀 (Refer figure (b)). The total solid angle subtended by the sphere is
𝟒𝝅 steradians (or square radians), abbreviated sr.
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 Beam Area (or Beam Solid Angle)

Spherical Coordinates in relation to the area dA of solid angle 𝒅𝜴 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒅𝜽 𝒅𝝓

36
 Beam Area (or Beam Solid Angle)
 In polar co-ordinates, an incremental area dA on the surface of a sphere is the
product of the length 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 in the 𝜃 direction (latitude) and 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜙 in the 𝜙
direction (longitude). Thus,
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜙 = 𝑟 2 𝑑Ω
where 𝑑Ω = solid angle expressed in steradians (sr) or square degrees(◻)
 The area of the strip of width 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 extending around the sphere at a constant
angle 𝜃 is given by 2𝜋 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑟 𝑑𝜃 . Integrating this for 𝜃 values from 0 to 𝜋
yields the area of the sphere. Thus,
𝜋
𝜋
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 න 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = 2𝜋𝑟 2 −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 0 = 4𝜋𝑟 2
0
where 4𝜋 = solid angle subtended by a sphere, sr

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 Beam Area (or Beam Solid Angle)
 Thus,
1 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 1 𝑠𝑟 = 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 Τ4𝜋
2
180
= 1𝑟𝑎𝑑 2 = 𝑑𝑒𝑔2 = 3282.8064 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠 ≈ 3283◻
𝜋
 Therefore,
4𝜋 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 3282.8064 × 4𝜋 = 41,252.96 ≈ 41,253 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑠
≈ 41,253◻
 The beam area or beam solid angle or Ω𝐴 of an antenna is given by the integral of
the normalized power pattern over a sphere 4𝜋 𝑠𝑟 .
𝜙=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋
Ω𝐴 = ‫=𝜙׬‬0 ‫=𝜃׬‬0 𝑃𝑛 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 = ‫׭‬4𝜋 𝑃𝑛 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑑Ω
where 𝑑Ω = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 sr

38
 Beam Area (or Beam Solid Angle)
 The beam area Ω𝐴 of an actual pattern is equivalent to the same solid angle
subtended by the spherical cap of the cone-shaped (triangular cross-section)
pattern.

Cross section of a symmetrical power pattern of an antenna showing equivalent

solid angle for a cone-shaped (triangular) pattern

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 Beam Area (or Beam Solid Angle)
 The beam area of an antenna can often be described approximately in terms of the
angles subtended by the half-power points of the main lobe in two principal
planes.

 Thus,
𝐵𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 Ω𝐴 ≈ 𝜃𝐻𝑃 𝜙𝐻𝑃 (𝑠𝑟)

where 𝜃𝐻𝑃 and 𝜙𝐻𝑃 are the half-power beamwidths (HPBW) in the two principal
planes, minor lobes being neglected.

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 Types of Antenna Patterns
 An isotropic radiator is defined as “a hypothetical lossless antenna having equal
radiation in all directions.” Although it is ideal and not physically realizable, it is
often taken as a reference for expressing the directive properties of actual
antennas.
 A directional antenna is one “having the property of radiating or receiving
electromagnetic waves more effectively in some directions than in others. This
term is usually applied to an antenna whose maximum directivity is significantly
greater than that of a half-wave dipole.”
 An omnidirectional antenna is one “having an essentially nondirectional pattern
in a given plane (in this case in azimuth) and a directional pattern in any
orthogonal plane (in this case in elevation).” An omnidirectional pattern is then a
special type of a directional pattern.

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 Directional Radiation Pattern

Principal E- and H-plane patterns for a pyramidal horn antenna.

42
Omnidirectional Antenna Pattern

Omnidirectional antenna pattern

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 Radiation Intensity
 Radiation intensity in a given direction is defined as “the power radiated from an
antenna per unit solid angle.”
 The radiation intensity is a far-field parameter, and it can be obtained by simply
multiplying the radiation density by the square of the distance.
 In mathematical form it is expressed as
𝑈 = 𝑟 2 𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑑
where 𝑈 = radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle)
𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑑 = radiation density (W/m2)
 The time average Poynting vector (average power density) can be written as
1
𝑆𝑎𝑣 = 𝑅𝑒 𝐸 × 𝐻 ∗ 𝑊 Τ𝑚2
2

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 Radiation Intensity
 The power density associated with the electromagnetic fields of an antenna in its
far-field region is predominately real and will be referred to as radiation density.
 The imaginary part must represent the reactive (stored) power density associated
with the electromagnetic fields.
 The average power radiated by an antenna (radiated power) can be written as
1
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ඾ 𝑆𝑟𝑎𝑑 . 𝑑𝑠 = ඾ 𝑅𝑒 𝐸 × 𝐻 ∗ . 𝑑𝑠
𝑆 2 𝑆
 The total power is obtained by integrating the radiation intensity over the entire
solid angle of 4𝜋. Thus,
2𝜋 𝜋
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ඾ 𝑈 𝑑Ω = න න 𝑈 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
Ω 0 0
where dΩ = element of solid angle = sin𝜃 d𝜃 d𝜙.
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 Radiation Intensity
 For an isotropic source U will be independent of the angles 𝜃 and 𝜙, as was the
case for Srad.

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 = ඾ 𝑈 𝑑Ω = 𝑈0 ඾ 𝑑Ω = 4𝜋𝑈0
Ω

 The radiation intensity of an isotropic source is

𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑈0 =
4𝜋

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 Radiation Intensity
 The normalized power pattern can also be expressed as the ratio of the radiation
intensity 𝑈 𝜃, 𝜙 as a function of angle to its maximum value.

 Thus,
𝑈 𝜃,𝜙 𝑆 𝜃,𝜙
𝑃𝑛 𝜃, 𝜙 = =
𝑈 𝜃,𝜙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑆 𝜃,𝜙 𝑚𝑎𝑥

 Whereas the Poynting vector S depends on the distance from the antenna (varying
inversely as the square of the distance), the radiation intensity U is independent of
the distance, assuming in both cases that we are in the far field of the antenna.

47
 Directivity
 Directivity of an antenna defined as “the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given
direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions.
The average radiation intensity is equal to the total power radiated by the antenna
divided by 4𝜋. If the direction is not specified, the direction of maximum radiation
intensity is implied.”
 Stated more simply, the directivity of a non-isotropic source is equal to the ratio of
its radiation intensity in a given direction over that of an isotropic source.
 In mathematical form, it can be written as
𝑈 4𝜋𝑈
𝐷= =
𝑈0 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
where D = directivity (dimensionless); U = radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle)
U0 = radiation intensity of isotropic source (W/unit solid angle)
Prad = total radiated power (W)
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 Directivity
 If the direction is not specified, it implies the direction of maximum radiation
intensity (maximum directivity) expressed as
𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 4𝜋𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐷0 = =
𝑈0 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑
 The Directivity of an antenna is equal to the ratio of the maximum power density
𝑃 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑠/𝑚2 to its average value over a sphere as observed in the far-field
of an antenna.
 Thus,
𝑃 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷=
𝑃 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑎𝑣𝑔
 Directivity is a dimensionless ratio ≥ 1.

