LABORATORY MANUAL

CONTROL SYSTEMS
LABORATORY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

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S.No Name of the Experiment Page.No Date Marks Signature

1 Time Response of Second Order System

2 Characteristics of Synchros

3 Programmable Logic Controller

D.C. Servo Motor Speed – Torque

4
Characteristics

5 PID Controller

6 Lead-Lag Compensation Design

7 Temperature Controller Using PID

8 Characteristics of Magnetic Amplifier

9 Characteristics of A.C Servo Motor

10 Transfer Function of DC Motor

Additional Experiments

Root Locus, Bode and Nyquist Plot of

11
Transfer Function
Controllability and Observability of State
12
Space Mode

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INDEX
S. No. Content Page No.

1 Cover page 1

2 Vision & Mission of the Institute 5

3 Vision & Mission of the Department 6

4 Program Educational Objectives (PEOs) 7

5 Program Outcomes (POs) 8

6 Program Specific Outcome (PSOs) 9

7 Course Outcomes (COs) 9

7 CO – PO/PSO Mapping 10

8 Gap analysis 10

Exp. No. List of Experiments Page No.

1 Time Response of Second Order System 11

2 Characteristics of Synchros 19

3 Programmable Logic Controller 31

4 D.C. Servo Motor Speed – Torque Characteristics 39

5 PID Controller 47

6 Lead-Lag Compensation Design 57

7 Temperature Controller Using PID 83

8 Characteristics of Magnetic Amplifier 99

9 Characteristics of A.C Servo Motor 109

10 Transfer Function of DC Motor 121

11 Root Locus, Bode and Nyquist Plot of Transfer Function 130

12 Controllability and Observability of State Space Mode 134

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Vision & Mission of the Institute

Vision
To induce higher planes of learning by imparting technical education with
 International standards
 Applied research
 Creative Ability
 Value based instruction and
to emerge as a premiere institute.

Mission
Achieving academic excellence by providing globally acceptable technical
education by forecasting technology through
 Innovative Research And development
 Industry Institute Interaction
 Empowered Manpower

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Vision & Mission of the Department

Vision
To be recognized as leader in education, training, and research.

Mission
 Provide state-of-art infrastructure to impart technical skills in the frontier areas of
electrical and electronics engineering.
 Enable innovative teaching and learning process with collaboration.
 To raise professionals, academicians, researchers, and entrepreneurs with a
passion for solving societal problems.

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Program Educational Objectives (PEOs)

PEO1
Pursue a successful career by demonstrating the knowledge acquired in Electrical
and Electronics Engineering.

PEO2
Exhibit technical skills in solving real world problems using emerging technologies
considering societal, technological, and business challenges.

PEO3
Engage in professional practice as individuals and as team members with ethical
values and attitude of lifelong learning.

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Program Outcomes (POs)

1. Engineering Knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,
engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
2. Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/Development of Solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct Investigations of Complex Problems: Use research-based knowledge
and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation
of data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern Tool Usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources,
and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modelling to
complex engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The Engineer and Society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues, and the
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and Sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and Teamwork: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member
or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with
the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, give, and receive clear instructions.
11. Project Management and Finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as
a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.
12. Life-Long Learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability
to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change.

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Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

PSO1
Provide solid foundation in mathematical, scientific, and engineering fundamentals
which is required to solve electrical and electronics engineering problems.

PSO2
Understand, analyse, simulate, design, and implement the electrical power systems,
modern electrical drives, modern lighting systems, and automation of systems using
state of art components, software tools and ICT.

Course Outcomes (COs)

Blooms
CO No. Course Outcomes
Taxonomy level

CO1 Analyze the time response of second order systems and

Analyze/Create
Designing of compensation circuits
CO2 Analyse the performance and working of Magnetic amplifier
and synchros. Analyze
Evaluate P,PI,PD and PID controllers and
CO3 Evaluate
Evaluate temperature control of an oven using PID controller
Determine the transfer function of D.C Motor and
CO4 Apply
Analyze the performance of D.C and A.C Servo Motor.
CO5 Test the controllability and observability and
Judge the stability in time and frequency domain Evaluate
To examine different logic gates and Boolean expressions using
CO6 Apply
PLC.

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CO-PO/PSO Mapping

PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12 PSO1 PSO2
CO1 3 3 2 2 1 2 2 2

CO2 2 2 2 1 2

CO3 3 3 3 2 1 2

CO4 2 2 2 1 2 2

CO5 2 2 2 2 1 2 2

CO6 3 3 3 2 1 2 2 2

Course 2.5 2.5 2.4 2 2.67 2 1 2 2 2

Gap Analysis

Gaps identified based on the CO-PO mappings:

Simulation based experiments are required for finding the stability of different transfer functions.
Plan of Action /Corrective measures
Experiments are conducted using MATLAB to find the stability of different transfer functions.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 1

TIME RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER

SYSTEM

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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TIME RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

Experiment No: Date:

AIM: To study the time response (Steady State and Transient response) of a variety of a
simulated linear system and to co-relate the studies with theoretical results.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Apparatus Quantity

1. Linear system simulator kit 1 No

2. CRO 1 No

3. Patch cards Sufficient

4. Trace Paper 1 No

THEORY;
Second order systems are important for a number of reasons. They are the simplest systems
that exhibit oscillations and overshoot. Many important systems exhibit second order system
behavior. Second order behavior is part of the behavior of higher order systems and understanding
second order systems helps to understand higher order systems. The simplest second order system
satisfies a differential equation of this form.

𝒅𝟐 𝒅
𝟐
𝒙(𝒕) + 𝟐𝜹𝝎𝒏 𝒙(𝒕) + 𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝒙(𝒕) = 𝑮𝒅𝒄 𝝎𝒏 𝟐 𝒖(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Where:
x(t) = Response of the System,
u(t) = Input to the System,
ξ = Damping Ratio,
𝜔𝑛 =Undamped Natural Frequency,
Gdc = The DC Gain of the System.

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Observations:
Theoretical:
for gain K1=
t r= tp=
Mp= ts=

Practical:
for gain K1=
tr tp=
Mp= ts=

Model Graph:

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Whether we are talking about impulse response, step response or response to other inputs,
we will still find the following relations.

