The Digestive System

Organs of the Digestive System

∙ Two main groups

∙ Alimentary canal – continuous coiled hollow
tube
∙ Accessory digestive organs
Organs of the Digestive System
Organs of the Alimentary Canal

∙ Mouth
∙ Pharynx
∙ Esophagus
∙ Stomach
∙ Small intestine
∙ Large intestine
∙ Anus
Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
∙ Lips (labia) – protect
the anterior opening
∙ Cheeks – form the
lateral walls
∙ Hard palate – forms
the anterior roof
∙ Soft palate – forms
the posterior roof
∙ Uvula – fleshy
projection of the
soft palate
Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy
∙ Vestibule – space
between lips
externally and teeth
and gums internally
∙ Oral cavity – area
contained by the
teeth
∙ Tongue – attached
at hyoid and styloid
processes of the
skull, and by the
lingual frenulum
Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy

∙ Tonsils
∙ Palatine tonsils
∙ Lingual tonsil
Processes of the Mouth

∙ Mastication (chewing) of food

∙ Mixing masticated food with saliva
∙ Initiation of swallowing by the tongue
∙ Allowing for the sense of taste
Salivary Glands

∙ Saliva-producing glands
∙ Parotid glands – located anterior to ears
∙ Submandibular glands
∙ Sublingual glands
Saliva

∙ Mixture of mucus and serous fluids

∙ Helps to form a food bolus
∙ Contains salivary amylase to begin
carbohydrate digestion
∙ Dissolves chemicals so they can be
tasted
Teeth

∙ The role is to masticate (chew) food

∙ Humans have two sets of teeth
∙ Deciduous (baby or milk) teeth
∙ 20 teeth are fully formed by age two
Teeth

∙ Permanent teeth
∙ Replace deciduous teeth beginning
between the ages of 6 to 12
∙ A full set is 32 teeth, but some people do
not have wisdom teeth
Classification of Teeth

∙ Incisors
∙ Canines
∙ Premolars
∙ Molars
Classification of Teeth
Regions of a Tooth
∙ Crown – exposed
part
∙ Outer enamel
∙ Dentin
∙ Pulp cavity
∙ Neck
∙ Region in contact
with the gum
∙ Connects crown to
root
Regions of a Tooth

∙ Root
∙ Periodontal
membrane
attached to the
bone
∙ Root canal carrying
blood vessels and
nerves
Pharynx Anatomy
∙ Nasopharynx –
not part of the
digestive system
∙ Oropharynx –
posterior to oral
cavity
∙ Laryngopharynx –
below the oropharynx
and connected to
the esophagus
Pharynx Function

∙ Serves as a passageway for air and

food
∙ Food is propelled to the esophagus by
two muscle layers
∙ Longitudinal inner layer
∙ Circular outer layer
∙ Food movement is by alternating
contractions of the muscle layers
(peristalsis)
Digestive Activities of the Mouth

∙ Mechanical breakdown
∙ Food is physically broken down by chewing
∙ Chemical digestion
∙ Food is mixed with saliva
∙ Digestion of carbohydrates starts
Activities of the Pharynx and
Esophagus

∙ These organs have no digestive function

∙ Serve as passageways to the stomach
Deglutition (Swallowing)

∙ Buccal phase
∙ Voluntary
∙ Occurs in the mouth
∙ Food is formed into a bolus
∙ The bolus is forced into the pharynx by the
tongue
Deglutition (Swallowing)

∙ Pharyngeal-esophageal phase
∙ Involuntary transport of the bolus
∙ All passageways except to the stomach are
blocked
∙ Tongue blocks off the mouth
∙ Soft palate (uvula) blocks the
nasopharynx
∙ Epiglottis blocks the larynx
Deglutition (Swallowing)

∙ Pharyngeal-esophogeal phase
(continued)
∙ Peristalsis moves the bolus toward the
stomach
∙ The cardioesophageal sphincter is opened
when food presses against it
Deglutition (Swallowing)
Esophagus

∙ Runs from pharynx to stomach through

the diaphragm
∙ Conducts food by peristalsis
(slow rhythmic squeezing)
∙ Passageway for food only (respiratory
system branches off after the pharynx)
Esophagus

∙ Peristalsis – alternating
waves of contraction
∙ Segmentation – moving
materials back and forth
to aid in mixing
Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs

∙ Mucosa
∙ Innermost layer
∙ Moist membrane
∙ Surface epithelium
∙ Small amount of connective tissue
(lamina propria)
∙ Small smooth muscle layer
Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs

∙ Submucosa
∙ Just beneath the mucosa
∙ Soft connective tissue with blood vessels,
nerve endings, and lymphatics
Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs

∙ Muscularis externa – smooth muscle

∙ Inner circular layer
∙ Outer longitudinal layer
∙ Serosa
∙ Outermost layer – visceral peritoneum
∙ Layer of serous fluid-producing cells
Layers of Alimentary Canal Organs
Stomach Anatomy