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 Directivity
 The average power density over a sphere is given by

1 𝜙=2𝜋 𝜃=𝜋 1
𝑃 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑎𝑣 = න න 𝑃 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙 = ඵ 𝑃 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑑Ω 𝑊 𝑠𝑟 −1
4𝜋 𝜙=0 𝜃=0 4𝜋
4𝜋
 Therefore, Directivity
𝑃 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑃 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑚𝑎𝑥 4𝜋 4𝜋
𝐷= = = =
𝑃 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑎𝑣𝑔 1 𝑃 𝜃, 𝜙
4𝜋 ‫׭‬4𝜋
𝑃 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑑Ω ‫׭‬4𝜋 𝑑Ω ‫׭‬4𝜋 𝑃𝑛 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑑Ω
𝑃 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑚𝑎𝑥
4𝜋
𝐷=
Ω𝐴
Where Ω𝐴 = ‫׭‬4𝜋 𝑃𝑛 𝜃, 𝜙 𝑑Ω
𝑃 𝜃,𝜙
𝑃𝑛 𝜃, 𝜙 = = 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛
𝑃 𝜃,𝜙 𝑚𝑎𝑥
50
 Directivity
4𝜋
𝐷=
Ω𝐴
 Thus, the directivity is the ratio of the area of a sphere (4𝜋 𝑠𝑟) to the beam area
Ω𝐴 of the antenna.
 The smaller the beam area, the larger the directivity. For an antenna that radiates
over only half a sphere, the beam area Ω𝐴 = 2𝜋 𝑠𝑟 and the directivity is
4𝜋
𝐷= = 2 = 3 𝑑𝐵𝑖
2𝜋
where 𝑑𝐵𝑖 is decibels over isotropic.
 The ideal isotropic antenna (Ω𝐴 = 4𝜋 𝑠𝑟) has the lowest possible directivity
D=1.
 All actual antennas have directivities greater than 1. (D >1)

51
 Antenna Efficiency
 Antenna Efficiency is defined as the ratio of the total power radiated by the
antenna to the total power fed to the antenna. This total power is the sum of the
radiated power and the power loss.
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑃𝑖𝑛 − 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑘= = = =1−
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝑖𝑛
 Antenna Efficiency takes into account losses at the input terminals and within the
structure of the antenna. Such losses may be due to
1. reflections because of the mismatch between the transmission line and the
antenna
2. I2R losses (conduction and dielectric)

52
 Gain
 Gain of an antenna (in a given direction) is defined as “the ratio of the intensity, in
a given direction, to the radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power
accepted by the antenna were radiated isotropically. The radiation intensity
corresponding to the isotropically radiated power is equal to the power accepted
(input) by the antenna divided by 4𝜋.”
 In equation form this can be expressed as

𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐺 = 4𝜋
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑑) 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝑈 𝜃, 𝜙
𝐺 = 4𝜋
𝑃𝑖𝑛 (𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒)

53
 Gain
 Gain of an antenna is an actual or realized quantity which is less than the
directivity D due to the ohmic losses in the antenna or its randome (if it is
enclosed).
 In transmitting, these losses involve power fed to the antenna which is not
radiated but heats the antenna structure. A mismatch in feeding the antenna can
also reduce the gain.
 The ratio of the gain to the directivity is the antenna efficiency factor. Thus,
𝐺 = 𝑘𝐷
where k = antenna efficiency factor (0 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 1)
 In many well designed antennas 𝑘 ≈ 1.
 In practice, 𝐺 < 𝐷

54
 Gain
 Gain can be measured by comparing the maximum power density of the Antenna
Under Test (AUT) with a reference antenna of known gain. Thus,

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝐴𝑈𝑇)
𝐺𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐺 = × 𝐺(𝑟𝑒𝑓. 𝑎𝑛𝑡. )
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝑟𝑒𝑓. 𝑎𝑛𝑡. )

 If the half-power beamwidths of an antennas are known, its directivity is

41,253
𝐷= ° °
𝜃𝐻𝑃 𝜙𝐻𝑃

55
 Radiation Resistance
 Radiation Resistance is the fictitious resistance which when substituted in series
with an antenna will consume the same power as is actually radiated by the
antenna.
 An antenna radiated the real power through radiation resistance.
 From the circuit point of view, the antennas appear to the transmission line as a
resistance 𝑅𝑟 , called the radiation resistance.
 It is not related to any resistance in the antenna itself but is a resistance coupled
from space to the antenna terminals.
 Radiation resistance may be thought of as a “virtual” resistance that does not exist
physically but it is a quantity, coupling the antenna to the distant regions of space
via a “virtual transmission line” .

56
 Radiation Resistance

Schematic representation of region of space at temperature T linked via a virtual

transmission line to an antenna
57
 Input Impedance
 Input impedance is defined as “the impedance presented by an antenna at its
terminals or the ratio of the voltage to current at a pair of terminals or the ratio of
the appropriate components of the electric to magnetic fields at a point.”

Antenna in transmitting mode

58
 Input Impedance
 If we assume that the antenna is attached to a generator with internal impedance
𝑍𝑔 = 𝑅𝑔 + 𝑗 𝑋𝑔 where 𝑅𝑔 = resistance of generator impedance (ohms) and
𝑋𝑔 = reactance of generator impedance (ohms) and the antenna is used in the
transmitting mode, we can represent the antenna and generator by a Thevenin
equivalent circuit shown in the following figure:

59
 Input Impedance
 The ratio of the voltage to current at these terminals 𝑎 − 𝑏 , with no load
attached, defines the impedance of the antenna as
𝑍𝐴 = 𝑅𝐴 + 𝑗 𝑋𝐴
where ZA = antenna impedance at terminals a–b (ohms)
RA = antenna resistance at terminals a–b (ohms)
XA = antenna reactance at terminals a–b (ohms)

 In general the resistive part of an antenna consists of two components; that is

𝑅𝐴 = 𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝐿
where Rr = radiation resistance of the antenna
RL = loss resistance of the antenna

60
 Example
The radiation resistance of an antenna is 72 Ohms and the loss resistance is 8 Ohms. What
is the directivity (in dBi), if the power gain is 15?
Given: 𝑅𝑟 = 72 Ω, 𝑅𝑙 = 8 Ω, 𝐺 = 15;
To find: D(dBi)
Solution:
𝐺 = 𝑘𝐷
𝐺 𝐺 𝐺
⇒𝐷= = =
𝑘 𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑅𝑟
𝑃𝑟𝑎𝑑 + 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝑙

𝐺 𝐺(𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝑙 ) 15(72 + 8) 15 × 80
𝐷= = = = = 16.67
𝑅𝑟 𝑅𝑟 72 72
𝑅𝑟 + 𝑅𝑙

𝐷(𝑑𝐵𝑖) = 10 log 16.67 = 12.22 𝑑𝐵𝑖

61
 Effective aperture (or Effective area)
 Effective area (aperture), in a given direction is defined as “the ratio of the
available power at the terminals of a receiving antenna to the power flux density
of a plane wave incident on the antenna from that direction, the wave being
polarization-matched to the antenna. If the direction is not specified, the direction
of maximum radiation intensity is implied.”
𝑃𝑇
𝐴𝑒 =
𝑆𝑖
where
Ae = effective area (effective aperture) (m2)
PT = power delivered to the load (W)
Si = power density of incident wave (W/m2)

