Lecturer 2 Semiconductor Physics

Semiconductor Physics
A.H.Mbaga Nov 2023

Semiconductors
• A semiconductor is a substance which has resistivity inbetween
conductors and insulators e.g germanium, silicon, carbon.
• When semiconductor is neither a good conductor nor an insulator , then
why not classify it as a resistance Material?
2
Properties of Semiconductors
• The resistivity of a semiconductor is less than an insulator but more than a

conductor
• Semiconductors have negative temperature co-e icient of resistance(the
resistance of semiconductor decreases with with increase in temperature
and vice-versa
• When a suitable metallic impurity (eg arsenic, gallium etc) is added to a
semiconductor, its current conducting properties change appreciably.-
this is most important property .
3
ff
Bonds in Semiconductors
• The atoms of every element are held together by the bonding action of valance
electrons
• This bonding is due to the fact that it is the tendency of each atom to complete
its last orbit by acquiring 8 electrons in it
• In semiconductors , bondin are formed by sharing of valance electron, such

bond are called co-valent bond.
• Formation of a co-valent bond, each atom contributes equal number of
valence electrons and the contributed electrons are shared the atoms engaged
in the formation of bond
4
Cont……
• Fig 1, shows the co-valent bonds among germanium atoms
• Each neighbouring atom shares one valence electron with the central atom.
Fig. 1
5
The following points may be noted regarding the co-valent bonds
• Co-valent bonds are formed by sharing of valence electrons
• In the formation of co-valent bond, each valence electron of an atom
forms direct bond with the valence electron of an adjacent atom
6
Crystals
• A substance in which the atoms or molecules are arranged in orderly pattern

in known as crystal.
• All semi-conductors have crystalline structure, eg referring ig 1. It is clear
that each atom is surrounded by neighbouring atoms in a repetitive manner ,
then a piece of germanium is generally called germanium crystal.
f
Effect of Temperature on Semiconductors
1.At absolute zero temperature
• At absolute zero temperature , all the electrons are tightly held by the
semiconductor atoms
• The inner orbit electrons are bound whereas the valence electrons are
engaged in co-valent bonding
• At this temperature, the co-valent bonds are very strong and there are
no free electron
• The semiconductor crystal behaves as perfect insulator
8
Cont…….
• The valence band is illed and there is a large energy gap between valence
band and conduction band
• No valence electron can reach the conduction band to become free electron.
See ig 2 below
Fig 2
f
f
2. Above absolute zero temperature
• When temperature is raised , some of the covalent bond in the semiconductor
break due to the thermal energy supplied
• The breaking of bonds sets those electrons free which are engaged in the
formation of these bonds
• These free electrons can constitute a tiny electric current if the potential
di erence is applied across semiconductor crystal
Fig 3.
ff
Cont……
• As the temperature is risen , some of the valence electrons acquire su icient

energy to enter into the conduction band and thus becomes free electrons.
• Under in luence of electric ield these free electrons will constitute electric
current
• Each time a valance electron enters into the conduction band, a hole is
created in the valence band.
• A hole current is the most signi icant concept in semiconductors
f
f
f
ff
Hole Current
• When a covalent bond is broken due to thermal energy, the removal of one electron leaves a
vacancy i.e. a missing electron in the covalent bond.
• This missing electron is called a hole which acts as a positive charge
thermal energy creates hole-electron pairs; there being as many holes as the free electrons.
Fig 4 (i) Fig 4 (ii)

