1

Module 14 THE EUROPEAN

LITERATURE

Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Discuss the background of literature from different European country;
2. Explain the key features to understand European Literature;
3. Appreciate the characteristics of different European Literature; and
4. Analyze the poem “Demain, dès l’aube” by Victor Hugo

The European Literature

Literature of England is also known as the English literature. English literature is
the body of written works produced in the English language by inhabitants of the British
Isles (including Ireland) from the 7th century to the present day. Being the origin of the
English language, England has yielded many noteworthy literary works and authors.
While each of these is unique, they represent England’s literature as a cohesive body.
Over the ages, different styles and approaches to literature have become evident.

Literature of England
The Old English language or Anglo-Saxon is the earliest form of English. The
period is a long one and it is generally considered that Old English was spoken from
about A.D. 600 to about 1100. Many of the poems of the period are pagan, in particular
Widsith and Beowulf.
The greatest English poem, Beowulf is the first English epic. The author of
Beowulf is anonymous. It is a story of a brave young man Beowulf in 3182 lines. In this
epic poem, Beowulf sails to Denmark with a band of warriors to save the King of
Denmark, Hrothgar. Beowulf saves Danish King Hrothgar from a terrible monster called
Grendel. The mother of Grendel who sought vengeance for the death of her son was
also killed by Beowulf. Beowulf was rewarded and became King. After a prosperous
reign of some forty years, Beowulf slays a dragon but in the fight he himself receives a
mortal wound and dies. The poem concludes with the funeral ceremonies in honor of the
dead hero. Though the poem Beowulf is little interesting to contemporary readers, it is a
very important poem in the Old English period because it gives an interesting picture of
the life and practices of old days.
The difficulty encountered in reading Old English Literature lies in the fact that the
language is very different from that of today. There was no rhyme in Old English poems.
Instead they used alliteration. Besides Beowulf, there are many other Old English
 2
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

poems. Widsith, Genesis A, Genesis B, Exodus, The Wanderer, The Seafarer, Wife’s
Lament, Husband’s Message, Christ and Satan, Daniel, Andreas, Gathas, The Dream of
the Rood, The Battle of Maldon etc. are some of the examples. Two important figures in
Old English poetry are Cynewulf and Caedmon. Cynewulf wrote religious poems and the
four poems, Juliana, The Fates of the Apostles, Christ and Elene are always credited
with him. Caedmon is famous for his Hymn. Alfred enriched Old English prose with his
translations especially Bede’s Ecclesiastical History. Aelfric is another important prose
writer during Old English period. He is famous for his Grammar, Homilies and Lives of
the Saints. Aelfric’s prose is natural and easy and is very often alliterative.
In France the name miracle was given to any play representing the lives of the
saints, while the mystère represented scenes from the life of Christ or stories from the
Old Testament associated with the coming of Messiah. In England this distinction was
almost unknown; the name Miracle was used indiscriminately for all plays having their
origin in the Bible or in the lives of the saints; and the name Mystery, to distinguish a
certain class of plays, was not used until long after the religious drama had passed
away.
The earliest Miracle of which we have any record in England is the Ludus de
Sancta Katharina, which was performed in Dunstable about the year 1110. It is not
known who wrote the original play of St. Catherine, but our first version was prepared by
Geoffrey of St. Albans, a French schoolteacher of Dunstable. Whether or not the play
was given in English is not known, but it was customary in the earliest plays for the chief
actors to speak in Latin or French, to show their importance, while minor and comic
parts of the same play were given in English.
For four centuries after this first recorded play the Miracles increased steadily in
number and popularity in England. They were given first very simply and impressively in
the churches; then, as the actors increased in number and the plays in liveliness, they
overflowed to the churchyards; but when fun and hilarity began to predominate even in
the most sacred representations, the scandalized priests forbade plays altogether on
church grounds. By the year 1300 the Miracles were out of ecclesiastical hands and
adopted eagerly by the town guilds; and in the following two centuries we find the
Church preaching against the abuse of the religious drama which it had itself introduced,
and which at first had served a purely religious purpose. But by this time the Miracles
had taken strong hold upon the English people, and they continued to be immensely
popular until, in the sixteenth century, they were replaced by the Elizabethan drama.
The early Miracle plays of England were divided into two classes: the first, given
at Christmas, included all plays connected with the birth of Christ; the second, at Easter,
included the plays relating to his death and triumph. By the beginning of the fourteenth
century all these plays were, in various localities, united in single cycles beginning with
the Creation and ending with the Final Judgment. The complete cycle was presented
 3
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

every spring, beginning on Corpus Christi day; and as the presentation of so many plays
meant a continuous outdoor festival of a week or more, this day was looked forward to
as the happiest of the whole year.
Probably every important town in England had its own cycle of plays for its own
guilds to perform, but nearly all have been lost. At the present day only four cycles exist
(except in the most fragmentary condition), and these, though they furnish an interesting
commentary on the times, add very little to our literature. The four cycles are the
Chester and York plays, so called from the towns in which they were given; the
Towneley or Wakefield plays, named for the Towneley family, which for a long time
owned the manuscript; and the Coventry plays, which on doubtful evidence have been
associated with the Grey Friars (Franciscans) of Coventry. The Chester cycle has 25
plays, the Wakefield 30, the Coventry 42, and the York 48. It is impossible to fix either
the date or the authorship of any of these plays; we only know certainly that they were in
great favor from the twelfth to the sixteenth century. The York plays are generally
considered to be the best; but those of Wakefield show more humor and variety, and
better workmanship. The former cycle especially shows a certain unity resulting from its
aim to represent the whole of man’s life from birth to death. The same thing is noticeable
in Cursor Mundi, which, with the York and Wakefield cycles, belongs to the fourteenth
century.
After these plays were written according to the general outline of the Bible stories,
no change was tolerated, the audience insisting, like children at “Punch and Judy,” upon
seeing the same things year after year. No originality in plot or treatment was possible,
therefore; the only variety was in new songs and jokes, and in the pranks of the devil.
Childish as such plays seem to us, they are part of the religious development of all
uneducated people. Even now the Persian play of the “Martyrdom of Ali” is celebrated
yearly, and the famous “Passion Play,” a true Miracle, is given every ten years at
Oberammergau.