62
 Effective aperture (or Effective area)
 Consider now an antenna with an effective aperture 𝐴𝑒 , which radiates all of its
power in a conical pattern of beam area Ω𝐴 as suggested in the following figure:

Radiation over beam area Ω𝐴 from aperture 𝐴𝑒

63
 Effective aperture (or Effective area)
 Assuming a uniform field 𝐸𝑎 over the aperture, the power radiated is
𝐸𝑎2
𝑃= 𝐴𝑒 (𝑊)
𝑍0
where 𝑍0 = intrinsic impedance of medium (377Ω for air or vacuum).
 Assuming a uniform field 𝐸𝑟 in the far field at a distance 𝑟, the power radiated is
also given by
𝐸𝑟2 2
𝑃= 𝑟 Ω𝐴 (𝑊)
𝑍0
 Equating above equations and noting that 𝐸𝑟 = 𝐸𝑎 𝐴𝑒 Τ𝑟𝜆 yields the aperture-
beam area relation
𝜆2 = 𝐴𝑒 Ω𝐴

64
 Effective aperture (or Effective area)
 Aperture-beam area relation
𝜆2 = 𝐴𝑒 Ω𝐴
𝜆2
⇒ Ω𝐴 =
𝐴𝑒

 Directivity from aperture

4𝜋 4𝜋 4𝜋𝐴𝑒
𝐷= = 2 ⇒𝐷= 2
Ω𝐴 𝜆 𝜆
𝐴𝑒

65
Effective aperture (or Effective area)

66
 Physical Aperture and Aperture Efficiency
 Aperture efficiency 𝜀𝑎𝑝 of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the effective
aperture(area) 𝐴𝑒 of the antenna to its physical area 𝐴𝑝 .
𝐴𝑒
𝜀𝑎𝑝 =
𝐴𝑝
 For aperture type antennas, such as waveguides, horns, and reflectors, the
maximum effective area cannot exceed the physical area but it can equal it (𝑨𝒆 ≤
𝑨𝒑 𝒐𝒓 𝟎 ≤ 𝜺𝒂𝒑 ≤ 𝟏). Therefore the maximum value of the aperture efficiency
cannot exceed unity (100%).
 For horn and parabolic reflector antenna, aperture efficiencies are commonly in
the range of 50% to 80% ( 𝟎. 𝟓 ≤ 𝜺𝒂𝒑 ≤ 𝟎. 𝟖).
 Large dipoles or patch arrays with uniform field to the edges of the physical
aperture may attain higher aperture efficiencies approaching 100%. However, to
reduce sidelobes, fields are commonly tapered toward the edges, resulting in
reduced aperture efficiency.

67
 Background and Brightness Temperature
 Noise power is generated by lossy components and active devices.

 Noise can also be delivered to the input of a receiver by the antenna.

 Antenna noise power may be received from the external environment, or

generated internally as thermal noise due to losses in the antenna itself.

 While noise produced within a receiver is controllable to some extent (by

judicious design and component selection), the noise received from the
environment by a receiving antenna is generally not controllable, and may exceed
the noise level of the receiver itself.

 Thus it is important to characterize the noise power delivered to a receiver by its

antenna.
68
 Background and Brightness Temperature
 Consider the three situations shown in the following figure.

Illustrating the concept of background temperature (a) A resistor at temperature T

(b) An antenna in an anechoic chamber at temperature T (c) An antenna viewing a
uniform sky background at temperature T .

69
 Background and Brightness Temperature
 In Figure (a), we have the simple case of a resistor at temperature T , producing an
available output noise power
𝑁0 = 𝑘𝑇𝐵
where B is the system bandwidth and k is Boltzmann’s constant.
 The anechoic chamber appears as a perfectly absorbing enclosure, and is in
thermal equilibrium with the antenna. Thus the terminals of the antenna are
indistinguishable from the resistor terminals of figure(a) (assuming an impedance-
matched antenna), and therefore it produces the same output noise power as the
resistor of figure(a).
 Figure (c) shows the same antenna directed at the sky. If the main beam of the
antenna is narrow enough so that it sees a uniform region at physical temperature
T , then the antenna again appears as a resistor at temperature T and produces the
output noise power given in above equation. This is true regardless of the radiation
efficiency of the antenna, as long as the physical temperature of the antenna is also
T.

70
 Background and Brightness Temperature
 In actuality an antenna typically sees a much more complex environment than the
cases depicted in previous figure.
 A general scenario of both naturally occurring and manmade noise sources is
shown in following figure, where we see that an antenna with a relatively broad
main beam may pick up noise power from a variety of origins.

71
 Background and Brightness Temperature
 In addition, noise may be received through the sidelobes of the antenna pattern or
via reflections from the ground or other large objects.

 Background noise temperature, TB , is defined as the equivalent temperature of a

resistor required to produce the same noise power as the actual environment seen
by the antenna.

 Some typical background noise temperatures that are relevant at low microwave
frequencies are as follows:
 Sky (toward zenith) 3–5 K
 Sky (toward horizon) 50–100 K
 Ground 290–300 K

72
 Background and Brightness Temperature
 The overhead sky background temperature of 3–5 K is the cosmic background
radiation believed to be a remnant of the big bang at the creation of the universe.
This would be the noise temperature seen by an antenna with a narrow beam and
high radiation efficiency pointed overhead, away from “hot” sources such as the
Sun or stellar radio objects.

 The background noise temperature increases as the antenna is pointed toward the
horizon because of the greater thickness of the atmosphere, so that the antenna
sees an effective background closer to that of the anechoic chamber.

 Pointing the antenna toward the ground further increases the effective loss, and
hence the noise temperature.

73
 Background and Brightness Temperature
 When the antenna beamwidth is broad enough that different parts of the antenna
pattern see different background temperatures, the effective brightness
temperature seen by the antenna can be found by weighting the spatial
distribution of background temperature by the pattern function of the antenna.

 Mathematically we can write the brightness temperature Tb seen by the antenna

as
2𝜋 𝜋
‫=𝜙׬‬0 ‫=𝜃׬‬0 𝑇𝐵 𝜃, 𝜙 D θ, ϕ sinθ 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙
𝑇𝑏 = 2𝜋 𝜋
‫=𝜙׬‬0 ‫=𝜃׬‬0 D θ, ϕ sinθ 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜙

where 𝑇𝐵 𝜃, 𝜙 is the distribution of the background temperature, and D θ, ϕ is the

directivity (or the power pattern function) of the antenna.

74
 Antenna Noise Temperature
 If a receiving antenna has dissipative loss, so that its radiation efficiency 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 is
less than unity, the power available at the terminals of the antenna is reduced by
the factor 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 from that intercepted by the antenna (the definition of radiation
efficiency is the ratio of output to input power).

 This reduction applies to received noise power, as well as received signal power,
so the noise temperature of the antenna will be reduced from the brightness
temperature by the factor 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 .