Intrinsic Semiconductor
• A semiconductor in an extremely pure form is known as an intrinsic semiconductor.
• In an intrinsic semiconductor, even at room temperature hole electron pairs are created
• The current conduction takes place by two processes , namely free electrons and holes
• Free electrons are produced due to the breaking up of some covalent bonds by thermal
energy .
• Holes are created in the covalent bonds.
• Total currents in semiconductors is the sum of the currents due to free electrons and holes
Fig 5
Extrinsic Semiconductor
• The intrinsic semiconductor has little current conduction capability at room temperature.
• To be useful in electronic devices, the pure semiconductor must be altered so as to
signi cantly increase its conducting properties.
• This is achieved by adding a small amount of suitable impurity to a semiconductor. It is
then called impurity or extrinsic semiconductor.
• The amount and type of such impurities have to be closely controlled during the
preparation of extrinsic semiconductor.
fi
N-type Semiconductor
• When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is
known as n-type semiconductor.
• The addition of pentavalent impurity provides a large number of free electrons in the
semiconductor crystal
Fig 6(i) Fig 6(ii)

Cont……
The following points may be noted carefully :

(i) Many new free electrons are produced by the addition of pentavalent impurity.
(ii) Thermal energy of room temperature still generates a few hole electron-pairs. How
ever,the number of free electrons provided by the pentavalent impurity far exceeds the
number of holes. It is due to this predominance of electrons over holes that it is called n-
type semiconductor (n stands for negative).
N-type conductivity
• The current conduction in an n-type semiconductor is predominantly by free electrons

i.e. negative charges and is called n-type or electron type conductivity.
• When p.d. is applied across the n-type semiconductor, the free electrons (donated by
impurity) in the crystal will be directed towards the positive terminal, constituting
electric current.
• As the current ow through the crystal is by free electrons which are carriers of
negative charge, therefore, this type of conductivity is called negative or n-type
conductivity.
fl
Cont……
Fig 7
P-type Semiconductor
• When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor, it is called p-
type semiconductor.
• The addition of trivalent impurity provides a large number of holes in the semiconductor.
Typical examples of trivalent impurities are gallium and indium .
• Such impurities which produce p-type semiconductor are known as acceptor impurities
because the holes created can accept the electrons.
Fig 8.
Cont……
• When a small amount of trivalent impurity like gallium is added to germanium crystal,
there exists a large number of holes in the crystal.
• The reason is simple. Gallium is trivalent i.e. its atom has three valence electrons. Each
atom of gallium ts into the germanium crystal but now only three co-valent bonds can
be formed.
• It is because three valence electrons of gallium atom can form only
three single co-valent bonds with three germanium atoms
fi
P-type conductivity
• The current conduction in p-type semiconductor is predominantly by holes i.e. positive charges and is called p-type or hole-
type conductivity. To understand p-type conductivity, refer to Fig.9(ii). When p.d. is applied to the p-type semiconductor,
the holes (donated by the impurity) are shifted from one co-valent bond to another. As the holes are positively charged,
therefore, they are directed towards the negative terminal, constituting what is known as hole current.
Fig 9(i) Fig 9(ii)

Pn Junction
• When a p-type semiconductor is suitably joined to n-type semiconductor,
the contact surface is called pn junction.
• Most semiconductor devices contain one or more pn junctions.
• The pn junction is of great importance because it is in e ect, the control
element for semiconductor devices
• One common method of making pn junction is called alloying. In this
method, a small block of indium (trivalent impurity) is placed on an n-type
germanium slab as
ff
Cont…..
• Place n-type germanium slab

• Heat 500 degree
• Lower temperature for
solidifying paddle
Home reading Assignment
• Properies of pn-junction
• Physics of conductors and insulators
Thank you

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Semiconductor Physics

A.H.Mbaga Nov 2023

• The resistivity of a semiconductor is less than an insulator but more than a

• In semiconductors , bondin are formed by sharing of valance electron, such

• A substance in which the atoms or molecules are arranged in orderly pattern

• As the temperature is risen , some of the valence electrons acquire su icient

Fig 4 (i) Fig 4 (ii)

Fig 6(i) Fig 6(ii)

The following points may be noted carefully :

• The current conduction in an n-type semiconductor is predominantly by free electrons

Fig 9(i) Fig 9(ii)

• Place n-type germanium slab

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