English Writers
1. Poet Geoffrey Chaucer was born circa 1340 in London, England. In 1357
he became a public servant to Countess Elizabeth of Ulster and continued in that
capacity with the British court throughout his lifetime. The Canterbury Tales
became his best known and most acclaimed work. He died in 1400 and was the
first to be buried in Westminster Abbey’s Poet’s Corner. Chaucer’s first major
work was ‘The Book of the Duchess’, an elegy for the first wife of his patron John
of Gaunt. Other works include ‘Parlement of Foules’, ‘The Legend of Good
Women’ and ‘Troilus and Criseyde’. In 1387, he began his most famous work,
‘The Canterbury Tales’, in which a diverse group of people recount stories to pass
the time on a pilgrimage to Canterbury.
 4
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

2. William Langland, (born c. 1330—died c. 1400), presumed author of one

of the greatest examples of Middle English alliterative poetry, generally known as
Piers Plowman, an allegorical work with a complex variety of religious themes.
One of the major achievements of Piers Plowman is that it translates the
language and conceptions of the cloister into symbols and images that could be
understood by the layman. In general, the language of the poem is simple and
colloquial, but some of the author’s imagery is powerful and direct.

3. James Thompson is remembered for his long series of descriptive

passages dealing with natural scenes in his poem The Seasons. He wrote
another important poem The Castle of Indolence.

4. Thomas Gray (1716-1771) is one of the greatest poets of English

literature. His first poem was the Ode on a Distant Prospect of Eton College.
Then after years of revision, he published his famous Elegy Written in a Country
Churchyard. Its popularity had been maintained to the present day. Other
important poems of Thomas Gray are Ode on a Favourite Cat, The Bard and The
Progress of Poesy.

5. Edmund Burke is one of the masters of English prose. He was a great

orator also. His speech On American Taxation is very famous. Revolution in
France and A Letter to a Noble Lord are his notable pamphlets. The letters of
Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Earl of Chesterfield, Thomas Gray and Cowper are
good prose works in Eighteenth century literature.

Literature of France
French literature, one of the world's most brilliant, has been for centuries an
impressive facet of French civilization, an object of national pride, and a principal focus
for feelings of national identity. Because the French are a literate people, passionately
interested in questions of language and in the exploration of ideas, the influence of
French intellectuals on the course of French history during the last three centuries has
been great, and remains so today. A high proportion of European literary trends have
originated in France. The continuing prestige of literature in France is evidenced today
by the innumerable private societies devoted to individual authors and by the large
number of literary prizes awarded each year. A knowledge of French literature, in short,
is the key to an understanding of the French people.
The history of French literature has developed over the year. Continuous work is
also being carried out by French literary writers to improve on the progress made by
previous French authors. The history of French literature could be grouped under the
 5
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

medieval period, the sixteenth century, seventeenth century, eighteenth century,

nineteenth century, twentieth century and contemporary.
The medieval French literature was written in early middle and old French
languages. Medieval French literature was the literary works carried out between the
11th century and the 15th century. This period saw different genres of creative work
carried out by poets, clercs, jongleurs and writers. Some of the first works in Old French
language were Eulalie and Canticle of Saint. Forms of poetic works by medieval French
poets include Jeu Parti, Aube, Chant royal and Chanson, while genres of theater include
Passion play, miracle play, morality play and mystery play.
French Renaissance literature or sixteenth century literature is literary works
carried out between 1494 and 1600. The years 1515 to 1559 are reputed to be the
pinnacle of French Renaissance. The literal meaning of Renaissance in English is
Rebirth. Jules Michelet, a French historian was the first person to define and use the
word. In the creation of French literary works, the 16th century is regarded as a
remarkable period. The Middle French language was in use and the introduction of
printing press made it easier to print the literatures.
The seventeenth century saw French literary work carried out all through
France’s Grand Siecle. The period was also significant for France as it led Europe in
cultural and political development. The writers of this period featured good taste,
proportion, clarity and order of classical ideals in their work. Popular France writers in
this period include Madame de La Fayette and Jean Racine.
The eighteenth century in French literary work was between 1715 and 1798. This
was the period when the modern period of French history began, with a conclusion of
the French revolution and the assumption of power by the consulate. Great French
playwrights during the period include Corneille, Racine and Moliere, who were also
prominent in the seventeenth century.
The nineteenth century French history centered between 1799 and 1940. The
period saw the end of Empire and monarchy as well as the development of democracy
in France. French literature enjoyed huge international success and prestige in this
period. Some popular styles during the period include symbolism, Parnassian poetry
and naturalism.
The twentieth century French history spanned from 1900 to 1999. There were
several developments in French literary works during the period. Some notable events
that influenced literature during the period were Algerian independence war, Far East
and the Pacific, Imperialism in Africa and French colonialism as well as Dreyfus affairs.
The contemporary French literature covers from year 2000 up till now. Some
events during this period that has influenced French literature include racism,
 6
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