 In addition, thermal noise will be generated internally by resistive losses in the

antenna, and this will increase the noise temperature of the antenna.

 In terms of noise power, a lossy antenna can be modeled as a lossless antenna

and an attenuator having a power loss factor of L = 1/ 𝜼𝒓𝒂𝒅 .

75
 Antenna Noise Temperature
 For the equivalent noise temperature of an attenuator, we can find the resulting
noise temperature seen at the antenna terminals as

𝑇𝑏 (𝐿 − 1)
𝑇𝐴 = + 𝑇𝑝 = 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑏 + 1 − 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑝
𝐿 𝐿

 The equivalent temperature 𝑇𝐴 is called the antenna noise temperature, and is a

combination of the external brightness temperature seen by the antenna and the
thermal noise generated by the antenna.

 The proper interpretation of 𝑇𝐴 is that a matched load at this temperature will

produce the same available noise power as does the antenna.

76
 Antenna Noise Temperature

𝑇𝑏 (𝐿 − 1)
𝑇𝐴 = + 𝑇𝑝 = 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑏 + 1 − 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑝
𝐿 𝐿

 For a lossless antenna with 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 1, 𝑇𝐴 = 𝑇𝑏 .

 If the radiation efficiency is zero, meaning that the antenna appears as a matched
load and does not see any external background noise, then 𝑇𝐴 = 𝑇𝑝 , due to the
thermal noise generated by the losses.
 If an antenna is pointed toward a known background temperature different than T0,
then above equation can be used to determine its radiation efficiency.
 The antenna noise temperature defined above is a useful figure of merit for a
receive antenna because it characterizes the total noise power delivered by the
antenna to the input of a receiver.

77
 Antenna Noise Temperature

A receiver connected through a lossy transmission line to an antenna viewing a

background noise temperature distribution TB. An impedance mismatch exists
between the antenna and the line.

78
 Antenna Noise Temperature
 The antenna is assumed to have a radiation efficiency 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 , and the connecting
transmission line has a power loss factor of L ≥ 1, with both at physical
temperature Tp.
 We also include the effect of an impedance mismatch between the antenna and the
transmission line, represented by the reflection coefficient Γ.
 The equivalent noise temperature seen at the output terminals of the transmission
line consists of three contributions:
 Noise power from the antenna due to internal noise and the background brightness temperature
 Noise power generated from the lossy line in the forward direction
 Noise power generated by the lossy line in the backward direction and reflected from the
antenna mismatch toward the receiver.

79
 Antenna Noise Temperature
 The noise due to the antenna is given by
𝑇𝑏 (𝐿 − 1)
𝑇𝐴 = + 𝑇𝑝 = 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑏 + 1 − 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑝
𝐿 𝐿
but reduced by the loss factor of the line, 1/L, and the reflection mismatch
factor,(1 − Γ 2 )
 The forward noise power from the lossy line is given by (𝐿 − 1)𝑇𝑝 , after reduction
by the loss factor, 1/L.
 The contribution from the lossy line reflected from the mismatched antenna is
given by (𝐿 − 1)𝑇𝑝 , after reduction by the power reflection coefficient, Γ 2 , and
the loss factor, 1/L2 (since the reference point for the back-directed noise power
from the lossy line given by (𝐿 − 1)𝑇𝑝 is at the output terminals of the line). Thus
the overall system noise temperature seen at the input to the receiver is given by

80
 Antenna Noise Temperature
 Thus the overall system noise temperature seen at the input to the receiver is
given by
𝑇𝐴 2
𝑇𝑝 𝑇𝑝 2
𝑇𝑆 = 1− Γ + 𝐿−1 + 𝐿−1 2 Γ
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
2
1− Γ 𝐿−1 Γ2
𝑇𝑆 = 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑏 + 1 − 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑝 + 1+ 𝑇𝑝
𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
 Observe that for a lossless line (L = 1) the effect of an antenna mismatch is to
reduce the system noise temperature by the factor 1 − Γ 2 . Of course, the
received signal power will be reduced by the same amount.
 Also note that for the case of a matched antenna (Γ = 0), above equation reduces
to
1 𝐿−1
𝑇𝑆 = 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑏 + 1 − 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑝 + 𝑇𝑝
𝐿 𝐿
81
 G/T ratio
 Another useful figure of merit for receive antennas is the G/T ratio, defined as
𝐺
𝐺 Τ𝑇 𝑑𝐵 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔 (𝑑𝐵/𝐾)
𝑇𝐴
where G is the gain of the antenna, and TA is the antenna noise temperature.
 This quantity is important because the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) at the input to
a receiver is proportional to G/TA.
 The ratio G/T can often be maximized by increasing the gain of the antenna, since
this increases the numerator and usually minimizes reception of noise from hot
sources at low elevation angles.
 Of course, higher gain requires a larger and more expensive antenna, and high
gain may not be desirable for applications requiring omnidirectional coverage
(e.g., cellular telephones or mobile data networks), so often a compromise must be
made.

82
 Friis Transmission Equation
 A general radio system link is shown in the following figure, where the transmit
power is Pt , the transmit antenna gain is Gt , the receive antenna gain is Gr , and
the received power (delivered to a matched load) is Pr . The transmit and receive
antennas are separated by the distance R.

83
 Friis Transmission Equation
 The power density radiated by an isotropic antenna (D =1 = 0 dB) at a distance R
is given by
𝑃𝑡 2
𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑊/𝑚
4𝜋𝑅2
 This result reflects the fact that we must be able to recover all of the radiated
power by integrating over a sphere of radius R surrounding the antenna; since the
power is distributed isotropically, and the area of a sphere is 4𝜋𝑅2 .
 If the transmit antenna has a directivity greater than 0 dB, we can find the radiated
power density by multiplying by the directivity, since directivity is defined as the
ratio of the actual radiation intensity to the equivalent isotropic radiation intensity.
 In addition, if the transmit antenna has losses, we can include the radiation
efficiency factor, which has the effect of converting directivity to gain.

84
 Friis Transmission Equation
 Thus, the general expression for the power density radiated by an arbitrary
transmit antenna is
𝐺𝑡 𝑃𝑡 2
𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝑊/𝑚
4𝜋𝑅2
 If this power density is incident on the receive antenna, we can use the concept of
effective aperture area to find the received power:

𝐴𝑒 𝐺𝑡 𝑃𝑡
𝑃𝑟 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2
𝑊
4𝜋𝑅
 Effective area is related to the directivity of the receive antenna by

4𝜋𝐴𝑒
𝐷= 2
𝜆

85
 Friis Transmission Equation
 Again, the possibility of losses in the receive antenna can be accounted for by
using the gain (rather than the directivity) of the receive antenna. Then the final
result for the received power is
4𝜋𝐴𝑒 𝐺𝑟 𝜆2
𝐺𝑟 = 2 ⇒ 𝐴𝑒 =
𝜆 4𝜋
 Then the final result for the received power is

𝐺𝑟 𝜆2
𝐺𝑡 𝑃𝑡 2
𝐴𝑒 𝐺𝑡 𝑃𝑡 4𝜋 𝜆
𝑃𝑟 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑆𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 2
= = 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 𝑊
4𝜋𝑅 4𝜋𝑅2 4𝜋𝑅
 This result is known as the Friis radio link formula, and it addresses the
fundamental question of how much power is received by a radio antenna.