 The damping ratio, will determine how much the system oscillates as the response decays
toward steady state.
 The Undamped Natural Frequency, will determine how fast the system oscillates during
any transient response.
 The DC gain of the system, will determine the size of steady state response when the
input settles out to a constant value.
 In a second order system, percent overshoot depends entirely upon damping ratio.
 As the damping ratio increases, the percent overshoot decreases.
 If the system is third or higher order this plot is not valid. You may be able to get some
useful information from it but don't count on it.
 If the system is second order but has an s-term in the numerator of the transfer function
this plot also might not give useful information.
 The percent overshoot is measured for the first peak only.

PROCEDURE:
1. Choose and wire a suitable second order system configuration as in connection diagram.
2. Apply a 1 Volt p-p square wave input and trace the output waveform on a tracing paper
for different values of K. Obtain peak percent overshoot, settling time, rise time and
steady state errors from the tracing, and calculate ξ and 𝜔𝑛 Compare with theoretical
results.

FORMULAE USED:

1. Integrator: The integrator block has an approximate transfer function of the from - KI / s
and is used in simulating type – 1 systems having a pole at the origin. Normal value of K1
is 10.

2. Time Constant: The two time constant blocks in the system have transfer functions of the
from – K2 / (sT + 1) each. The second blocks has a X5 option which results in a higher gain
if necessary. Normal values of K2 = K3 and T1 = T2 are 10 and 1 msec respectively.

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SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:

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3. Delay time: td, is defined as the time needed for the response to reach 50% of the final
value.
4. Rise time, td, is the time taken for the response to reach 100% of the final value for the first
time. This is given by

 (1   2
, where   tan
1
tr =
wd 
5. Peak time, tp is the time taken for the response to reach the first peak of the overshoot and
id given by
𝜋
𝑡𝑝 =
𝜔𝑛 √(1 − 𝛿 2 )
6. Maximum Overshoot, Mp, is defined by

c(t p )  c()
Mp = 100%  e  / 1 2
100%
c()
Its value indicates the relative stability of the system.

7. Settling time, ts, is the time required by the system response to reach and stay within a
prescribed tolerance band which is usually taken as  2% or  5%. An approximate
calculation based on the envelops of the response for a low damping ratio system yields,

3
ts (  5% tolerance band) =
𝛿𝜔𝑛
4
ts (  2% tolerance band) =
𝛿𝜔𝑛
Time domain Theoretical Values Practical Values
Specifications
Delay time (Td)
Rise time(Tr,)
Peak time(Tp)
Peak overshoot(Mp)
Settling time(Ts)

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Connections must be tight.
2. Note the readings without parallax error.

RESULT:

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VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is an order of a system?

2. What is step signal?
3. What is ramp signal?
4. What is a parabolic signal?
5. What is transient response?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 2

CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNCHROS

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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CHARACTERISTICS OF SYNCHROS

Experiment No: Date:

AIM: To study the characteristics of synchro Transmitter & Receiver.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S. No Name of the Apparatus Quantity

1. Synchro Transmitter Receiver Kit 1 No

2. Multimeter 1 No

THEORY:

A Synchro is an electromagnetic transducer commonly used to convert an angular position

of a shaft into an electric signal. The basic synchro is usually called a synchro transmitter. Its
construction is similar to that of a three-phase alternator. The stator (stationary member) is of
laminated silicon steel and is slotted to accommodate a balanced three phase winding which is
usually of concentric coil type (Three identical coils are placed in the stator with their axis 120 0
apart) and is Y connected. The rotor is a dumb bell construction and wound with a concentric coil.
An A.C voltage is applied to the rotor winding through slip rings.

Let an A.C voltage Vr(t) = Vr Sin 𝜔𝑡 --------------- (1)

Be supplied to the rotor of the synchro transmitter. This voltage causes a flow of
magnetizing current in the rotor coil which produces a sinusoidally time varying flux directed
along its axis and distributed nearly sinusoidally, in the air gap along stator peripehery. Because
of transformer action, voltages are induced in each of the stator coils. As the air gap flux is
sinusoidally distributed, the flux linking any stator coil is proportional to the consine of the angle
between rotor and stator coil axis and so is the voltage induced in each stator coil. The stator coil
voltages are of course in time phase with each other. Thus we see that the synchro transmitter (TX)
acts like single phase transformer in which rotor coil is the primary and the stator coils form three
secondaries.

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SYNCHRO TRANSMITTER CONNECTION:

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Let Vs1N, Vs2N and Vs3N respectively be the voltage induced in the stator coils S1, S2 and S3 with
respect to the neutral.
Let Vs1N = KVr sin 𝜔𝑡 cos (0+120) ---------- 2
Let Vs2N = KVr sin 𝜔𝑡 cos (0) ---------- 3
Let Vs3N = KVr sin 𝜔𝑡 cos (0+240) ---------- 4
The three terminal voltage of the stator are
Vs1s2 = Vs1N – Vs2N
= 3 KVr sin (0+240) sin 𝜔𝑡 ----------- 5
Vs2s3 = Vs2N – Vs3N
= 3 KVr sin (0+120) sin 𝜔𝑡 ----------- 6
Vs3s1 = Vs3N – Vs1N
= 3 KVr sin (0) sin 𝜔𝑡 ----------- 7

When 0 is zero from equation (2) and (3) it is seen that maximum voltage is induced in the
stator coil s2 while it follows from eq. (7). That the terminal voltage Vs3 S1 is zero. This position
of rotor is defined as the electrical zero of the Tx and is used as a reference for specifying the
angular position of the rotor.
Thus it is seen that the input to the synchro transmitter is the angular position of its rotor
shaft and the output is a set of three single phase voltages given by eq. (5), (6) and (7). The
magnitudes of these voltages are functions of a shaft position.

The classical synchro systems consists of two units.

1. Synchro transmitter (Tx)
2. Synchro Receiver (Tr)

The synchro receiver is having almost the same constructional features. The two units are
connected as shown in figure. Initially the winding S2 of the stator of transmitter is positioned for
maximum coupling with rotor winding. Suppose its voltage is V. The coupling between S1 and S2
of the stator and primary (rotor) windings is a consine function. Therefore the effective voltages
in these winding are proportional to cos 600 or they are V/2 each. So long as the rotors of the
transmitters and receivers remain in this position, no current will flow between windings because
of voltage balance.