unemployment, immigration, violence and terrorism. Contemporary French authors

include Tristan Garcia and Christophe Fiat.
10 Famous French Authors and Their Incredible Lives
French authors have left a lasting imprint on world literature. Many of their books
became legendary, such as The Little Prince or Les Misérables, and the incredible
stories they shaped, together with the innovative language they used, have changed the
lives of generations of readers. But on top of writing extraordinary novels and poems,
French writers have also lived truly extraordinary lives, which are often not well known
by the general public. In this article, you’ll get to dive into the works and biographies of
these giants.
1. VICTOR HUGO
He lived on a street named after him “He who opens a school door, closes a
prison.” Victor Hugo (1802-1885) is one
of the best-known French writers and
the author of The Hunchback of Notre-
Dame, Les Misérables, and The Last
Day of a Condemned Man. As a leading
figure of the Romantic movement, he
created the "Cénacle" in 1827, a literary
coterie gathering young authors and
whose seat was his apartment. Widely considered a literary
genius at an early age, he was elected to the French Academy
in 1841.
Known for writing novels, poems and plays with a cause, Victor Hugo engaged in
several political battles, like the one against the death penalty or the Second Empire led
by Napoleon III. This last combat got him exiled to Jersey in 1848, then to Guernsey for
about 20 years, where he produced the richest part of his literary work. Upon his return
to France in 1870, Victor Hugo was welcomed as the symbol of Republican resistance
to the Second Empire.
2. EMILE ZOLA
He changed the course of the Dreyfus Affair ("J’accuse!") "One day, France will
thank me for having helped to save her honor." Already in his lifetime, Emile Zola
(18401902) was considered one of the most popular French authors and journalists who
ever lived. A leader and theorist of the movement of Naturalism in literature, his novels,
such as L'Assommoir, Germinal, The Ladies’ Paradise, Nana or The Monomaniac,
display a methodic, almost scientific description of his era. He uncompromisingly
analyzed the men of his time and never ceased to engage in
social causes the most famous of which being the Dreyfus
 7
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

Affair. It started in 1894, in a France marked by a stiff revival of anti-Semitism. Dreyfus,

a French officer of Jewish origin, was falsely convicted of passing military secrets to
France’s archenemy, Germany, and subsequently expelled from the army and
sentenced to life imprisonment in Devil’s Island.
3. ALBERT CAMUS
Born in French Algeria, Albert Camus (1913-1960) was a philosopher, author and
journalist. From his involvement in the Resistance during World War II to his
denunciation of the Soviet Union, Camus demonstrated a
constant political activity throughout his life. Philosophically, he
stayed on the margins of the main movements of his time,
opposing both Marxism and Existentialism, and fighting any
overarching ideology aimed at dissociating men from their
human condition. He was also involved in the defense of North
African Muslims and antifascist Spanish refugees.
His books are steeped in his existential anxieties and his endless questioning
about human condition. His views contributed to the rise of Absurdism, a philosophy
inviting to embrace the inability to find any purpose in a fundamentally absurd human
existence. This theme inspired Camus’ “absurd cycle”, a series of novels, plays and
essays including The Outsider, The Myth of Sisyphus, Caligula and The
Misunderstanding.
In 1957, Albert Camus was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, becoming the
second-youngest recipient in history. Three years later, while returning to Paris after
celebrating New Year’s Eve with his family in his home in Lourmarin, he died in a car
accident after the driver, his friend Michel Gallimard, crashed into a tree. The French
author was 47 years old.
4. GUY DE MAUPASSANT
Henry-René-Albert-Guy de Maupassant, commonly
known as Guy de Maupassant (1850-1893), was a journalist
and writer of novels and short stories (such as Bel Ami, The
Horla, Une Vie) that brilliantly mixed realism with fantasy. Most
of his works have a pessimistic consonance, as Maupassant
insisted on portraying the cruelty, stupidity and selfishness of
the human race.
Although he lived for several years in Paris, Maupassant has repeatedly admitted
to hating the Eiffel Tower. Like many fellow authors and artists, he thought of the iron
monument to be a desecration of the beauty of the French capital. Ironically enough, he
often had lunch in one of the restaurants located on its first floor. After a journalist asked
 8
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

him why he would eat in the Eiffel Tower if he disliked it so much, the French writer
replied: "It is the only place in the city where I do not see it".
He ended up leaving Paris, and eventually France, because of the iconic tower:
“It could not only be seen from all over, but it could be found everywhere, made of all
sorts of known matters, exhibited in all the shops and show windows, an inevitable and
racking nightmare. It was not the only thing, though, that created in me an irresistible
desire to be alone for a while, but everything that has been made in and over it, and
even around it”, he wrote in The Wandering Life.
5. ROMAIN GARY
Born Roman Kacew in Vilnius, Lithuania, Romain Gary (1914-1980) emigrated to
France at the age of 14. He studied law and was later enlisted in the Free French Air
Force during the Second World War.
After the war, he joined the diplomatic
career, during which he wrote many of
his most famous books. Haunted by
the war and the angst of aging, the
French writer described the complexity
and turmoil inherent to human relationships in emblematic
books such as Promise at Dawn and The Dance of Gengis
Cohn.
In 1956, he received the Prix Goncourt, the most prestigious literary award in
France, for The Roots of Heaven, the story of a crusading environmentalist who fights to
save elephants from extinction.
In 1974, in search of renewal, he decided to write a new series of novels using a
pseudonym. In 1975, without knowing the real identity of the writer, the jury of the
académie Goncourt awarded its prestigious prize to Emile Ajar for The Life Before Us,
the story of a Muslim orphan boy living under the care of an old Jewish woman, in
postwar Paris. This is how Gary became the first and only writer in history to win the
Goncourt twice.
6. HONORÉ DE BALZAC
Honoré de Balzac (1799-1850) was one of the initiators
of Realism in literature. In 1834, he had the idea of grouping all
of his novels in an organized whole, which would eventually
turn into one of the most fantastic efforts in the history of
literature: the Comédie humaine (The Human Comedy), a
masterpiece gathering more than 2,000 characters in 91
different works, in which he aimed to paint the “social species”
of his time.
 9
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