∙ Located on the left side of the

abdominal cavity
∙ Food enters at the cardioesophageal
sphincter
Stomach Anatomy

∙ Regions of the stomach

∙ Cardiac region – near the heart
∙ Fundus
∙ Body
∙ Pylorus – funnel-shaped terminal end
∙ Food empties into the small intestine at
the pyloric sphincter
Stomach Anatomy

∙ Rugae – internal folds of the mucosa

∙ External regions
∙ Lesser curvature
∙ Greater curvature
Stomach Anatomy
Stomach Functions

∙ Acts as a storage tank for food

∙ Site of food breakdown
∙ Chemical breakdown of protein begins
∙ Delivers chyme (processed food) to the
small intestine
Specialized Mucosa of the Stomach

∙ Simple columnar epithelium

∙ Mucous neck cells – produce a sticky
alkaline mucus
∙ Chief cells – produce protein-digesting
enzymes (pepsinogens)->pepsin
∙ Parietal cells – produce hydrochloric acid
and intrinsic factor
Structure of the Stomach Mucosa

∙ Gastric pits formed by folded mucosa

∙ Glands and specialized cells are in the
gastric gland region
Structure of the Stomach Mucosa
Food Breakdown in the Stomach

∙ Gastric juice is regulated by neural and

hormonal factors
∙ Presence of food or falling pH causes
the release of gastrin
∙ Gastrin causes stomach glands to
produce protein-digesting enzymes
∙ Hydrocholoric acid makes the stomach
contents very acidic
Necessity of an Extremely Acid
Environment in the Stomach

∙ Activates pepsinogen to pepsin for

protein digestion
∙ Provides a hostile environment for
microorganisms
Propulsion in the Stomach
∙ Food must first be well mixed
∙ Rippling peristalsis occurs in the lower
stomach
Propulsion in the Stomach
∙ The pylorus meters out chyme into the
small intestine (30 ml at a time)
∙ The stomach empties in four to six
hours
Small Intestine

∙ The body’s major digestive organ

∙ Site of nutrient absorption into the blood
∙ Muscular tube extending from the
pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve
∙ Suspended from the posterior
abdominal wall by the mesentery
Subdivisions of the Small Intestine

∙ Duodenum
∙ Attached to the stomach
∙ Curves around the head of the pancreas
∙ Jejunum
∙ Attaches anteriorly to the duodenum
∙ Ileum
∙ Extends from jejunum to large intestine
Chemical Digestion in the Small
Intestine

∙ Source of enzymes that are mixed with

chyme
∙ Intestinal cells
∙ Pancreas
∙ Bile enters from the gall bladder
Digestion in the Small Intestine
∙ Enzymes from the brush border
∙ Break double sugars into simple sugars
∙ Complete some protein digestion
∙ Pancreatic enzymes play the major
digestive function
∙ Help complete digestion of starch
(pancreatic amylase)
∙ Carry out about half of all protein digestion
(trypsin chymotrypsin and
carboxypeptidase, etc.)
Digestion in the Small Intestine

∙ Pancreatic enzymes play the major

digestive function (continued)
∙ Responsible for fat digestion (lipase)
∙ Digest nucleic acids (nucleases)
∙ Alkaline content neutralizes acidic chyme
Stimulation of the Release of Pancreatic
Juice
Absorption in the Small Intestine

∙ Water is absorbed along the length of

the small intestine
∙ End products of digestion
∙ Most substances are absorbed by active
transport through cell membranes
∙ Lipids are absorbed by diffusion
∙ Substances are transported to the liver
by the hepatic portal vein or lymph
Propulsion in the Small Intestine

∙ Peristalsis is the major means of

moving food
∙ Segmental movements
∙ Mix chyme with digestive juices
∙ Aid in propelling food
Movements in the Small Intestine

∙ Peristalsis – alternating
waves of contraction
∙ Segmentation – moving
materials back and forth
to aid in mixing
Microvilli of the Small Intestine

∙ Small projections of the

plasma membrane
∙ Found on absorptive cells
Structures Involved in Absorption of
Nutrients

∙ Absorptive cells
∙ Blood capillaries
∙ Lacteals (specialized
lymphatic capillaries)
Large Intestine

∙ Larger in diameter, but shorter than the

small intestine
∙ Frames the internal abdomen
Large Intestine
Structures of the Large Intestine

∙ Cecum – saclike first part of the large

intestine
∙ Appendix
∙ Accumulation of lymphatic tissue that
sometimes becomes inflamed
(appendicitis)
∙ Hangs from the cecum
Structures of the Large Intestine

∙ Colon
∙ Ascending
∙ Transverse
∙ Descending
∙ S-shaped - Sigmoid
∙ Rectum
∙ Anus – external body opening
Functions of the Large Intestine