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TABULAR COLUMN:

Rotor Voltage = Vr = V

Position Rotor in Vs3s1 Vs1s2 Vs2s3

S.No
Degrees (rms) (rms) (rms)
1. 0
2. 30
3. 60
4. 90
5. 120
6. 150
7. 180
8. 210
9. 240
10. 270
11. 300
12. 330

MODEL GRAPH:

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When the rotor of Tx is moved to a new position, the voltage balance is disturbed. Assume
that the rotor of Tx is moved through 300, the stator winding voltages will be changed to zero,
0.866V and 0.866V respectively. Thus there is a voltage imbalance between the windings causes
currents to flow through then close circuit producing torque that tends to rotate the rotor of the
receiver to a new position where the voltage balance is again restored. This balance is restored
only if the receiver turns through the same angle as the transmitter and also the direction of the
rotation is the same as that of Tx.

The RxTr pair thus serves to transmit information regarding angular position at one point
to a remote point.

1. Study of Synchro Transmitter:

In this part of the experiment, we can see how, because of the transformer action, the
angular position of the rotor of synchro transmitter is transformed into a unique set of stator
voltages Vs1s2, Vs2s3 & Vs3s1.

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the mains supply to the system with the help of cable provided. Do not connect
any patch cords to terminals marked S1, S2 and S3, R1 and R2.
2. Switch ON mains supply for the unit.
3. Initially switch ON SW1. Starting from zero position, note down the voltage between stator
winding terminals i.e. Vs1s2, Vs2s3 and Vs3s1 in a sequential manner. Measure these voltages
by using A.C voltmeter provided in the trainer. Enter readings in a Tabular form.1. and
plot a graph of angular position of rotor voltages for all three phases. Expected graph is as
shown in figure.
4. Note that zero position of the stator rotor coinsides with V s3S1 voltage equal to zero
voltage. Do not disturb this condition.

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Study of Synchro Transmitter and Receiver:

Angular Position in Degrees Synchro Angular Position in Degrees

S.No
Transmitter Input Synchro Receiver Output
1. 0
2. 30
3. 60
4. 90
5. 120
6. 150
7. 180
8. 210
9. 240
10. 270
11. 300
12. 330

Model Graph:

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Insert 2 Graph Sheet

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2. Study of Synchro Transmitter & Receiver Pair:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect mains supply cable.

2. Connect S1, S2 and S3 terminals of transmitter to S1, S2 and S3 of synchro receiver by
patch cords provided respectively.
3. Switch ON SW1 and SW2 and also switch ON the mains supply.
4. Move the pointer i.e. rotor position of synchro transmitter Tx in steps of 30 0 and observe
the new rotor position in Sychro Receiver. Observe that whenever Tx rotor is rotated, the
Tr rotor follows it for follows it for both the directions of rotated, the Tr rotor follows it for
both the directions of rotations and their positions are in good agreement.
5. Enter the input angular position and output angular position in the tabular form. 2. and plot
a graph.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Handle the pointers for both the rotors in a gentle manner.

2. Do not attempt to pull out the pointers.
3. Do not short rotor or stator terminals.

RESULT:

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VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is Synchro?
2. What is Synchro pair?
3. What are the applications of Synchro pair?
4. Write the terminal Voltages of the stator for Synchro Transmitter?
5. Explain Working Principle of synchro transmitter and receiver?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 3

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

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AND Gate:
Ladder Diagram: Truth Table
Inputs
O/P
A B

OR Gate:
Ladder Diagram: Truth Table
Inputs
O/P
A B

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PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

Experiment No: Date:
AIM: To study and verify the truth tables of Logic Gates AND, OR, NOT, NOR, NAND by
using Programmable Logic Controller.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S. No Name of the Operators

1 PLC Trainer
2 Personal Computer with Ladder Programming Software.
3 RS-232 Communication Wire.

THEORY:
PLC stands for programmable logic controller. It is a solid-state computerized industrial
controller to perform discrete or sequential logic in industries preferably.

In other words a PLC is a solid state digitally operating electronic control system that
monitors the status of devices connected as inputs. Based upon a user written program, stored in
the memory, it controls the status of devices connected as outputs.
The PLC system consists of the following components.

 Power Supply Module

 Central Processing Unit
 Input/Output Modules
 Communication/Interface Module
 Chassis/Mounting Rack

Control engineering evolved over time. In the past humans were the main methods for
controlling a system. More recently electricity has been used for control and early electrical control
was based on relays. These relays allow power to be switched on and off without a control decision.
The development of low cost computer has brought the most recent revolution, the Programmable
Logic Controller (PLC). The advent of the PLC began in the late 1960’s and has become the most
common choice for manufacturing controls.

Before the advent of solid-state logic circuits, logical control systems were designed and built
exclusively around electromechanical relays. Relays are far from obsolete in modern design, but
have been replaced in many of their former roles as logic-level control devices, relegated most
often to those applications demanding high current and high voltage switching.

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NAND Gate:
Ladder Diagram: Truth Table
Inputs
O/P
A B

NOR Gate:
Ladder Diagram: Truth Table
Inputs
O/P
A B

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A PLC has many “input” terminals, through which it interprets “high” and “low” logical status
from sensors and switches. It also has many output terminals through which it outputs “high” and
“low” signals to power lights, solenoids, contactors, small motors, and other devices lending
themselves to on/off control. In an effort to make PLCs easy to program, their programming
language was designed to resemble ladder logic diagrams. Thus, an industrial electrician or
electrical engineer accustomed to read ladder logic schematics would feel comfortable
programming a PLC to perform the same control functions.

PLC’s are industrial computers, and as such their input and output signals are typically
230/120v AC, just like the electromechanical control relays they were designed to replace.
Although some PLC’s have the ability to input and output low-level DC(12v, 24v) voltage signals
of the magnitude used in Logic Gate circuits, this is the exception and not the rule.

PROCEDURE:
1. Open the Rockwell Software.
2. Draw ladder diagrams of AND, OR, NAND, NOR, NOT gates.
3. Use I: 0/0 as input for one toggle switch & I: 0/1 as input for another toggle switch.
4. Use O: 0/0 as output.
5. Verify the ladder diagrams and then dump to PLC kit.
6. Run the program & verify the result for proper operation.

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NOT Gate:
Ladder Diagram: Truth Table
Input Output

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. Handle the PLC kit with care.

2. Draw the ladder diagram carefully.

RESULT:

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VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is PLC?
2. What are the types of PLC programming languages?
3. Describe about basic elements in Ladder logic programming
4. What is the role of PLC in automation?
5. What are the applications of PLC?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 4

D.C. SERVO MOTOR SPEED – TORQUE

CHARACTERISTICS

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

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D.C. SERVO MOTOR SPEED – TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS

Experiment No: Date:

AIM: To draw the Speed and Torque characteristics of D.C. Servomotor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name of the Apparatus Quantity

1. D.C. Servomotor kit. 1 No.

2. Multi meter 1 No.

THEORY:
The motors that are used in automatic control systems are called servomotors. When the
objective of system is to control the position of an object then the system is called servomechanism.
The servomotors are used to convert an electrical signal applied to them in to an angular
displacement of the shaft.