As you could already guess, Honoré de Balzac was a hard worker, and like many
hard workers, a huge fan of coffee. He wouldn’t let anyone prepare his beverage
because he followed a very precise recipe, mixing three varieties of coffee beans
Bourbon Island, Martinique and Yemen mocha - before boiling the decoction for hours in
order to obtain a caffeine concentrate capable of keeping him awake all night. He even
wrote about the effects of coffee in his Treatise on Modern Stimulants.
During the last years of his life, the French author actually slept very little. He
would spend entire nights writing and drinking coffee. Legend has it that Honoré de
Balzac could sometimes drink up to 25 coffees a day! We can say that Balzac was, in a
way, the Georges Clooney of the 20th century.
7. MARCEL PROUST
Valentin Louis Georges Eugène Marcel Proust (1871-
1922) is widely regarded as one of the most influential novelists of
all times. His immense work, In Search of Lost Time, comprising
seven volumes published between 1913 and 1927, is based on a
deep psychological reflection on the relationship between
literature, memory and time.
Early on, he suffered from asthma attacks which forced him to take long rest
periods. This seclusion prompted him to write down his thoughts and feelings, which he
expressed through long sentences that stretched over entire paragraphs. This method
has often been interpreted as a way for the author to fight the destruction occasioned by
the passing time, and to express in writing what he could not say orally because of his
breathing impairment.
In Sodom et Gomorrah, published in 1921, he wrote one of the longest sentences
in French literature, made of 858 words. Hard to believe, isn’t it? You can read it here (in
French).
8. PAUL VERLAINE
Paul Verlaine (1844-1896) is the author of some of the most well-known poetry
books in French literature, such as Poèmes saturniens, Fêtes galantes and Romances
sans paroles - the latter, written during his years of relationship
with Arthur Rimbaud. It’s in 1871 that Verlaine met with
Rimbaud, who was sixteen and had just moved to Paris.
Verlaine fell in love with him and soon left his wife Mathilde
Mauté to follow the young poet on his trips across Europe. What
followed were two years of a stormy relationship, marked by
recurring dramas and high consumption of opium, absinthe and
hash.
 10
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

On the night of July 8, 1873, Rimbaud joined Verlaine in Brussels. The few days
spent together were stormy, Verlaine thinking of returning to London and Rimbaud
refusing to go with him. On July 10, Verlaine drank excessively and went out to buy a
six-shot revolver with a box of cartridges. After yet another argument during which
Rimbaud told him that he wanted to leave him, Verlaine shot his lover twice after
shouting at him, "That's it for you, since you're leaving!" One bullet struck Rimbaud
above the left wrist joint, the other touched the wall. On August 8, 1873, Verlaine was
sentenced for serious injury to two years in prison and a 200-francs fine.
In 2016, more than 140 years later, the revolver used by Verlaine against his
companion was sold at auction for a whopping €434,500. Fortunately, this gun has
caused more ink than blood to flow.

9. GEORGES PEREC
Georges Perec (1936-1982) was one of the most remarkable French writers of
the twentieth century. He reached literary fame in 1965, after the publication of Things:
A Story of the Sixties, in which he described in a very meticulous way the mundane
events of his daily life. Perec was
particularly fond of literary devices and
experiments, from constrained writing to
plays of words, from endless lists to
absurd classifications. They enabled
him to tackle with grace some very
heavy, recurring topics, such as
disappearance and the quest for identity, tracing back to Perec’s
trauma who lost all of his family in the Holocaust when he was a
child.
In 1969, he took up an unprecedented literary challenge: a 300-page lipogramatic
novel entitled A Void, made of regularly built sentences, but using only words that do not
include the letter “e” - the most frequent vowel in the French language. In an interview (in
French) about this incredible literary endeavor, Perec said: “When we write, we usually
pay attention to the sentences, we try to modulate our sentences. We pay attention to
the words; we pick our words. But we hardly pay attention to the letters, that is to say the
graphic supports of writing. If we decide to deprive ourselves, to make an element
disappear in this alphabet, and instead of 26 letters, we decide to only have 25, a real
catastrophe is meant to occur, as soon as the letter we choose is important”.
10. GUILLAUME APOLLINAIRE
Guillaume Albert Vladimir Alexandre Apollinaire de
Kostrowitzky, commonly known as Guillaume Apollinaire
 11
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

(18801918), was one of the most influential poets of the early 20th century (Alcools,
Caligrammes), as well as a calligraphist and author of erotic short stories. Theorist of the
“New Spirit”, he was a good friend of Pablo Picasso, with whom he shared a passion for
the emerging Cubist movement.
In 1916, while fighting with the French army, he was injured by shrapnel that hit
his right temple. After a long and painful recovery, he published the collection Les
Mamelles de Tiresias, which he qualified as a “surrealist drama”. He used the term
“surrealism” for the first time in a letter to Paul Dermée, a Belgian writer and friend of his,
in which he tried to name the new literary movement he was initiating: “All things
considered, I believe indeed that it is better to adopt surrealism than supernaturalism that
I had first employed. The word “surrealism” does not yet exist in dictionaries, and it will
be more convenient tohandle than supernaturalism already used by MM. the
philosophers”.
This marked the beginning of Surrealism. If Apollinaire coined the term, it is only
a few years later that André Breton, with his Manifesto of Surrealism (1924), would lay
the conceptual groundwork of the movement. Deeply influenced by the works of Freud,
surrealist authors would develop unconventional literary techniques and explore all of
the facets of the unconscious mind in search for creativity. The word “surreal” appeared
in the English language in the 1930s as a backformation of “surrealist”. It is still widely
used today, almost a century later, as a slang for “weird” or “irrational”.

