Wildlife Forensic Science

Applications to Increase Compliance with CITES,

Fisheries and Timber Trade Regulations

TR CE
Society for Wildlife the wildlife forensics network
Forensic Science
Credits
Editors
Prof Rob Ogden and Dr Simon Dures, TRACE Wildlife Forensics Network.

Contributors
TRACE Wildlife Forensics Network
Society for Wildlife Forensic Science
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
TRAFFIC
US Fish and Wildlife Service Forensics Laboratory
NOAA Fisheries Forensics Laboratory
Netherlands Forensic Institute

Acknowledgements
TRACE Wildlife Forensics Network would like to thank all of those who
contributed content and images for the preparation of this guide. The field
of wildlife forensics is based on collaboration and coordination between
multiple disciplines, organisations and individuals. It has not been possible
to reflect everyone’s efforts here; omission of specific projects is no reflection
of their value to wildlife law enforcement.

Photograph acknowledgements:
© TRAFFIC: Page 3, ivory; page 4, tiger; page 6, ivory & pangolin
© TRACE: Page 4, meat and elephant; page 6, meat, bear bile, scientist;
page 7, tiger; page 9, pipettes & ivory training
© Dhrubaneel Biswas / Forum for Social Justice and Development: Page 7,
tiger head
© NOAA: Page 8, abalone, shark fin, totoaba
© Guy Stevens / Manta Trust : Page 8, manta rays
© Daniel Fernando / Manta Trust: Page 8, gill rakers
© Perhilitan, Malaysia: Page 5, lab analyst

Design
Print design by Artificial Art
www.artificialart.co.uk

Funding
The production of this guide was funded by
TRACE Wildlife Forensics Network

© Copyright 2022 – TRACE Wildlife Forensics Network Limited, UK

Wildlife Forensic Science
Introduction
The use of forensic science to address wildlife law enforcement issues is on the rise, from direct
applications to legal casework through to trade control and the generation of criminal intelligence.
This guide provides an introduction to wildlife forensics, explaining how it can be used to support
investigations across a range of transnational environmental crimes including CITES infringements, IUU
fishing and illegal logging.

To maximise the impact of wildlife forensic science it is essential that the scientific, enforcement and
policy communities communicate effectively and work together. We hope that this guide, which includes
input from across the international wildlife forensic community, will stimulate ideas and questions from
all stakeholders involved in tackling wildlife crime and ultimately help increase compliance with CITES,
fisheries and timber trade regulations.

Contents
4 What is wildlife forensics?
Transnational Wildlife Crime
5 Investigative questions • Enforcing CITES
• Verifying trade
5 Techniques used in wildlife forensics
• Informing investigations
6 Forensic casework examples
7 TigerBase – a DNA traceability solution
8 IUU fishing & seafood fraud
9 Global capacity building
10 Crime scene and evidence management Timber
11 Key international partners • Identifying products
• Tracing origins
• Regulating trade

Fisheries
• Tackling IUU
• Preventing fraud
• Supporting sustainability

TR CE
Society for Wildlife the wildlife forensics network
Forensic Science
Wildlife Forensic Science
What is wildlife forensics?
Wildlife forensics is concerned with the application of scientific analysis to support wildlife law
enforcement. It specifically focuses on the identification of non-human biological samples, rather
than traditional forensic disciplines such as ballistics or human DNA profiling. Within the field of
wildlife forensics, a number of different applications are recognised, from casework analysis, through to
traceability and intelligence.

Casework
The primary purpose of wildlife forensics is to undertake scientific
analysis to inform legal proceedings. Analysis is focused on addressing
specific investigative questions and on evaluating the strength of the
resulting evidence in relation to the case. Performing casework requires
very high standards of quality assurance and evidential security. This
restricts the availability of forensic casework services to dedicated
laboratory facilities operated by trained forensic practitioners. Species identification of processed
wildlife is central to many
Traceability prosecutions.

Analysis of wildlife samples can also be applied to the verification of

products in trade and the detection of criminal activity. Traceability
systems based on techniques such as DNA profiling are used to
audit supply chains in the timber and fisheries industries and to
DNA registration and audit authenticate captive breeding claims. Incidences of illegal trade can be
schemes can help regulate trade subsequently investigated through directed forensic casework.
and detect illegal activity.

Intelligence
To support ongoing trade investigations, analysis of wildlife parts and
products may also be used to generate intelligence on illegal harvesting
or poaching and subsequent trade routes. Such applications are
typically performed under a reduced level of quality assurance and
therefore should not be relied upon to generate legal evidence, but may
provide the enforcement community with important information to help Intelligence on poaching hotspots
direct criminal investigations. informs law enforcement strategy.