Depending on the supply requirement to run the motor the servomotors are broadly classified
as DC servomotors and AC servomotors. The DC servomotors are expensive, but these motors
have linear characteristics so it is easy to control.

By using DC servomotor, higher output can be obtained than from a 50Hz motor of same
size. It is easy to control speed from zero to full speed in both directions these are generally used
for large power applications such as machine tools and robotics. Electro magnetic field
servomotors are more economical for higher power ratings. In this type of motors varying the
armature current or the field current may control the torque and speed. Generally one of these is
varied to control the torque while the other is held constant.

PROCEDURE:
1. Switch ON the instrument, observe initially DC ammeter and RPM meters indicates zero
reading.
2. Adjust spring balance to minimum load on the DC servomotor.
3. Connect digital multimeter across the armature voltage terminals and field voltage
terminals.

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TABULAR COLUMN:
1. Radius of pulley R=3.5cm, Vf =20V, Va =10V
T1 T2 T1~T2=T Torque=T*R N Ia
S. No.
gm gm gm gm-cm (RPM) (amps)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

2. Radius of pulley R=3.5cm, Vf =20V, Va =15V

T1 T2 T1~T2=T Torque=T*R N Ia
S. No
gm gm gm gm-cm (RPM) (amps)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

3. Radius of pulley R=3.5cm, Vf =20V, Va =20V

T1 T2 T1~T2=T Torque=T*R N Ia
S. No
gm gm gm gm-cm (RPM) (amps)

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4. Adjust armature control potentiometer Va =10V and field control potentiometer Vf =20V.
5. Note down T1, T2, Armature current and speed in the tabular form.
6. Keeping Va =10V(constant), Vf =20V(constant)
7. Adjust T1 up to 500grams in suitable steps to get a set of readings.
8. Tabulate T1, T2, armature current and speed.
9. Plot the speed – torque characteristics,
10. Now repeat above procedure for Va =15,20,25 volts and Vf =20 volts (constant)

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The armature control and field control potentiometers should be always in the most
anticlockwise position before switch on the equipment.
2. In order to increase the load on the servomotor adjusts the spring balance in a careful
fashion.

RESULT:

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Insert 1 Graph Sheet

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VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is the effect of DC servo motor?

2. What is the working principle of DC servo motor?
3. How the speed of a DC servo motor can be controlled?
4.What are the characteristics of a servo motor?
5. Which controller is best to DC servo motor?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 5

EFFECT OF P,PD,PI&PID CONTROLLER

ON A SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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EFFECT OF P, PD, PI, PID CONTROLLER ON A SECOND

ORDER SYSTEM

AIM: To study the performance characteristics of an analog PID controller.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Apparatus Required Quantity

1. PID controller kit 1 No

2. Patch chords As per Required

THEORY :

PID Controllers are used to set the process at the predetermined value irrespective of load
or other parameters are changed. P I D Stands for proportional Integral & Derivative controls.
Each one has individual gains. PID Controller has built in set signal generator; controller and
simulated process are provided for studying the performance of the controller in closed loop
system.
ERROR AMPLIFIER
Error amplifier gives the output which is difference between the set value and processing
value.
PROPORTIONAL AMPLIFIER
The output of the proportional amplifier is proportional to the gain P of the amplifier.
Proportional controller establishes a value which is gain times the error voltage.
INTEGRAL AMPLIFIER
The output of the integral amplifier is proportional to the integral of the input signal.
Whensmaller. The controller output will continue to change. Once the error is zero, the output
change also goes to zero. This means the controller holds the output which eliminates the error.

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TABULAR COLUMN:

PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER(P)

S.No P-gain Set volt VS(V) Feedback VF (V) Error VE(V)

1 Minimum

2 Middle

3 Maximum

PROPORTIONAL & INTEGRAL CONTROLLER(PI)

P-gain----- Maximum

S.No I-gain Set volt VS(V) Feedback VF (V) Error VE(V)

1 Minimum

2 Middle

3 Maximum

PROPORTIONAL & DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER(PD)

P-gain------ Minimum

S.No D-gain Set volt VS(V) Feedback VF (V) Error VE(V)

1 Minimum

2 Middle

3 Maximum

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DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER
The output of the derivative controller is proportional to the derivative of the error signal.
The derivative controller responds to change in error to overcome the process inertia. It produces
anoutput only for changes in error and hence it is mostly used in combination with other type of
controllers.

PROPORTIONAL & INTEGRAL CONTROLLER:

This is most popular form of the control. For proper selection of gains one can make the
error to zero. With non optimized P and I the response may show an overshot or in certain cases,
the system may itself become unstable-oscillatory.

PROPORTIONAL & DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER:

P Controller alone might make the final response poor for a step change in the set value.
Derivative feedback improves the step response and dynamic performance of the loop.

PROPORTIONAL, INTEGRAL & DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER:

With proper selection of the P, I & D controllers gain the system stability may be increased.
The error might be brought to zero by proper selection of gains.

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PROPORTIONAL INTEGRAL & DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER(PID)

S.No P, I&D-gains Set volt VS(V) Feedback VF (V) Error VE(V)

1 Minimum

2 Middle

3 Maximum

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PROCEDURE:

PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLER(P):
1. Connect DC voltage of 1.0V (Max 1.5V) to positive input of error amplifier.
2. The output of the PID must be connected to II order system as shown above.
3. The output of the II order system is connected to negative input of the error amplifier.
4. Switch ON P Controller alone.
5. Note down error output for different P-gains.

PROPORTIONAL & INTEGRAL CONTROLLER(PI):

1. Connect DC voltage of 1.0V (Max 1.5V) to positive input of error amplifier.
2. The output of the PID must be connected to II order system as shown above.
3. The output of the II order system is connected to negative input of the error amplifier.
4. Switch ON P & I Controller and P-gain must be Maximum position.
5. Note down error output for different I- gains.

PROPORTIONAL & DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER(PD):

1. Connect DC voltage of 1.0V (Max 1.5V) to positive input of error amplifier.
2. The output of the PID must be connected to II order system as shown above.
3. The output of the II order system is connected to negative input of the error amplifier.
4. Switch ON P & D Controller and P-gain must be Minimum position
5. Note down error output for different D-gains.