Literature of Germany
Medieval German Literature

• German literature begins in the Carolingian period, first in Latin and then in
Old High German
• Hildebrandslied – (The most famous work in OHG) a short piece of
Germanic alliterative heroic verse which is the sole survivor of what must have
been a vast oral tradition
The Baroque Period

• The Baroque period was one of the most fertile times in German literature
• Many writers reflected the horrible experiences of the Thirty Years' War, in
poetry and prose
• Grimmelshausen's adventures of the young and naïve Simplicissimus, in
the eponymous book, became the most famous novel of the Baroque period The
Period of Enlightenment
 12
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

• The Age of Enlightenment refers to the 18th century in European

philosophy, and is often thought of as part of a larger period which includes the
Age of Reason
• This movement's leaders viewed themselves as a courageous, elite body
of intellectuals who were leading the world toward progress, out of a long period
of irrationality, superstition, and tyranny which began during a historical period
they called the Dark Ages
• It is matched by the high baroque era in music, and the neo-classical
period in the arts. Romanticism

• It was an artistic and intellectual movement that originated in late 18th

century Western Europe.
• It stressed strong emotion, imagination, freedom within or even from
classical notions of form in art
• It is also noted for its elevation of the achievements of what it perceived as
heroic individuals and artists Naturalism

• A movement in theatre and film

• In theatre, it developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries
• It refers to theatre that tries to create a perfect illusion of reality, a non-
poetic literary style that reflects the way real people speak Expressionism

• Expressionism is the tendency of an artist to distort reality for emotional

effect \
• Expressionism is exhibited in many art forms, including painting, literature,
film, architecture and music
Dadaism “Dada”

• A post-World War I cultural movement in visual art as well as literature

(mainly poetry), theatre and graphic design
• The movement was, among other things, a protest against the barbarism
of the War and what Dadaists believed was an oppressive intellectual rigidity in
both art and everyday society; its works were characterized by a deliberate
irrationality and the rejection of the prevailing standards of art

German Writers
1. JOHANN WOLFGANG VON GOETHE
Goethe (August 28, 1749 – March 22, 1832) – leaves a legacy as statesman,
critic, natural philosopher, but Goethe was mostly renowned for his writing. From the
 13
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

very young age of 25, he achieved fame as a writer. In 1774 he wrote the book which
would bring him worldwide acclaim, The Sorrows of Young Werther. Soon after, he was
invited to the court of Karl August, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, becoming the
Duke’s friend and chief adviser. Goethe spent most of his long life in Weimar. From
theatre, poetry to novels, his literary genius makes Goethe one of the most influential
authors of all times. Faust was Goethe’s masterpiece, which took him 60 years to
complete. A philosophical drama that inspired intellectuals, such as, Nietzsche, Beckett
and Kafka.
2. THOMAS MANN
Thomas Mann – (June 6, 1875 – August 12, 1955) After his father’s death in
1891, Mann moved to Munich, where he lived until 1933. Around 1930, Thomas Mann
already started lecturing against Fascism and attacked Nazi policy. He expressed
sympathy for communist and socialist ideals as the principles that guaranteed
humanism and freedom. While in Switzerland in 1933, he was warned not to return to
Munich. He lived in the US for over 10 years, but returned to Zurich in 1952, refusing to
settle back in Germany. Many of his works reflect the cultural crisis of his times.
Buddenbrooks (1924) earned Mann the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1929. Death in
Venice (1912) and The Magic Mountain (1924) also received prizes and honors.
3. MICHAEL ENDE
Michael Ende – (November 12, 1929 – August 28, 1995) was a German author
whose rise to fame was due to his children’s fiction novels. Best known for The
Neverending Story (1979), Momo (1973) and Jim Button (1960-62), he also wrote books
for adults. It was his children’s fiction, however, that sold millions of copies and adapted
as motion pictures. Born in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Ende moved to Munich when he
was 6 years old due to his father’s artistic career. In 1936, his father’s paintings were
labeled “degenerate” and were banned by the Nazi party. Edgar Ende was forced to
work in secret. Michael Ende was 16 years old when German youths were drafted and
sent to war. Ende threw his draft papers in the trash. Instead, he joined a Bavarian
resistance movement intended to sabotage the SS’s intention to defend Munich.
4. RAINER MARIA RILKE
Rainer Maria Rilke (December 4, 1875 – December 29, 1926) – poet and
novelist, Rilke was born in Prague, Bohemia, formerly part of the Austro-Hungary
empire. It seems his early childhood was not a particularly happy one. After a
fragmented and misguided education, his uncle finally helped him settle into an
educational career path more suited to his interests. It was clear from an early age that
he would dedicate his life to literature. Even before completing High School, Rilke had
already published his first volume of poetry: Life & Songs (1894). His travels throughout
Europe influenced his writing, with Russia, France and Switzerland having had the
 14
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

greatest impact on his writing. He is recognized as one of the most lyrically intense
German-language poets.
He became internationally famous for his works: Duino Elegies and Sonnets to Orpheus.
5. HERMAN HESSE
Hermann Hesse – (July 2, 1877 – August 9, 1962) was born in a small village on
the edge of the Black Forest. His parents as well as his grandfather were missionaries in
India. Early on, Hesse was exposed to religious influences of Protestantism, as well as
Eastern religions and philosophies. They became integral to his being and were a
constant reflection in his writings. As a child, Hesse disliked the rigidness of the German
educational system of his time. To such an extent, that he expressed his disgust in his
novel Unterm Rad (1906; Beneath the Wheel). It tells the story of an overly diligent
student that is driven to self-destruction, as a consequence of such an oppressive
atmosphere. Beneath the Wheel is similar to his own. At the age of 13, Hesse considers
suicide before leaving the school that causes him so much stress. Much of his work will
reflect his life experiences. His divorce, his criticism against German nationalism, his
travels and his search for enlightenment are at the core of his writing. His most
recognized books of literature are Siddhartha (1922), Steppenwolf (1927) and The Glass
Bead Game (1943). He was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1946.
6. ALFRED DÖBLIN
Alfred Döblin – (Aug. 10, 1878, Stettin, (at the time Germany, now Poland) – June
26, 1957, West Germany) When Döblin was just 10 years old, his father’s love affair
broke the family up. His mother decided to move with her five children to Berlin. Like
most of the famous German authors of the time, Döblin was no exception when it came
to school performance. Although bright, his grades declined as a response to his
opposition to the militaristic style of education. Regardless, he went on to become a
doctor, practicing Psychiatry in the worker’s district of Alexanderplatz in Berlin. He is
best known for his novel Berlin Alexanderplatz (1929), which earned him global fame.
The following years marked the high point in his career, until the Nazi’s rise to power.
His Jewish ancestry and socialist views made him a target and he was therefore forced
to flee to France in 1933 and then again to the US in 1940. He returned to Germany in
1945, but resettled in Paris in the 1950’s. Unfortunately, his final years were met with
failing health and financial trouble. It is often said that Döblin was under-recognized at
the time. He is now considered one the most talented narrative writers of the German
Expressionist movement.
7. SOPHIE VON LA ROCHE
Sophie von La Roche (December 6, 1731 – February 18, 1807) is considered to
be the first financially independent professional German author. She was raised in an
extremely pious household, which was reflected in her literary works. The spirit of the
 15
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