86
 Friis Transmission Equation

2
𝜆
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 𝑊
4𝜋𝑅

 In practice, the value given by above equation should be interpreted as the

maximum possible received power, as there are a number of factors that can serve
to reduce the received power in an actual radio system. These include
 Impedance mismatch at either antenna,
 Polarization mismatch between the antennas,
 Propagation effects leading to attenuation or depolarization, and
 Multipath effects that may cause partial cancellation of the received field.

87
 Friis Transmission Equation
2
𝜆
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 𝑊
4𝜋𝑅
 Observe that the received power decreases as 𝟏Τ𝑹𝟐 as the separation between
transmitter and receiver increases. This dependence is a result of conservation of
energy.
 While it may seem to be prohibitively large for large distances, in fact the space
decay of 𝟏Τ𝑹𝟐 is usually much better than the exponential decrease in power due
to losses in a wired communications link.
 This is because the attenuation of power on a transmission line varies as 𝒆−𝟐𝜶𝒛
(where 𝛼 is the attenuation constant of the line), and at large distances the
exponential function decreases faster than an algebraic dependence like 1Τ𝑅2 .
 Thus for long-distance communications, radio links will perform better than
wired links. This conclusion applies to any type of transmission line, including
coaxial lines, waveguides, and even fiber optic lines.
88
 Friis Transmission Equation
 From the Friis formula, received power is proportional to the product 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 .
 These two factors—the transmit power and transmit antenna gain—characterize
the transmitter, and in the main beam of the antenna the product 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 can be
interpreted equivalently as the power radiated by an isotropic antenna with input
power 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 .
 Thus, this product is defined as the Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP):

𝐸𝐼𝑅𝑃 = 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝑊
 For a given frequency, range, and receiver antenna gain, the received power is
proportional to the EIRP of the transmitter and can only be increased by increasing
the EIRP.
 This can be done by increasing the transmit power, or the transmit antenna gain, or
both.

89
 Example 1
Using Friis transmission formula, find the maximum power received at a distance of
1 km over a free space. A 100 MHz circuit consisting of a transmitting antenna of 30
dB gain and a receiving antenna with a 25 dB gain is used. The power input to the
transmitting antenna is 150 W.
Given:
𝑅 = 1 𝑘𝑚 = 1000 𝑚
𝑓 = 100 𝑀𝐻𝑧 = 108 𝐻𝑧
𝐺𝑡 = 30 𝑑𝐵 = 1030/10 = 1000
𝐺𝑟 = 25 𝑑𝐵 = 1025/10 = 316.23
𝑃𝑡 = 150 𝑊
To find:
𝑃𝑟 =?

90
 Example 1
Solution:

 The received power is

2
𝜆
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 𝑊
4𝜋𝑅

𝑐 3 × 108
𝜆= = 8
=3𝑚
𝑓 10

2 2
𝜆 3
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃𝑡 𝐺𝑡 𝐺𝑟 = 150 × 1000 × 316.23 × = 2.7 𝑊
4𝜋𝑅 4𝜋 × 1000

91
 Example 2
Two lossless X-band (8.2–12.4 GHz) horn antennas are separated by a distance of
100λ. The reflection coefficients at the terminals of the transmitting and receiving
antennas are 0.1 and 0.2, respectively. The maximum directivities of the transmitting
and receiving antennas (over isotropic) are 16 dB and 20 dB, respectively. Assuming
that the input power in the lossless transmission line connected to the transmitting
antenna is 2 W, and the antennas are aligned for maximum radiation between them
and are polarization matched, find the power delivered to the load of the receiver.

92
 Example 2
Given:
𝑅 = 100 𝜆; Γ𝑡 = 0.1; Γ𝑟 = 0.2
𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑡 = 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑟 = 1 (the antennas are lossless)
𝐷0𝑡 = 16 𝑑𝐵 = 1016/10 = 39.81
𝐷0𝑟 = 20 𝑑𝐵 = 1020/10 = 100
𝑃𝑡 = 2 𝑊
To find:
𝑃𝑟 =?
Solution:
 The received power is
2
2 2
𝜆
𝑃𝑟 = 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑡 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑟 1 − Γ𝑡 1 − Γ𝑟 𝑃𝑡 𝐷0𝑡 𝐷0𝑟
4𝜋𝑅
2
2 2
𝜆
𝑃𝑟 = 1 × 1 × 1 − 0.1 × 1 − 0.2 × 2 × 39.81 × 100 × = 4.79 𝑚𝑊
4𝜋 × 100𝜆

93
 Link Budget
 The various terms in the Friis formula are often tabulated separately in a link
budget, where each of the factors can be individually considered in terms of its net
effect on the received power.
 Additional loss factors, such as line losses or impedance mismatch at the antennas,
atmospheric attenuation, and polarization mismatch can also be added to the link
budget.
 One of the terms in a link budget is the path loss, accounting for the free-space
reduction in signal strength with distance between the transmitter and receiver.
 Path loss is defined (in dB) as
4𝜋𝑅
𝐿0 𝑑𝐵 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 >0
𝜆
 Note that path loss depends on wavelength (frequency), which serves to provide a
normalization for the units of distance

94
 Link Budget

𝑃𝑟 𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 𝑃𝑡 − 𝐿𝑡 + 𝐺𝑡 − 𝐿0 − 𝐿𝐴 + 𝐺𝑟 − 𝐿𝑟

95
 Link Budget
 If the transmit and/or receive antenna is not impedance matched to the transmitter/
receiver (or to their connecting lines), impedance mismatch will reduce the
received power by the factor 1 − Γ 2 , where Γ is the appropriate reflection
coefficient. The resulting impedance mismatch loss can be included in the link
budget to account for the reduction in received power.
𝐿𝑖𝑚𝑝 𝑑𝐵 = −10 log 1 − Γ 2 ≥ 0
 Another possible entry in the link budget relates to the polarization matching of
the transmit and receive antennas, as maximum power transmission between
transmitter and receiver requires both antennas to be polarized in the same manner.
 If a transmit antenna is vertically polarized, for example, maximum power will
only be delivered to a vertically polarized receiving antenna, while zero power
would be delivered to a horizontally polarized receive antenna, and half the
available power would be delivered to a circularly polarized antenna. Polarization
Loss Factor can also be incorporated in link budget.

96
 Link Margin
 In practical communications systems it is usually desired to have the received
power level greater than the threshold level required for the minimum acceptable
quality of service (usually expressed as the minimum carrier-to-noise ratio (CNR),
or minimum SNR).
 This design allowance for received power is referred to as the link margin, and
can be expressed as the difference between the design value of received power and
the minimum threshold value of receive power

𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵 = 𝐿𝑀 = 𝑃𝑟 − 𝑃𝑟 (𝑚𝑖𝑛) > 0

where all quantities are in dB
 Link margin should be a positive number; typical values may range from 3 to 20
dB.