PROPORTIONAL, INTEGRAL & DERIVATIVE CONTROLLER(PID):

1. Connect DC voltage of 1.0V (Max 1.5V) to positive input of error amplifier.
2. The output of the PID must be connected to II order system as shown above.
3. The output of the II order system is connected to negative input of the error amplifier.
4. Switch ON P, I & D Controller.
5. Note down error output for different PID- gains(Min, Middle, Max)

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PRECAUTIONS:
1. Check the connections before switch ON the supply.
2. Take the readings accurately.

RESULT:

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VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is the effect of PI controller on the system performance?

2. What is the effect of P controller on the system performance?
3. What is the effect of PID controller on the system performance?
4. What are the disadvantages of P controller?
5. Define damping ratio?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 6

LEAD-LAG COMPENSATION DESIGN

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Lead compensation:

Lag compensation:

Lead Lag compensation:

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DESIGN OF LAG AND LEAD COMPENSATION – MAGNITUDE

AND PHASE PLOT
Exp.No: Date:

AIM:To study Lead, Lag & Lag - Lead compensator

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.no Name of the Apparatus Quantity

1 Lead lag compensation study kit 1 No.

2 Patch chords As per required

THEORY:

Compensators are some kind of corrective sub systems which are introduced to force
chosen plant to meet the given specifications.Their main purpose is to compensate for the
deficiency in theperformance of the plant. There are 3 types of compensators.

1. Lead Compensator
2. Lag Compensator
3. Lag-Lead Compensator

1. Lead Compensator:

Lead compensator speeds up the transient response and increase the margin of the stability
ofthe system. It also helps to increase the system error constant through to a limited extent. A high
passfilter is often referred as phase lead controller. It is so called since positive phase is introduced
to thesystem over some frequency range. These ideas related to filtering and phase shift are useful
indesign of system carried out in frequency domain.

The transfer function of such a compensator is given by

G(s)=(S+Zc)/(S+Pc) =(S+1/γ)/(S+1/αγ)
Where α= Zc/ Pc <1 ,γ>0

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TABULAR COLUMN:

Input= V p-p,
Lead compensation:

Output
Phase Angle Ø
voltage Gain=Vo/Vin
S.No Frequency in degrees
Vo in volts

1
2
3
4
5

Lag compensation:

Output
Phase Angle Ø
voltage Gain=Vo/Vin
S.No Frequency in degrees
Vo in volts

1
2
3
4
5

Lead Lag compensation:

Output
Phase Angle Ø
voltage Gain=Vo/Vin
S.No Frequency in degrees
Vo in volts

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

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The S-plane representation of the lead compensator shows a zero at S=(-1/γ) and a pole at S=(-
1/αγ)with a zero closer to the origin that the pole.
For the equation (1)
α = R1C
andγ= R2/R1+R2 < 1,
The sinusoidal transfer function of the lead compensator is given by
Gc(jw)=(1+jwγ)/(1+jαwγ) ; α < 1 ……….(2)
Since we have ‘α’ <1 , the network output leads a sinusoidal input under steady state and so
the name lead compensator. In the lead compensator the gain increase with frequency.
From equation (2), it is evident that the compensative provides a phase lead between the
output and input, given at any frequency, w given by
Ø(w)=Tan -1(wγ)-Tan-1(αwγ) ……………(3)
2. Lag Compensator:
Lag compensator improves the steady state behaviour of a system ,while nearly
preserving a transient response. A low pass filter is often referred a phase lag controller. It is so
called since
negative phase is introduced to the system over some frequency range. The phase lag control
bring in more attenuation to a system, the stability margin will be improved but suffer from
lesser band width.
The transfer function of such a compensator is given by
G(s)=(S+Zc)/(S+Pc) =(S+1/γ)/(S+1/αγ) ……………(4)
Where α= Zc/ Pc >1 ,γ>0
The S-plane representation of the lag compensator shows a zero at S=(-1/γ) and a pole at S=(-
1/βγ)
with a zero located to the left of the pole on the negative real axis.

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PROCEDURE:

1.Connections are made as shown in the relevant circuit diagram.

2. Select the components of the required compensator circuit.
3. Switch ON the supply.
4. Adjust the amplitude of the signal generator to suitable voltage say 3.6 V peak.
5. Take the phase angle between input& output waveforms using phase angle meter for the
frequency from 100 Hz to 1K Hz (Maximum 5K Hz) in steps.
6. Enter the reading in the table provided .
7. Plot a graph of a phase angle Ø v/s frequency & gain v/s frequency
8. Do the experiment for different compensator circuit.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the connections should be made tight.

2. Avoid loose connections..

RESULT:

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VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is compensator?
2. What is the difference between Lead and Lag compensator?
3. Bode plot for Lag network?
4. Which compensator used to improve study state response of system?
5. Which compensator used to improve transient response of system?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 7

TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER USING

PID

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Circuit Diagram:

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TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER USING PID

Experiment No: Date:

AIM: To study the performance of various types of controllers used to control the
temperature of an oven.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Apparatus Quantity

1. Temperature control kit 1 No

2. Ovens 1 No

3. Stop Watch 1 No

THEORY:

Temperature control is one of the most common industrial control systems that are in
operation. This equipment is designed to expose the students to the intricacies of such a system in
the ‘friendly’ environment of a laboratory, free from disturbances and uncertainties of plant
prevalent in an actual process. The ‘plant’ to be controlled is a specially designed oven having a
short heating as well as cooling time. The temperature time data may be obtained manually, thus
avoiding expensive equipment like an X-Y recorder or a pen recorder. A solid-state temperature
sensor converts the absolute temperatures information to a proportional electric signal. The
reference and actual temperatures are indicated in degree Celsius on a switch selectable digital
display.

The controller unit compares the reference and the measured signals to generate the error.
Controller options available to the user consist of ON/OFF or relay with two hysteresis settings
and combination of proportional., derivative and integral blocks having independent coefficient
settings. A block diagram of the complete system is shown in figure. The various blocks along
with their specifications are described below.