Enlightenment Period and women’s education permeates through her writing. Initially
engaged to Christoph Wieland, she instead married Georg von La Roche, which
surprised her former fiancé. Sophie went on to have 8 children with La Roche, 5 of
whom survived. Her family lived at court at her father-in-law’s castle Warthausen, near
Biberach. Sophie’s husband was then appointed supervisor of the Bönningheim estates,
whom she followed in 1770. It was there that she completed her novel The History of
Lady Sophia Sternheim, published by Wieland in 1771. This was to become her most
famous work. During her 9 years at Koblenz, Sophie held a literary salon in her home.
Many influential writers of the time attended and even Goethe mentions it in his Poetry
and Truth. The death of her husband in 1788 and the French Revolutionary occupation
of the left bank of the Rhine in 1794 was a turning point for La Roche. She was forced to
secure her income through writing. She continued to do so until her passing. A small
portion of her writings have been translated.
8. JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH VON SCHILLER
Schiller was one of the most influential German poets of the Sturm und Drang
era. He ranks high up in German people’s eyes, alongside with Goethe. There’s even a
monument depicting them side by side in Weimar. Schiller was successful in his writing
from his very first publication on - Die Räuber (The Robbers) was a play written while he
was at a military academy and quickly became renowned throughout Europe. Initially
Schiller had first studied to become a pastor, then became a regimental doctor for a
short period, before finally devoting himself to writing and teaching as a professor of
history and philosophy at the University of Jena. Later moving to Weimar, he founded
with Goethe Das Weimar Theater, a leading theatre company at the time.
Schiller became part of a German Enlightment period, die Weimarer Klassik (the
Weimar Classism), later on in his life, of which also famous writers such as Goethe,
Herder and Wielandt were a part. They wrote and philosophized about aesthetics and
ethics; Schiller having penned an influential work entitled Über die ästhetische
Erziehung des Menschen on the Aesthetic Education of Man. Beethoven famously set
Schiller's poem "Ode to Joy" in his ninth symphony.
9. GÜNTHER GRASS (1927)
Gunter Grass is one of Germany’s most notable writers currently living, whose
work has garnered him a Nobel Prize of Literature. His most renowned work is his
Danzig Trilogy Die Blech trommel (The Tin drum), Katz und Maus (Cat and Mouse),
Hundejahre (Dog Years), as well as his most recent one Im Krebs gang (Crabwalk).
Born in the Free City of Danzig Grass has worn many hats: he’s been also a sculptor,
graphic artist and illustrator. Further, throughout his life, Grass has always been
outspoken about European political affairs, receiving the'2012 European of the Year'
award from the European Movement Denmark. In 2006 Grass has received much
attention from the media involving his participation in the Waffen SS as a teenager.
 16
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

10. WILHELM BUSCH (1832-1908)

Wilhelm Busch is known as a pioneer of the comic strip, due to his caricature
drawings that accompanied his verse. Among his most popular works are Max and
Moritz, a children’s classic that recount the mischievous pranks of the aforesaid boys, a
ballad that is often read and dramatized in German schools.
Most of Busch’s works are a satirical spin on practically everything in society! His
works were often a parody of double standards. He poked fun at the ignorance of the
poor, the snobbery of the rich, and in particular, the pomposity of clergymen. Busch was
anti-Catholic and some of his works greatly reflected this. Scenes such as in Die fromme
Helene, where it is hinted that the married Helene had an affair with a clergy man or the
scene in Der Heilige Antonius von Padua where the catholic Saint Antonius is being
seduced by the devil clad in ballet attire made these works by Busch both popular and
offensive. Due to such and similar scenes, the book Der Heilige Antonius von Padua
was banned from Austria until 1902.
Literature of Italy
Italian literature, the body of written works produced in the Italian language that
had its beginnings in the 13th century. Until that time nearly all literary work composed in
Europe during the Middle Ages was written in Latin. Moreover, it was predominantly
practical in nature and produced by writers trained in ecclesiastical schools. Literature in
Italian developed later than literature in French and Provençal, the languages of the
north and south of France, respectively. Only small fragments of Italian vernacular verse
before the end of the 12th century have been found (although a number of Latin legal
records contain witness testimonies in an Italian dialect vernacular), and surviving
12thand 13th-century verse reflects French and Provençal influence.

10 Famous Italian Writers and Their Notable Works

1. DANTE ALIGHIERI
Also known simply as Dante, this late Middle Ages poet was ahead of his time in
a number of ways.
Dante wished to push forward the boundaries of Italian writing further than the
contemporary Latin works. His knowledge of the wide range of Italian dialects formed
his desire to open up the possibilities of creating a more united literary language than
was available in other works of the time. As well as pre-empting the Renaissance
movement of wider, detailed literature, Dante also acted as a forerunner of the 15th
century trends of his detailed knowledge of Rome's ancient past.
In terms of being ahead of his time, Dante proved his mettle in his best-known
work, the ambitious Divine Comedy. In contrast to its title, The Divine Comedy is a
 17
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