The role of forensics within wildlife law enforcement

Crime Scene Evidence Forensic Case
Analysis Preparation Prosecution
Investigation Transfer

Any application of forensic science represents one link in a longer investigative chain, from detection of
a crime through to its eventual prosecution. In order to take advantage of wildlife forensic techniques
it is essential that laboratory analysis is integrated within a wider forensic framework. For this reason,
forensic procedures must be considered at a broader level, beginning with the collection of evidence at
the crime scene and ending with an understanding of the evidence in the courtroom.
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Wildlife Forensic Science
Investigative questions
The development and application of wildlife forensics must be driven by enforcement needs, addressing
the key questions or points to prove in an investigation. The particular investigative questions relating to
an evidence item are usually case specific, but can typically be described as follows:

• What species is it from?

• Where did it come from?
• Was it taken from the wild?
• Does it match to a specific individual?
• How old is it?

Techniques used in wildlife forensics

Analysis of wildlife samples may include many different
scientific techniques, some of which have been
transferred from mainstream criminal forensics, and
others that have been developed specifically for wildlife
crime investigation.

Although wildlife forensic methods are advancing

rapidly, many techniques are specific to certain species
or sample types.

Morphology

Proteins Chemical
Isotopes

Techniques
Chemical Radio
Profiles Isotopes
DNA

Prior to the use of any analytical method in forensic casework, it must undergo a process of formal
validation. Its application must be defined by Standard Operating Procedures, and controlled within a
quality management system.

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Wildlife Forensic Science
Forensic Casework
Identifying wildlife, supporting prosecutions

The Problems
To prosecute illegal transnational wildlife trade,
it is necessary to establish that a crime has
occurred.

Most wildlife protection laws refer to specific

species and may also relate to the source or age
of a wildlife product.

Parts and derivatives of traded flora and fauna

can take many forms and often cannot be easily
identified, preventing enforcement officers from
demonstrating criminality.

To enable prosecutions, it is necessary to provide

compelling evidence concerning the origin of
wildlife products.

Example Solutions
• Comparative morphology is used to
determine the species of traded animals and
plants based on their physical characteristics.
• Wildlife DNA forensics uses different levels
of genetic variation to identify species,
populations, individuals and family groups.
• Radiocarbon dating can help determine
when the original organism was alive,
helping to separate antique from
contemporary wildlife products.
• Chemical profiling can characterise the
molecular composition of timber, to help
infer the source or species of origin.

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Wildlife Forensic Science
TigerBase
DNA registration and traceability of captive tigers

The Problem
Captive breeding of tigers creates the
potential for wild animals to be laundered
into commercial operations and results in a
potential supply of tiger products for the illegal
international trade.

Proving a tiger is from the wild is difficult,

however DNA parentage analysis can be used
to disprove captive breeding claims.
Individual DNA profiling can also help trace the
captive origins of seized tiger products.
Both of these applications require large scale
tiger DNA databases.

The Solution
The TigerBase project in Southeast Asia has
been launched with the aim of recording all
captive tigers in the region on a secure DNA
database. Using a specially designed DNA
profiling system that maximises the ability to
transfer the technique among laboratories,
TigerBase is starting to record individual tigers
on a DNA register.

TigerBase will allow national governments to

examine the validity of breeding claims and
search for individual matches between samples.

TigerBase is an initiative of TRACE Wildlife Forensics Network

which has developed the DNA profiling systems necessary to
determine parentage and identify individuals. TRACE is now
working with governments in Thailand, Malaysia and Vietnam
to create national DNA registers of captive tigers to help
regulate breeding and prevent illegal trade.
TigerBase allows simple, rapid
production of individual profiles from
SNP DNA markers.
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Wildlife Forensic Science
Fighting IUU Fishing & Seafood Fraud
The Problems
• Approximately 20% of wild fisheries products
are estimated to be from Illegal, Unreported
or Unregulated (IUU) activity.
• Subsequent trade in IUU fish involves
laundering products into the legal supply
chain. Abalone Shark Fin
• Determing the legal or illegal origin of fish
products in trade often requires identification
of species and geographic origin.
• Identification of processed fish is extremely
difficult without scientific analysis.

Totoaba Swim Bladder

The Solutions
Forensic analysis of fish and seafood products
can be employed to determine the species of
origin and, in some cases, the ocean region of
origin.

Techniques range from expert morphological

identification, to DNA analysis and stable
isotope profiling.

The listing of marine species under CITES

has driven the development of novel forensic
Manta Ray Gill applications, for example to identify manta rays,
Manta Ray Rakers
targeted for their gill rakers.

>145 forensic investigations

The casework completed by

the US NOAA fisheries forensic
laboratory from 2020-2022.

>1525 evidence items

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Wildlife Forensic Science
Global development of wildlife forensic capacity
Forensic science has been applied to wildlife law enforcement for decades, but its availability has
historically been restricted to a few developed nations. In the past ten years, this picture has changed
and there are now numerous initiatives supporting the development of wildlife forensic capacity at a
global scale.