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TABULAR COLUMN (P-Controller):

Set Temperature=𝟔𝟎𝟎
S.No Time in Sec. Temp. in 0C
1 0
2 30
3 60
4 90
5 120
6 150
7 180
8 210
9 240
10 270
11 300
12 330
13 360
14 390
15 420

MODEL GRAPH:

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1. The Oven:
Plant to be controlled is an electric oven, the temperature of which must adjust itself in
accordance with the reference or command. This is a thermal system which basically involves
transfer of heat from one section t another. In the present case we are interested in the transfer of
heat from the heater coil to the oven and the leakage of heat from the oven to the atmosphere
There are three modes of heat transfer viz. Conduction, convection and radiation. Heat
transfer through radiation maybe neglected in the present case since the temperatures involved are
quite small.

2. Proportional Controller:
It is simply an amplifier of gain Kp which amplifies the error signal and passes it to the
Driver. The noise, drift and bias currents of this amplifier set the lower limit of the input signal,
which may be handled reliably and therefore decide the minimum possible value of the error
between the input signal and output. Also the saturation characteristics of this amplifier sets the
linear and non-linear regions of its operation/ A typical proportional controller may have and input-
output characteristics. Such controller gives non-zero steady state error to step input for a type-0
system as indicated earlier. The proportional (P) block in the system consists of a variable gain
amplifier having a maximum value, Kp max of 20.

3. Proportional – Integral (PI) Controller:

Mathematical equation of such a controller is given by

M(t) = Kpe( t) + KI  e(t) dt = Kpe(t) + 1/TI  e(t)dt

And a block diagram representation is shown in figure. It may be easily seen that this controller
introduces a pole at the origin, i.e. increases the system type number by unity. The steady state
error of the system is therefore reduced or eliminated. Qualitatively, any small error signal e(t),
present in the system, would get continuously integrated and generate Drive signal m(t) forcing
the plant output to exactly correspond t the reference input so that the error is zero. In practical
systems, the error may not be exactly zero due to imperfections in an electronic integrator caused
by bias current needed, noise and drift present leakage of the integrator capacitor.

The integral (I) block in the present system is realized with a circuit and has transfer
function.

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TABULAR COLUMN (PI-Controller):

Set Temperature=𝟔𝟎𝟎
S.No Time in Sec. Temp. in 0C
1 0
2 30
3 60
4 90
5 120
6 150
7 180
8 210
9 240
10 270
11 300
12 330
13 360
14 390
15 420
16 450

MODEL GRAPH:

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Gr(s) = 1 (41s) = KI/s --------------- (2)

The integral gain is therefore adjustable in the range 0 to 0.024 (approx). Due to the
tolerance of large capacitances, the value of K1 is approximate.

4. Proportional – Integral – Derivative (PID) controller:

Mathematical equations governing the operation of this controller is as

M (t) = Kpe (t) + KI  e(t) dt + KDde(t) / dt
=Kpe(t) + 1/T1  e(t) dt + TD de(t) /dt

So that in the Lap lace transform domain,

M(s)/E(s) = (Kp + TDs + 1 / T1s)

A simple analysis would show that the derivative block essentially increases the damping
ratio of the system and therefore improves the dynamic performance by reducing overshoot. The
PID controller therefore helps in reducing the steady state error with an improvement in the
transient response.

The derivative (D) block in this system is realized with the circuit of figure. This has a
transfer function.

GD (s) = 19.97 s (approx.) --------------- (3)

The derivative gain is therefore adjustable in the range 0 to 20 approximately. Again, the
approximation is due to the higher tolerance in the values of large capacitances.

PID controller is one of the most widely used controller because of its simplicity. By
adjusting its coefficients Kp, KD (or TD) and K1(or T1) the controller can be used with a variety of
systems. The process of setting the controller coefficients to suit a given plant is known as tuning.
There are many methods of ‘tuning’ a PID controller. In the present experiment, the method of
Ziegler – Nichol has been introduced which is suitable for the oven control system, although better
methods are available and may be attempted.

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TABULAR COLUMN (PID-Controller):

Set Temperature=𝟔𝟎𝟎
S.No Time in Sec. Temp. in 0C
1 0
2 30
3 60
4 90
5 120
6 150
7 180
8 210
9 240
10 270
11 300
12 330
13 360
14 390
15 420

MODEL GRAPH:

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Proportional Controller:

Ziegler and Nichols suggest the value of Kp for P-Controller as

Kp = 1 x T 1
K T 2

PROCEDURE:

1. Starting with a cool oven, keep switch to ‘WAIT’ position and connect P output to the
driver input. Keep R, D and I outputs disconnected. Short ‘FEEDBACK’ terminals. (as
shown in diagram)
2. Set P potentiometer to the above calculated value of Kp, keeping in mind that kpmax=0.2.
3. Select & set the desired temperature to 600C.
4. Keep switch to RUN position.
5. Plot the observations on a linear graph paper and observe the rise time, steady state error
and percent overshoot.

Proportional – Integral Controller:

Ziegler and Nichols suggested the value of Kp and K1 for P-I controller as

 0.9  T 1 1 1
Kp =   X ; T1 = = 3.3 T2, giving K1 = .
K T 2 K 1
3.3T 2

PROCEDURE:
1. Starting with a cool oven, keep switch to ‘WIAT’, Connect P and I outputs to driver input
and disconnect R and D out puts. Short ‘FEEDBACK’ terminals.
2. Set P and I potentiometers to the above values of Kp, and K1 respectively, keeping in mind
that the maximum value of Kp is 20 and that of K1 is 0.024.
3. Select and set the desired temperature to say 60.00C.
4. Keep switch to ‘RUN’ position and record temperature readings as before.
5. Plot the response on a graph paper and observe the steady state error and percent overshoot.

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SAMPLE CALCULATIONS:

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Proportional – Integral – Derivative Controller:

Ziegler and Nichols suggest and values of Kp, KD and K1 for this controller as

Kp =
1.2
X T 1
; T1 = 1
= 2T2 , giving K1 = 1
.
K T 2 K 1
2T 2

KD = TD = 0.5T2

PROCEDURE:
1. Starting with a cool oven, keep switch to ‘WAIT’ position and connect P, D and I outputs
to driver input. Keep R output disconnected. Short ‘FEEDBACK’ terminals. (as shown
in diagram 4.)
2. Set P, I and D potentiometers according to the above-calculated values of Kp, K1 and KD
keeping in mind that the maximum values for these are 0.1, 0.024 and 23.5 respectively.
3. Select and set the desired temperature, say 60.00C.
4. Switch to ‘RUN’ Position, and record temperature – time readings as before.
5. Plot the response on a linear graph paper and observe the rise time, steady state error and
percent overshoot. (See figure0)
6. Compare the results of the various controller options.