serious Middle Ages era poem that chronicles Dante's three-stage journey through Hell
(Inferno), Purgatory (Purgatorio), and Paradise (Paradiso).
Regarded as one of the most important literary works, Dante's Divine Comedy
spans a broad church of themes and styles from the dark, distinctive images presented
in his version of Hell to the lyrical mysticism and theology of Paradise. It's still read,
discussed and analyzed all around the world.
2. FRANCESCO PETRARCA
Petrarch is a familiar name that I remember from my university days. I studied his
works in my second year of English, and as a multi-tasking poet, humanist, scholar, he's
regarded as one of the most important Italian writers of his time.
His poems include The Trionfi (The Triumphs), and The Canzoniere (The
Songbook). A number of Petrarca's works are about the enigmatic Laura – thought to
possibly be Laura de Noves, who was the wife of Count Hugues de Sade. This would
tally with her refusal of Petrarca in his Secretum work as a result of her being married.
His love poems speak of her grace, beauty and modesty.
As well as his poetry, Petrarca is also recognized for his Latin-written works. As
well as poems written in Latin, these also included letters, essays and educational
pieces. His Latin works cover a wide spectrum of subjects including a contemplation of
solitary life (De Vita Solitaria), an imaginary personal confessional talk with Augustine of
Hippo (Secretum Meum) and a hugely popular self-help book (De Remediis Utriusque
Fortunae).
3. GIOVANNI BOCCACCIO
Like his contemporary, Petrarch, Giovanni Boccaccio is regarded as an important
Italian writer, poet and humanist.
Boccaccio stood out from the pack in that he did his own thing in his writings,
opting for a distinctive realistic writing style in his dialogue. He also showed a flair for
creative literature, generally written in Italian vernacular as well as various works written
in Latin.
His poems include La caccia di Diana, as well as Il Filostrato, Teseida, and the
50-canto allegory, Amorosa visione. One of his most famous works is The Decameron,
which was originally mostly completed by the mid-1300s, and ultimately rewritten and
revised by 1371.
The mid-1350s would see a shift in Boccaccio's writing style. Some attribute this
to Petrarca's influence. Others put this down to Boccaccio's own personal experiences
including his deteriorating strength and health and bad luck in love (his works dealing
with love would take a more cynical turn than his earlier, optimistic pieces). Returning to
another writer in this list, Boccaccio would also provide a number of lectures about
 18
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

Dante at the Santo Stefano church. These proved to be the inspiration for his last main
work called Esposizioni sopra la Commedia di Dante.
4. NICCOLÒ DI BERNARDO DEI MACHIAVELLI
A familiar term to describe someone as corrupt or unscrupulous is 'Machiavellian',
which is named after the Renaissance-era writer, Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli.
In particular, the phrase is linked with one of Machiavelli's best-known (and
controversial) works called Il Principe (The Prince). This political-themed book depicts,
and even seems to advocate poor behavior as a means of getting ahead, attaining and
keeping hold of power. Politically, lack of honesty, enforcement of brute force, and the
killing of innocent people lack a certain moral fibre. The book has received decidedly
mixed reviews, and managed to get itself banned by the Catholic Church.
The other familiar Machiavelli work is the Discourses on the First Ten Books of
Titus Livy, which takes in the classical history of ancient Rome and also lessons and
encouragement of the advent of republicanism.
5. LUDOVICO ARIOSTO
Italian poet Ludovico Ariosto is also regarded as the man who came up with the
Humanist concept, which stresses the aim of focusing on humans' own strength as
opposed to submitting to a Christian God.
He also wrote the plays Cassaria and I suppositi in the early 1500s (the latter of
which would be performed in the Vatican). Ariosto is best known however for his 1516
epic poem, Orlando Furioso, which depicts the battle between Charlemagne, Orlando,
the Franks and the Saracens.
It's a work that's characterized by Ariosto's penchant for narrative detours. When
writing a canto's events, Ariosto then goes off on another train of thought to only resume
the plot point later on in another canto. Dubbed 'Cantus Interruptus', Ariosto's narrative
method has divided critics as to the intentions of this trick.
6. ALESSANDRO MANZONI
Alessandro Manzoni's most famous (and best regarded) novel is 1827's The
Betrothed. Manzoni deserves a place in the list because of the way in which The
Betrothed brought together a unified Italy. Regarded as symbolizing the Italian
Risorgimento, The Betrothed is big on patriotism and is also a key work with respect to
developing the modern, united language of Italy.
It's a novel that promotes Manzoni's values of Christianity, seen in characters
such as the main heroine Lucia, friar Padre Cristoforo, and the Cardinal of Milan.
However, his message is nicely counterpointed by his carefully observed and detailed
 19
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

portraits of everyday Italian folk. Written with a wry humour and engaging, unique style,
Manzoni's Betrothed remains a cornerstone of Italian literature.
7. ALBERTO MORAVIA
Alberto Moravia's wide repertoire of work is a notable example of Italian fiction in
the 20th century. Many of his novels revolve around specific themes such as
existentialism, detachment from society, and also sexuality.
His first novel Gli indifferenti is still one of his best-known works. At the time in
1929, Moravia actually published the novel himself out of his own pocket. While the
publishing costed Moravia 5000 lira, Gli indifferenti was applauded by critics, reacting
warmly to the depiction of a middle-class family's lack of morals.
Moravia's standing in the writing community can be seen in the fact that a good
number of his works were adapted for the big screen. These include Agostino (adapted
in 1962 by Mauro Bolognini), La Noia (filmed the following year by Damiano Damiani
and renamed The Empty Canvas upon its American release in 1964), and one of
Moravia's most acclaimed works, the anti-fascist work, Il Conformista (which would be
the springboard for Bernardo Bertolucci's The Conformist movie of 1970).
8. PRIMO MICHELE LEVI
Using his experiences as a prisoner in an Auschwitz concentration camp, Primo
Michele Levi wrote the highly acclaimed If This Is A Man.
Levi had been arrested at the end of 1943, and began his imprisonment at
Auschwitz in the following February, where he remained for just under a year. In 1946,
Levi elected to put his thoughts of his ordeal to paper. Intensely working over a 10month
period, he wrote down his experiences, ultimately resulting in a completed manuscript at
the end of the year. While the end product needed further editing and amending, If This
Is A Man was ultimately released to great acclaim. A striking element of the book is its
calm, measured tone, which is at odds with the horror that Levi endured – the author
later explained that such a tone meant that the readers got to judge for themselves.
Levi was also a chemist, and this formed the backdrop for his equally revered
Periodic Table. Published in 1975, Il Sistema Periodico collates a series of short stories
depicting Levi's experiences as both an Italian-Jewish man and a chemist during the
eras of war, fascism and later in the aftermath. Each of the 21 stories are named after
and linked with a chemical element.
9. ITALO CALVINO
Italo Calvino shares a number of connections with other writers in this list. Like
Alberto Moravia, Calvino was a journalist as well as an author. Like Primo Levi, he drew
upon his wartime experiences for inspiration – the anthology of stories, Ultimo viene il
 20
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