97
 Link Margin
 Having a reasonable link margin provides a level of robustness to the system to
account for variables such as
 signal fading due to weather,
 movement of a mobile user,
 multipath propagation problems, and other unpredictable effects
that can degrade system performance and quality of service.
 Link margin that is used to account for fading effects is sometimes referred to as
fade margin.
 Satellite links operating at frequencies above 10 GHz, for example, often require
fade margins of 20 dB or more to account for attenuation during heavy rain.

98
 Link Budget and Link Margin

𝑃𝑟 𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 𝑃𝑡 − 𝐿𝑡 + 𝐺𝑡 − 𝐿0 − 𝐿𝐴 + 𝐺𝑟 − 𝐿𝑟

𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝐵 = 𝐿𝑀 = 𝑃𝑟 − 𝑃𝑟 (𝑚𝑖𝑛) > 0

 The link budget and link margin for a given communication system can be
improved by increasing the received power (by increasing transmit power or
antenna gains), or by reducing the minimum threshold power (by improving the
design of the receiver, changing the modulation method, or by other means).
 Increasing link margin therefore usually involves an increase in cost and
complexity, so excessive increases in link margin are usually avoided.

99
 Example
LINK ANALYSIS OF DBS TELEVISION SYSTEM: The direct broadcast
system in North America operates at 12.2–12.7 GHz, with a transmit carrier power
of 120 W, a transmit antenna gain of 34 dB, an IF bandwidth of 20 MHz, and a
worst-case slant angle (300) distance from the geostationary satellite to Earth of
39,000 km. The 18-inch receiving dish antenna has a gain of 33.5 dB and sees an
average background brightness temperature of Tb = 50 K, with a receiver low-noise
block (LNB) having a noise figure of 0.7 dB. The required minimum CNR is 15 dB.
The overall system is shown in following figure

100
 Example
Find (a) the link budget for the received carrier power at the antenna terminals, (b)
G/T for the receive antenna and LNB system, (c) the CNR at the output of the LNB,
and (d) the link margin of the system.
Given Data:
Bandwidth (BW) = 12.2–12.7 GHz
𝑃𝑡 = 120 𝑊
𝐺𝑡 = 34 𝑑𝐵
IF bandwidth = 20 MHz
Slant angle = 300
𝑅 = 39000 𝑘𝑚 = 39 × 106 𝑚
𝐺𝑟 = 33.5 𝑑𝐵
Tb = 50 K
(LNB) having a noise figure of 0.7 dB; Required minimum CNR is 15 dB

101
 Example
Solution:
Bandwidth (BW) = 12.2–12.7 GHz

(12.2 + 12.7)
⇒ Center Frequency = = 12.45 𝐺𝐻𝑧
2
We will take the operating frequency to be 12.45 GHz, so the wavelength is
𝑐 3 × 108
𝜆= = 9
= 0.0241 𝑚
𝑓 12.45 × 10
The path loss is
4𝜋𝑅 4𝜋 × (39 × 106 )
𝐿0 𝑑𝐵 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 20 𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 206.2 𝑑𝐵
𝜆 0.0241

102
 Example
Solution:
(a) The link budget for the received power is
120
𝑃𝑡 = 120 𝑊 = 10 log −3
= 50.8 𝑑𝐵𝑚
1 × 10
𝐺𝑡 = 34 𝑑𝐵
𝐿0 = 206.2 𝑑𝐵
𝐺𝑟 = 33.5 𝑑𝐵

𝑃𝑟 𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 𝑃𝑡 + 𝐺𝑡 − 𝐿0 + 𝐺𝑟 = 50.8 + 34 − 206.2 + 33.5 = −87.9 𝑑𝐵𝑚

𝑃𝑟 𝑑𝐵𝑚 = −87.9 𝑑𝐵𝑚

⇒ 𝑃𝑟 = 1 × 10−3 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔 −87.9Τ10 = 1.63 × 10−12 𝑊

103
 Example
Solution:
b) To find G/T we first find the noise temperature of the antenna and LNB cascade,
referenced at the input of the LNB:
𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝐴 + 𝑇𝐿𝑁𝐵 = 𝑇𝑏 + 𝐹 − 1 𝑇0

0.7
𝐹 = 0.7 𝑑𝐵 ⇒ 𝐹 = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔 = 1.175
10

𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇𝐴 + 𝑇𝐿𝑁𝐵 = 𝑇𝑏 + 𝐹 − 1 𝑇0 = 50 + 1.175 − 1 290 = 100.8 𝐾

Then G/T for the antenna and LNB is

𝐺 2239
𝐺 = 𝐴𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑔 33.5Τ10 = 2239 ⇒ 𝑑𝐵 = 10 log = 13.5 𝑑𝐵/𝐾
𝑇 100.8
104
 Example
Solution:
c) The CNR at the output of the LNB is

𝑃𝑟 𝐺𝐿𝑁𝐵 1.63 × 10−12

𝐶𝑁𝑅 = = −23 6
= 58.6
𝑘𝑇𝑒 𝐵𝐺𝐿𝑁𝐵 1.38 × 10 × 100.8 × 20 × 10

𝐶𝑁𝑅 𝑑𝐵 = 10 log 58.6 = 17.7 𝑑𝐵

Note that GLNB, the gain of the LNB module, cancels in the ratio for the output
CNR.

d) If the minimum required CNR is 15 dB, the system link margin is 2.7 dB.

105
 Noise Figure
 A noisy microwave component can be characterized by an equivalent noise
temperature.
 An alternative characterization is the noise figure of the component, which is a
measure of the degradation in the signal-to-noise ratio between the input and
output of the component.
 The signal-to-noise ratio is the ratio of desired signal power to undesired noise
power, and so is dependent on the signal power.
 When noise and a desired signal are applied to the input of a noiseless network,
both noise and signal will be attenuated or amplified by the same factor, so that the
signal-to-noise ratio will be unchanged.
 However, if the network is noisy, the output noise power will be increased more
than the output signal power, so that the output signal-to-noise ratio will be
reduced.

106
 Noise Figure
 The noise figure, F, is a measure of this reduction in signal-to-noise ratio, and is
defined as
𝑆𝑖 Τ𝑁𝑖
𝐹= ≥1
𝑆0
ൗ𝑁
0
where Si , Ni are the input signal and noise powers, and So, No are the output signal
and noise powers.
 By definition, the input noise power is assumed to be the noise power resulting
from a matched resistor at T0 = 290 K; that is, Ni = kT0B.

107
 Determining the noise figure of a noisy network
 Consider the following figure, which shows noise power Ni and signal power Si
being fed into a noisy two-port network. The network is characterized by a gain,
G, a bandwidth, B, and an equivalent noise temperature, Te. The input noise power
is Ni = kT0B, and the output noise power is a sum of the amplified input noise and
the internally generated noise:
 No = kGB(T0 + Te). The output signal power is So = GSi .

108
 Determining the noise figure of a noisy network
𝑆𝑖 Τ𝑁𝑖 𝑆𝑖 𝑘𝐺𝐵 𝑇0 + 𝑇𝑒 𝑇𝑒
𝐹= = =1+ ≥1
𝑆0 𝑘𝑇0 𝐵 𝐺𝑆𝑖 𝑇0
ൗ𝑁
0
 In dB, 𝐹 = 10 log 1 + 𝑇𝑒 Τ𝑇0 dB ≥ 0. If the network were noiseless, Te would be
zero, giving F = 1, or 0 dB.