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Insert 3 Graph Sheets

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. Connections are made properly.

2. Start the experiment with cool oven.

RESULTS:

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VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Draw the PID CONTROLLER?

2. What are the applications of PID CONTROLLER?
3. Define PID CONTROLLER?
4. Where it is used?
5. Explain Working Principle of PID CONTROLLER?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 8

CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGNETIC
AMPLIFIER

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SERIES CONNECTED MAGNETIC AMPLIFIER:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGNETIC AMPLIFIER

Experiment No: Date:

AIM: Draw the load characteristics of magnetic amplifier using series, parallel and self- saturated
conditions.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Apparatus Quantity

1. Magnetic amplifier kit 1 No

2. Lamp 100W 1 No

3. Patch chords Sufficient

THEORY:
Magnetic amplifier is a device consisting of combination of saturable reactors, rectifiers and
conventional transformers used to control large AC loads with a small DC current control.
In magnetic amplifiers, a DC magnetizing current, which is comparatively very low as compared with
load current, controls the load current in the circuit. A large current value is controlled by a small current
value, hence such type of circuits are termed as current amplifiers.
The saturable reactor is used as the interface between the load circuit and control circuit. The reactance
of reactor depends upon magnetic coupling and magnetism induced depends upon the DC control current. The
load current is controlled by using magnetic property and hence the term magnetic amplifier.
Advantages:
1. High efficiency upto 90%
2. Reliability (long life, freedom for maintenance, reduction of spare parts inventory)
3. Ruggedness (shock and vibration resistance, high overload capability freedom from effects of
moisture.
4. No warm up time.

Disadvantages:
1. It cannot handle low-level signals.
2. It is not useful at high frequencies.
3. It has a time delay associated with magnetic effects.

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TABULAR COLUMN:

S.No Control current (mA) Load current (mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

MODEL GRAPH:

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PROCEDURE:

1. All connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Keep toggle switch in position “D” on the front panel.
3. Keep control current setting knob at its extreme left position (Rotate in anti-clockwise direction),
which ensures zero control current at starting.
4. With the help of patch chords, connect following terminals on the front panel of the unit:
a) Connect Ac to A1
b) Connect B1 to A2
c) Connect B2 to L

5. Now, put the 100w lamp load in the holder provided on the front panel.
6. Switch ON the unit.
7. Now gradually increase control current by rotating control current setting knob clockwise in steps and
noted down control current and corresponding load current.
8. Plot the graph of load current V/S control current.

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PARALLEL CONNECTED MAGNETIC AMPLIFIER:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULAR COLUMN:
S.No Control current (mA) Load current (mA)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

MODEL GRAPH:

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PROCEDURE:

1. All connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Keep toggle switch in position “D” on the front panel.
3. Keep control current setting knob at its extreme left position (Rotate in anti-clockwise direction),
which ensures zero control current at starting.
4. With the help of patch chords, connect following terminals on the front panel of the unit:
a. Connect A1 to Ac
b. Connect A1 to A2
c. Connect B2 to L
d. Connect B2 to B1
5. Now, put the 100w lamp load in the holder provided on the front panel.
6. Switch ON the unit.
7. Now gradually increase control current by rotating control current setting knob clockwise in steps and
noted down control current and corresponding load current.
8. Plot the graph of load current V/s control current.

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SELF SATURATED MAGNETIC AMPLIFIER:

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

TABULAR COLUMN:

S.No Control current (mA) Load current (mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

MODEL GRAPH:

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PROCEDURE:

1. All connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Keep toggle switch in position “E” on the front panel.
3. Keep control current setting knob at its extreme left position (Rotate in anti-clockwise direction),
which ensures zero control current at starting.
4. With the help of patch chords, connect following terminals on the front panel of the unit:
a. Connect AC to C1
b. Connect A3 to B3
c. Connect B3 to L

5. Now, put the 100w lamp load in the holder provided on the front panel.
6. Switch ON the unit.
7. Now gradually increase control current by rotating control current setting knob clockwise in steps and
noted down control current and corresponding load current.
8. Plot the graph of load current V/s control current.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Do not touch any terminals on the front panel with hands as high voltage exists at some terminals.
Touching the terminals may give shock.
2. Position of mode selector switch is important and it should be properly selected.
3. The load is a lamp load; an incandescent lamp. The lamp should be a tested one.

RESULT:

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VIVA QUESTIONS

1.What are the characteristics of magnetic amplifier?

2.What is the principle of magnetic amplifier?
3.What are the disadvantages of magnetic amplifier?
4.Do amplifiers use magnets?
5.What are the different types of magnetic amplifier?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 9

CHARACTERISTICS OF A.C SERVO MOTOR

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PANEL DIAGRAM:

CONNECTION DIAGRAM:

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CHARACTERISTICS OF A.C SERVO MOTOR

Experiment No: Date:

AIM: To Draw the speed-Torque characteristics of an AC servomotor

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Apparatus Quantity

1. AC servomotor kit 1 No

2. Multimeter 1 No

THEORY:
An AC servo Motor is basically a two-phase induction motor except for certain special design features.
A two phase induction motor consisting of two stator windings oriented 90 degrees electrically apart in space
and excited by AC voltage which differ in time phase by 90 degrees. Generally voltages of equal magnitude
and 90 degrees phase difference are applied to the two stator phase thus marking their respective fields 90
degrees apart in both time and space, at synchronous speed. As the field sweeps over the rotor, voltages are
induced in it producing current in the short-circuited rotor. The rotating magnetic field interacts with these
currents producing a torque on the rotor in the direction of field rotation.

The shape of the characteristics depends upon ratio of the rotor reactance (X) to the rotor resistance
(R). In normal induction motor X/R ratio is generally kept high so as to obtain the maximum torque close to
the operating region, which is usually around 5% slip.

A two-phase servomotor differs in two ways from normal induction motor.

1. The rotor of the servomotor is built with high resistance so that its X/R ratio is small and the torque-speed
characteristics of induction motor as shown in the figure.

Curve is nearly linear in contrast to highly non-linear characteristics with large X/R. It must be
emphasized that if a conventional induction motor with high X/R ratio is used for servo applications, then
because of the positive slope for part of the characteristics, the system using such a motor becomes unstable.

The motor construction is usually squirrel cage of drag cu type. The diameter of the rotor is kept small
in order to reduce inertia and thus to obtain good accelerating characteristics. Drag cup construction is used
for a very low inertia operation.