Building capacity & Setting Developing

networks standards laboratories
The growth of wildlife Wildlife casework must Wildlife forensic labs have
forensics as a specialist be performed to agreed started to become established
discipline has led to the need standards within a controlled in many of the world’s
for training and capacity laboratory environment. biodiversity hotspots, subject
building programmes Accreditation of forensic tests to illegal logging, fishing and
around the world. A to international standards transnational wildlife trade.
number of regional wildlife (ISO17025) is ideal, but The past decade has seen
forensic networks have not always possible. To the development of four new
been developed to share address this issue, the laboratories in Southeast
expertise among scientists Society for Wildlife Forensic Asia, two in south Asia and
and to link the wildlife Science has issued standards nine in Africa, which are now
forensic community with the and guidelines specific to generating forensic evidence
law enforcement and legal conducting non-human for national investigations.
professions. forensic analysis.

Supporting wildlife forensic scientists

Alongside the establishment of laboratory standards, work to
professionalise wildlife forensics has included the development of
individual certification and laboratory proficiency testing schemes,
specific to wildlife forensic practitioners. These are operated through
the Society for Wildlife Forensic Science.

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Wildlife Forensic Science
Crime scene and evidence management
Wildlife forensics relies on the correct collection and transfer of evidence, from crime scene to
courtroom. For evidence to be admissible in court it must be appropriately handled, documented, and
preserved.

Crime scene management

Wildlife crime commonly occurs in remote regions with little likelihood
that dedicated crime scene investigators can attend. Therefore, it is
essential that all wildlife law enforcement personnel have a working
awareness of crime scene investigation principles to ensure evidence
collection preserves integrity, prevents contamination, and is properly
documented. The wildlife forensics community is collaborating to
increase in-country crime scene capacity through train-the-trainer
programmes, targeting regions where improvement is most needed.
To facilitate and standardise appropriate training, the community has
developed a Wildlife Crime Scene Guide for First Responders.

The Wildlife Crime Scene Guide, pro-

duced by the African Wildlife Forensics
Network, published by UNODC, is
available in multiple languages and is

Evidence management now used around the world.

Legal challenges to the chain of custody of evidence is common practice

during court proceedings. For forensic evidence to hold up to scrutiny
in court, it is necessary that wildlife law enforcement agencies correctly
manage evidence from the moment it is identified at a crime scene
until it enters court proceedings. The international wildlife forensics
community is helping national agencies to develop institutional
standard operating procedures (SOPs) for evidence security and
management. These are then implemented through internal training
Wildlife college trainers participating
programmes and the provision of evidence security infrastructure,
in an instructors course for crime scene
first responder awareness. increasing the admissibility of evidence in wildlife prosecutions.

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Wildlife Forensic Science
Key partners and roles
There are a number of organisations involved in supporting the development of wildlife forensic science.
Some of the key partners working at an international level to build capacity, set standards, coordinate
programmes and fund activities are listed here.

TRACE Wildlife Forensics Network The Society for Wildlife Forensic Science
TRACE Wildlife Forensics Network is a UK-based The Society for Wildlife Forensic Science,
NGO with an international remit to promote established in 2009, is an international member
the use of forensic analysis to support wildlife based organisation that works to improve
law enforcement. TRACE provides training and standards, support practitioners and represent
advice to scientists worldwide and has helped the wildlife forensic science community.
develop wildlife forensics networks in Southeast
Asia and Africa. TRAFFIC

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime TRAFFIC is a non-governmental organization

working globally on trade in wild animals
The United Nations Office on Drugs and and plants in the context of both biodiversity
Crime is the global leader in the fight against conservation and sustainable development.
illicit drugs and transnational organized crime. TRAFFIC is a strategic alliance between
UNODC implements a programme to address WWF and IUCN, the International Union for
‘Crimes that Affect the Environment’ and leads Conservation of Nature.
on wildlife forensic work for the International
The NOAA Fisheries Forensics Laboratory
Consortium for Combating Wildlife Crime
(ICCWC). The NOAA Fisheries Forensics Laboratory is
dedicated to the forensic analysis of marine
USFWS Forensic Laboratory species in the USA. This includes investigations
The US Fish and Wildlife Service Forensic concerning marine mammals and reptiles, as
Laboratory in Ashland, Oregon, offers a wide well as marine fish, either living in US waters or
range of forensic techniques for wildlife crime imported through trade.
investigation and has a global remit under
CITES to provide international wildlife forensic African Wildlife Forensics Network
services.
The African Wildlife Forensics Network is a
The Netherlands Forensic Institute collective of wildlife crime scene and forensic
The Netherlands Forensic Institute (NFI) is the laboratory practitioners, together with wider
Dutch national forensic laboratory. NFI offers wildlife law enforcement stakeholders. They work
advice, assistance and expertise in many to provide access to forensic science for African
forensic disciplines, including wildlife forensics wildlife law enforcement agencies.
and wildlife crime scene investigation.

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For More Information
Further information on wildlife forensics can be obtained online at www.wildlifeforensicscience.org
For information on capacity building and training contact TRACE via www.tracenetwork.org