 Solving for Te gives

𝑇𝑒 = 𝐹 − 1 𝑇0

 It is important to keep in mind two things concerning the definition of noise

figure: noise figure is defined for a matched input source, and for a noise source
equivalent to a matched load at temperature T0 = 290 K. Noise figure and
equivalent noise temperatures are interchangeable characterizations of the noise
properties of a component.
109
 Noise figure of a lossy line with loss L and temperature T
 An important special case occurs in practice for a two-port network consisting of a
passive, lossy component, such as an attenuator or lossy transmission line, held at
a physical temperature T. Consider such a network with a matched source resistor
that is also at temperature T , as shown in following figure.

 The power gain, G, of a lossy network is less than unity; the loss factor, L, can be
defined as L = 1/G > 1.

110
 Noise figure of a lossy line with loss L and temperature T
 Because the entire system is in thermal equilibrium at the temperature T , and has
a driving point impedance of R, the output noise power must be No = kTB.
However, we can also think of this power as coming from the source resistor
(attenuated by the lossy line), and from the noise generated by the line itself. Thus
we also have that

𝑁𝑜 = 𝑘𝑇𝐵 = 𝐺𝑘𝑇𝐵 + 𝐺𝑁𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑

where Nadded is the noise generated by the line, as if it appeared at the input
terminals of the line.
1−𝐺
𝑁𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑 = 𝑘𝑇𝐵 = 𝐿 − 1 𝑘𝑇𝐵
𝐺

111
 Noise figure of a lossy line with loss L and temperature T
 The lossy line has an equivalent noise temperature (referred to the input) given by

1−𝐺
𝑇𝑒 = 𝑇 = 𝐿−1 𝑇
𝐺
 The noise figure is
𝑇
𝐹 =1+ 𝐿−1
𝑇0

 If the line is at temperature T0, then F = L. For instance, a 6 dB attenuator at room

temperature has a noise figure of F = 6 dB.

112
 Noise Figure of a Cascaded System
 In a typical microwave system the input signal travels through a cascade of many
different components, each of which may degrade the signal-to-noise ratio to
some degree.
 If we know the noise figure (or noise temperature) of the individual stages, we can
determine the noise figure (or noise temperature) of the cascade connection of
stages.
 We will see that the noise performance of the first stage is usually the most
critical, an interesting result that is very important in practice.
 Consider the cascade of two components, having gains G1, G2, noise figures F1,
F2, and equivalent noise temperatures Te1, Te2, as shown in the following figure.
We wish to find the overall noise figure and equivalent noise temperature of the
cascade, as if it were a single component.

113
 Noise Figure of a Cascaded System

Noise figure and equivalent noise temperature of a cascaded system.

(a) Two cascaded networks. (b) Equivalent network.

114
 Noise Figure of a Cascaded System
 The overall gain of the cascade is G1G2.

 Using noise temperatures, we can write the noise power at the output of the first
stage as
𝑁1 = 𝐺1 𝑘𝑇0 𝐵 + 𝐺1 𝑘𝑇𝑒1 𝐵

 since Ni = kT0B for noise figure calculations. The noise power at the output of the
second stage is

𝑁𝑜 = 𝐺2 𝑁1 + 𝐺2 𝑘𝑇𝑒2 𝐵 = 𝐺2 𝐺1 𝑘𝑇0 𝐵 + 𝐺1 𝑘𝑇𝑒1 𝐵 + 𝐺2 𝑘𝑇𝑒2 𝐵

𝑇𝑒2
𝑁𝑜 = 𝐺2 𝐺1 𝑘𝑇0 𝐵 + 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝑘𝑇𝑒1 𝐵 + 𝐺2 𝑘𝑇𝑒2 𝐵 = 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇0 + 𝑇𝑒1 +
𝐺1
𝑇𝑒2
𝑁𝑜 = 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇0 + 𝑇𝑒1 +
𝐺1
115
 Noise Figure of a Cascaded System
 For the equivalent system we have

𝑇𝑒2
𝑁𝑜 = 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇0 + 𝑇𝑒1 + = 𝐺1 𝐺2 𝑘𝐵 𝑇0 + 𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑠
𝐺1

 The noise temperature of the cascade system is

𝑇𝑒2
𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑠 = 𝑇𝑒1 +
𝐺1
 Noise figure of the cascade system is

𝐹2 − 1
𝐹𝑐𝑎𝑠 = 𝐹1 +
𝐺1

116
 Noise Figure of a Cascaded System
𝑇𝑒2
𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑠 = 𝑇𝑒1 +
𝐺1
𝐹2 − 1
𝐹𝑐𝑎𝑠 = 𝐹1 +
𝐺1
 The noise characteristics of a cascaded system are dominated by the
characteristics of the first stage since the effect of the second stage is reduced by
the gain of the first (assuming G1 > 1).

 Thus, for the best overall system noise performance, the first stage should have a
low noise figure and at least moderate gain.

 Expense and effort should be devoted primarily to the first stage, as opposed to
later stages, since later stages have a diminished impact on the overall noise
performance.
117
 Noise Figure of a Cascaded System
For arbitrary number of stages in cascade,

 Noise temperature of the cascade system is

𝑇𝑒2 𝑇𝑒3
𝑇𝑐𝑎𝑠 = 𝑇𝑒1 + + +⋯
𝐺1 𝐺1 𝐺2

 Noise figure of the cascade system is

𝐹2 − 1 𝐹3 − 1
𝐹𝑐𝑎𝑠 = 𝐹1 + + +⋯
𝐺1 𝐺1 𝐺2

118
 Noise Characterization of a microwave receiver
 We can now analyze the noise characteristics of a complete antenna–transmission
line–receiver front end, as shown in the following figure.

Noise analysis of a microwave receiver front end, including antenna and

transmission line contributions
119
 Noise Characterization of a microwave receiver
 In this system the total noise power at the output of the receiver, No, will be due to
contributions from the antenna pattern, the loss in the antenna, the loss in the
transmission line, and the receiver components.
 This noise power will determine the minimum detectable signal level for the
receiver and, for a given transmitter power, the maximum range of the
communication link.
 The receiver components in the figure consist of an RF amplifier with gain GRF
and noise temperature TRF, a mixer with an RF-to-IF conversion loss factor LM and
noise temperature TM, and an IF amplifier with gain GIF and noise temperature TIF.
 The noise effects of later stages can usually be ignored since the overall noise
figure is dominated by the characteristics of the first few stages.