corvo (The Crow Comes Last), came out four years after the end of the Second World
War to the applause of the critics.
But Calvino also possessed a unique style, melding real-world concerns with
elements of fantasy and fable. The best example of this is 1952's Cloven Viscount (Il
visconte dimezzato), which dealt with Calvino's political disillusionment and the
concerns over the Cold War.
Even in his later years, Calvino was still going strong, with 1979's If On A Winter's
Night A Traveler proving immensely popular. Calvino's worldwide success was seen in
the fact that by the time he passed away, he was the most translated Italian author
around the globe.

10. UMBERTO ECO

As well as a novelist, Eco was a university professor, semiotician and
philosopher. His academia and interest in semiotics held him in good stead for one of
his most famous works, The Name Of The Rose. This 1980-published murder mystery
draws in both semiotics (the study of communication) and various literary tips of the hat
such as Arthur Conan Doyle (the Franciscan friar's called William of Baskerville) and
also Arabian Nights (the inspiration for the mystery).
While not the most prolific of authors (seven novels in 35 years), Eco's novels
were still rapturously received by critics and the public. These include Il pendolo di
Foucault (Foucault's Pendulum), which deals with three editors concocting a sham
conspiracy theory involving a domination plan by a clandestine order descended from
the Knights Templar. L'isola del giorno prima (The Island of the Day Before) takes a
more introspective approach, following the thoughts of a marooned man on a ship in the
17thcentury.
Even in the 2010's Eco's novels were still proving massively popular. 2010's
Prague Cemetery was a big hit in the book charts, tackling the growing rise of
antisemitism in the modern world. Meanwhile, in 2015 (the year before his passing),
Numero Uno saw Eco's attention switched towards the issues of Fascism and a satirical
take on kickbacks and bribery.

Literature of Spain
Spanish literature, the body of literary works produced in Spain. Such works fall
into three major language divisions: Castilian, Catalan, and Galician.
The history of Spain has been marked by all types of events, wars, conquests,
marriages, deaths... and literature has played an important part in it. From the epic tale
 21
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

of the "Cantar del Mio Cid" to the surrealism present in some of Cela's works; from the
amazing adventures of Don Quixote to the many books recounting the horrors of the
Spanish Civil War, Spanish literature has had its own way of influencing history.
Literature is a very important subject in all Spanish schools, and this site is a guide to
the evolution of Spanish literature across the centuries. The Beginnings

• The history of Spanish literature starts with "El Cantar del Mio Cid" (12th
century), an epic narrative that was transmitted orally through the story tellers.
However, the first written testimonies of Spanish literature begin in the 13th
century with the Middle-Ages literature, which cultivated all the genres in prose,
poetry and theatre. The end of the Middle Ages (sometimes known as pre-
Renaissance period) is a very prolific time for Spanish literature, with the
development of works like "Coplas a la muerte de mi padre" (Jorge Manrique)
and "La Celestina" (Fernando de Rojas).
• During the Renaissance the influence of Italy in Spain was very strong,
and thus the religious influence. During this period there's a big production of
religious works with authors such as Fray Luis de Leon or San JUan de la Cruz.
Pastoral or didactic novels were also quite popular, and the picaresque genre
became popular with "Lazarillo de Tormes" Baroque Period

• The Spanish Baroque coincides with the Golden Age of Spanish literature,
called that way because of the great number of excellent literary productions that
appeared in the period. Miguel de Cervantes is, without doubt, the ultimate
Baroque author. His masterpiece, the adventures of the mad knight "Don
Quixote", is considered the most important book of the Spanish literature and one
of the most important in the Universal literature. Other important authors in this
period are the poet Quevedo and the play writer Lope de Vega. Enlightenment
Period

• The Enlightenment period in Spanish literature can be divided in three

different periods: the post-Baroque period, the Neo-Classical period and the
preRomanticism period. The Enlightenment wants a break with the old concept of
authority, and thinks reason is more important than feeling or emotions. This is
why this period doesn't have a strong poetry group. In prose, essays and didactic
texts are the most popular types of works, especially among literates.
Newspapers help to spread the knowledge of other European countries around
Spain.
Romanticism and Realism

• Romanticism appears as a reaction against the strict rules of the

Enlightenment, and in opposition to it, it places more importance in feelings than
reason. Romanticism can be divided into two different movements: traditional
 22
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

Romanticism (defends the traditional values represented by the Church and

State) and liberal Romanticism (fights the established order, religion, art and
politics, and claims the rights of individuals to society and the laws).
• Realism appears when literates have grown tired of the subjectivism of
Romanticism and are looking for something more real. They were tired of the
imaginative and colorful, and sought to observe the people, society and
contemporary traditions objectively. Its goal was to present the truest portrait of
society.

20th Century
 23
Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

Readings on World’s Literary Masterpieces

The 20th century is a century of great change in Spain. There's not a specific
movement. Rather, every author develops his or her own personal style. Novels
become the most popular genre, and social themes are very common, especially those
related to life in Spain during the Spanish Civil War and the following dictatorship. There
are three important generations of writers during the 20th century that configure the
Spanish literature of the period: Generation of '98, Generation of '14 and Generation of
'27.