∙ Absorption of water
∙ Eliminates indigestible food from the
body as feces
∙ Does not participate in digestion of food
∙ Goblet cells produce mucus to act as a
lubricant
Food Breakdown and Absorption in
the Large Intestine
∙ No digestive enzymes are produced
∙ Resident bacteria digest remaining
nutrients
∙ Water and vitamins K and B are absorbed
∙ Remaining materials are eliminated via
feces
Propulsion in the Large Intestine
∙ Sluggish peristalsis
∙ Mass movements
∙ Slow, powerful movements
∙ Occur three to four times per day
∙ Presence of feces in the rectum causes
a defecation reflex
∙ Internal anal sphincter is relaxed
∙ Defecation occurs with relaxation of the
voluntary (external) anal sphincter
Slide 14.62
Accessory Digestive Organs

∙ Salivary glands
∙ Teeth
∙ Pancreas
∙ Liver
∙ Gall bladder
Pancreas
∙ Produces a wide spectrum of digestive
enzymes that break down all categories of food
∙ Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum
∙ Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes
neutralizes acidic chyme
∙ Endocrine products of pancreas
∙ Insulin
∙ Glucagons
Liver

∙ Located on the right side of the body

under the diaphragm
∙ Consists of four lobes suspended from
the diaphragm and abdominal wall by
the falciform ligament
∙ Connected to the gall bladder via the
common hepatic duct
Bile

∙ Produced by cells in the liver

∙ Composition
∙ Bile salts
∙ Bile pigment (mostly bilirubin from the
breakdown of hemoglobin)
∙ Cholesterol
∙ Phospholipids
∙ Electrolytes
Gall Bladder

∙ Sac found in hollow fossa of liver

∙ Stores bile from the liver by way of the
cystic duct
∙ Bile is introduced into the duodenum in
the presence of fatty food
∙ Gallstones can cause blockages
Processes of the Digestive System

∙ Ingestion – getting food into the mouth

∙ Propulsion – moving foods from one
region of the digestive system to
another
Processes of the Digestive System

∙ Mechanical digestion
∙ Mixing of food in the mouth by the tongue
∙ Churning of food in the stomach
∙ Segmentation in the small intestine
Processes of the Digestive System

∙ Chemical Digestion
∙ Enzymes break down food molecules into
their building blocks
∙ Each major food group uses different
enzymes
∙ Carbohydrates are broken to simple sugars
∙ Proteins are broken to amino acids
∙ Fats are broken to fatty acids and alcohols
Processes of the Digestive System

∙ Absorption
∙ End products of digestion are absorbed in
the blood or lymph
∙ Food must enter mucosal cells and then
into blood or lymph capillaries
∙ Defecation
∙ Elimination of indigestible substances as
feces
Processes of the Digestive System
Nutrition
∙ Nutrient – substance used by the body
for growth, maintenance, and repair
∙ Categories of nutrients
∙ Carbohydrates
∙ Lipids
∙ Proteins
∙ Vitamins
∙ Mineral
∙ Water
Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients
∙ Carbohydrates
∙ Most are derived from plants
∙ Exceptions: lactose from milk and small
amounts of glycogens from meats
∙ Lipids
∙ Saturated fats from animal products
∙ Unsaturated fats from nuts, seeds, and
vegetable oils
∙ Cholesterol from egg yolk, meats, and milk
products
Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients
∙ Proteins
∙ Complete proteins – contain all essential
amino acids
∙ Most are from animal products
∙ Legumes and beans also have proteins,
but are incomplete
∙ Vitamins
∙ Most vitamins are used as cofactors and
act with enzymes
∙ Found in all major food groups
Dietary Sources of Major Nutrients

∙ Minerals
∙ Play many roles in the body
∙ Most mineral-rich foods are vegetables,
legumes, milk, and some meats
Role of the Liver in Metabolism

∙ Several roles in digestion

∙ Detoxifies drugs and alcohol
∙ Degrades hormones
∙ Produce cholesterol, blood proteins
(albumin and clotting proteins)
∙ Plays a central role in metabolism
Metabolic Functions of the Liver
∙ Glycogenesis
∙ Glucose molecules are converted to
glycogen
∙ Glycogen molecules are stored in the liver
∙ Glycogenolysis
∙ Glucose is released from the liver after
conversion from glycogen
∙ Gluconeogenesis
∙ Glucose is produced from fats and proteins
Metabolic Functions of the Liver
Regulation of Food Intake
∙ Body weight is usually relatively stable
∙ Energy intake and output remain about
equal
∙ Mechanisms that may regulate food
intake
∙ Levels of nutrients in the blood
∙ Hormones
∙ Body temperature
∙ Psychological factors
Developmental Aspects of the
Digestive System

∙ The developing fetus receives all

nutrients through the placenta
∙ In newborns, feeding must be frequent,
peristalsis is inefficient, and vomiting is
common
Developmental Aspects of the
Digestive System

∙ Teething begins around age six months

∙ Metabolism decreases with old age
∙ Middle age digestive problems
∙ Ulcers
∙ Gall bladder problems
Developmental Aspects of the
Digestive System

∙ Activity of digestive tract in old age

∙ Fewer digestive juices
∙ Peristalsis slows
∙ Diverticulosis and cancer are more
common