120
 Noise Characterization of a microwave receiver
 The component noise temperatures can be related to noise figures as
𝑇 = (𝐹 − 1)𝑇0
 The equivalent noise temperature of the receiver can be found as
𝑇𝑀 𝑇𝐼𝐹 𝐿𝑀
𝑇𝑅𝐸𝐶 = 𝑇𝑅𝐹 + +
𝐺𝑅𝐹 𝐺𝑅𝐹
 The transmission line connecting the antenna to the receiver has a loss LT , and is
at a physical temperature Tp. So its equivalent noise temperature is
𝑇𝑇𝐿 = 𝐿 𝑇 − 1 𝑇𝑝
 The noise temperature of the transmission line (TL) and receiver (REC) cascade is
𝑇𝑇𝐿+𝑅𝐸𝐶 = 𝑇𝑇𝐿 + 𝐿 𝑇 𝑇𝑅𝐸𝐶 = 𝐿 𝑇 − 1 𝑇𝑝 + 𝐿 𝑇 𝑇𝑅𝐸𝐶
 This noise temperature is defined at the antenna terminals (the input to the
transmission line).
121
 Noise Characterization of a microwave receiver
 The entire antenna pattern can collect noise power. If the antenna has a reasonably
high gain with relatively low sidelobes, we can assume that all noise power comes
via the main beam, so that the noise temperature of the antenna is given by
𝑇𝐴 = 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑏 + 1 − 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑝
where ηrad is the efficiency of the antenna, Tp is its physical temperature, and Tb is
the equivalent brightness temperature of the background seen by the main beam.
 One must be careful with this approximation, as it is quite possible for the noise
power collected by the sidelobes to exceed the noise power collected by the main
beam, if the sidelobes are aimed at a hot background.
 The noise power at the antenna terminals, which is also the noise power delivered
to the transmission line, is
𝑁𝑖 = 𝑘𝐵𝑇𝐴 = 𝑘𝐵 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑏 + 1 − 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑝
where B is the system bandwidth
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 Noise Characterization of a microwave receiver
 If Si is the received power at the antenna terminals, then the input SNR at the
antenna terminals is Si /Ni . The output signal power is
𝑆𝑖 𝐺𝑅𝐹 𝐺𝐼𝐹
𝑆𝑜 = = 𝑆𝑖 𝐺𝑆𝑌𝑆
𝐿 𝑇 𝐿𝑀
where GSYS has been defined as a system power gain.
 The output noise power is
𝑁𝑜 = 𝑁𝑖 + 𝑘𝐵𝑇𝑇𝐿+𝑅𝐸𝐶 𝐺𝑆𝑌𝑆 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇𝐴 + 𝑇𝑇𝐿+𝑅𝐸𝐶 𝐺𝑆𝑌𝑆
= 𝑘𝐵 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑏 + 1 − 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑝 + 𝐿 𝑇 − 1 𝑇𝑝 + 𝐿 𝑇 𝑇𝑅𝐸𝐶 𝐺𝑆𝑌𝑆 = 𝑘𝐵𝑇𝑆𝑌𝑆 𝐺𝑆𝑌𝑆
where TSYS has been defined as the overall system noise temperature.
 The output SNR is
𝑆𝑜 𝑆𝑖 𝑆𝑖
= =
𝑁𝑜 𝑘𝐵𝑇𝑆𝑌𝑆 𝑘𝐵 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑏 + 1 − 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑝 + 𝐿 𝑇 − 1 𝑇𝑝 + 𝐿 𝑇 𝑇𝑅𝐸𝐶
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 Example
A microwave receiver has the following parameters:
𝑓 = 4.0 𝐺𝐻𝑧, 𝐺𝑅𝐹 = 20 𝑑𝐵,
𝐵 = 1 𝑀𝐻𝑧, 𝐹𝑅𝐹 = 3.0 𝑑𝐵,
𝐺𝐴 = 26 𝑑𝐵, 𝐿𝑀 = 6.0 𝑑𝐵,
𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 0.90, 𝐹𝑀 = 7.0 𝑑𝐵,
𝑇𝑝 = 300 𝐾, 𝐺𝐼𝐹 = 30 𝑑𝐵,
𝑇𝑏 = 200 𝐾, 𝐹𝐼𝐹 = 1.1 𝑑𝐵,
𝐿 𝑇 = 1.5 𝑑𝐵,

If the received power at the antenna terminals is 𝑆𝑖 = −80 𝑑𝐵𝑚, calculate the
input and output SNRs

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 Example
Solution:
 We first convert the above dB quantities to numerical values, and noise figures to
noise temperatures:
𝐺𝑅𝐹 = 1020Τ10 = 100,
𝐺𝐼𝐹 = 1030Τ10 = 1000,
𝐿 𝑇 = 101.5Τ10 = 1.41,
𝐿𝑀 = 106Τ10 = 4.0,
𝑇𝑀 = 𝐹𝑀 − 1 𝑇0 = 107Τ10 − 1 290 = 1163 𝐾
𝑇𝑅𝐹 = 𝐹𝑅𝐹 − 1 𝑇0 = 103Τ10 − 1 290 = 289 𝐾
𝑇𝐼𝐹 = 𝐹𝐼𝐹 − 1 𝑇0 = 101.1Τ10 − 1 290 = 84 𝐾

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 Example
Solution:
 The noise temperatures of the receiver, transmission line, and antenna are
𝑇𝑀 𝑇𝐼𝐹 𝐿𝑀 1163 84 4.0
𝑇𝑅𝐸𝐶 = 𝑇𝑅𝐹 + + = 289 + + = 304 𝐾
𝐺𝑅𝐹 𝐺𝑅𝐹 100 100
𝑇𝑇𝐿 = 𝐿 𝑇 − 1 𝑇𝑝 = 1.41 − 1 300 = 123 𝐾
𝑇𝐴 = 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑏 + 1 − 𝜂𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑇𝑝 = 0.9 200 + 1 − 0.9 300 = 210 𝐾
 The input noise power is
𝑁𝑖 = 𝑘𝐵𝑇𝐴 = 1.38 × 10−23 106 210 = 2.9 × 10−15 𝑊
2.9×10−15
𝑁𝑖 = 10 log10 = −115 𝑑𝐵𝑚
1×10−3
 Then the input SNR is
𝑆𝑖
= −80 𝑑𝐵𝑚 + 115 𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 35 𝑑𝐵
𝑁𝑖

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 Example
Solution:
 The total system noise temperature is
𝑇𝑆𝑌𝑆 = 𝑇𝐴 + 𝑇𝑇𝐿 + 𝐿 𝑇 𝑇𝑅𝐸𝐶 = 210 + 123 + 1.41 304 = 762 𝐾

𝑆𝑜 𝑆𝑖
 The output SNR is =
𝑁𝑜 𝑘𝐵𝑇𝑆𝑌𝑆

𝑘𝐵𝑇𝑆𝑌𝑆 = 1.38 × 10−23 106 762 = 1.05 × 10−14 𝑊

1.05×10−14
𝑘𝐵𝑇𝑆𝑌𝑆 = 10 log10 = −110 𝑑𝐵𝑚
1×10−3

𝑆0
= −80 𝑑𝐵𝑚 + 110 𝑑𝐵𝑚 = 30 𝑑𝐵
𝑁0

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 References
 John D Krauss, Ronald J Marhefka and Ahmad S. Khan, “Antennas and Wave
Propagation”, Fourth Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2006.

 Constantine A.Balanis, “Antenna Theory Analysis and Design”, Third edition,

John Wiley India Pvt Ltd., 2005.

 David M. Pozar, “Microwave Engineering”, Fourth Edition, Wiley India, 2012.

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