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2. In servo applications, the voltages applied to the two-stator windings are seldom balanced. One of the phases
known as the reference phase is excited by constant voltage and the other phase known as the control phase
with respect to the voltage supplied to the reference windings and it has a variable magnitude and polarity.
The control winding voltage is supplied from a servo amplifier.

For low power applications, A.C servomotors are preferred because they are lightweight, rugged and
there are no brush contacts to maintain.

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TABULAR COLUMN (Speed Vs Torque):

Control Winding Voltage VC = 45V (fixed)

Torque T=
Back emf Px1.019 x10 4 x60
Current Ia Speed N Power P = 2xN
S.No Voltage Eb
mA Rpm Eb x Ia mW gm-cm
V

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Control Winding Voltage VC = 50V (fixed)

Torque T=
Back emf Power P = Px1.019 x10 4 x60
Current Ia Speed N 2xN
S.No Voltage Eb Eb x Ia
mA Rpm gm-cm
V mW

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

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PROCEDURE:

Speed v/s Torque Characteristics of A.C Servo Motor:

1. Initially keep load switch and servo motor switch in OFF position.
2. Before switch ON the instrument, Keep load control potentiometer P1 and speed control potentiometer
P2 are in fully anti-clockwise (minimum) position.
3. Now Switch ON the instrument and also switch ON the servomotor. You can observe that A.C
servomotor will start rotating and the speed will be indicated by the RPM meter on the front panel.
4. By using potentiometer P2 set control winding voltage at fixed V c = 45V. Use digital multimeter to
measure control-winding voltage on front panel. Note down the speed of the A.C servomotor in Table
No .2 (a). Now keep P1 at minimum position and switch on the load switch to apply the load on A.C
servo Motor. Note down the corresponding current from digital D.C ammeter. And also note down the
back emf voltage Eb from TP1 terminals by using DMM. Enter these values in Table 2 (a).
Corresponding to the RPM value already noted.
5. Repeat the step No .4 for different values by varying load control potentiometer P1 in a slow fashion.
Note down the corresponding values of current I a, back emf voltage Eb and spend.
6. Now switch OFF the load switch and keep load control potentiometer P1 in minimum position. Now
you may set control winding voltage Vc = 50V. Again repeat the process as indicated in step No.4&5.
Enter these values in Repeat the process as indicated in step No. 4,5,6 for different values of V c = 55V,
60V and 65V.
7. Plot the graph speed v/s torque characteristics of various values of control winding voltage.

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Model Graph:

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Insert 2 Graph Sheets

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PRECAUTIONS:
1. The Load control P1 and Speed control P2 potentiometers should be always in the most anticlockwise
position before switch ON the equipment.
2. In order to increase the Load and control winding voltage, rotate the knobs in the clockwise direction
in a gentle fashion.
3. In order to increase the load on the A.C servomotor, adjust the load control potentiometer P1 in a
careful fashion.
4. Before doing the experiment please check control winding voltage (45V), reference winding voltage
(100V) and D.C machine armature voltage (+12V at TP3 terminals). If the above voltages or any one
is not available in such case the A.C servomotor needs servicing.
5. Keep always servo motor switch and load switch in OFF position before switch ON the instrument.

RESULT:

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VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Define Motor classifications?

2. What are applications of AC servo Motor?
3. where it is used?
4. Explain Working Principle of A,C servo Motor?
5. Draw the Circuit of AC servo Motor?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 10

TRANSFER FUNCTION OF DC MOTOR

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Circuit Diagram:

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TRANSFER FUNCTION OF DC MOTOR

Experiment No: Date:

AIM: To determine the transfer function of DC motor

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No Name of the Apparatus Range Quantity

1. DC shunt generator - 1 No

2. Voltmeter 0-300V MC 1 No

3. Ammeter 0-1A MC 1 No

THEORY:

Transfer function of linear time invariant system is defined as ratio of laplace transform of o/p variable
to laplace transform of input variable.

Let
Rf=field resistance
Lf=field inductance
Vg(t)=generated voltage
If(t)=current through field winding
Vf(t)=Rif(t)+Lf dIf(t)/dt
Vg(t)=Kg If(t)

From above equations we get

Transfer function=Vg(s)/Vf(s)=Kg/(Rf+sLf)

PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are as per circuit diagram
2. OCC test is conducted and graph is plotted between Eg and If
3. Field resistance of generator is calculated by drop test
4. Field inductance of generator is calculated by drop test
5. Substitute in transfer function.

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TABULAR COLUMNS:
Load test on D.C Motor (𝑲𝑻 ):

S.
Eg(v) Ia(A) F1(Kg) F2(Kg) N(RPM) T=(F1-F2)×6.5×9.81 N-M
No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

MODEL GRAPH:

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PRECAUTIONS:

1. Connections must be tight.

2. Note the readings without parallax error.

RESULT:

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VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What are the types of methods available to control the speed of a dc motor?
2. Why mechanical time constant is more than electrical time constant?
3. How speed and viscosity are related?
4. Can you justify that back emf constant = torque constant?
5. What is nature of relationship between torque and armature current in dc motor?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 11

ROOT LOCUS, BODE AND NYQUIST PLOT

OF TRANSFER FUNCTION

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PLOTTING OF BODE PLOTS, ROOT LOCUS AND NYQUIST PLOTS

FOR THE TRANSFER FUNCTIONS OF SYSTEMS UP TO 5TH ORDER
Experiment No: Date:
AIM:To study the stability analysis of the given Transfer Function by using Bode plots, Root Locus and
Nyquist Plots.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:MATLAB –M file

PROBLEM:

For a given transfer function, find the Bode Plot, root locus and Nyquist plot.
100(𝑠 + 0.5)(𝑠 + 1.5)
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 4.5)(𝑠 + 8)(𝑠 + 12)

THEORY:

Transfer Function:

The ratio of Laplace transform of output to the Laplace transform of input is expressed as a ratio of
polynomial in ‘s’ when all the initial conditions are zero and it is called the transfer function of the system.
Order:

The highest exponent in the denominator of s in the given transfer function.

The highest exponent in the denominator is s2, so the system is order 2.

Type:
The number of poles at origin of a given transfer function is called type of the system
𝟑(𝒔 + 𝟎. 𝟓)(𝒔 + 𝟏. 𝟓)
𝒔𝟑(𝒔 + 𝟒. 𝟓)(𝒔 + 𝟖)(𝒔 + 𝟏𝟐)
Number of poles at origin is 3 so the type of the system is 3

Applications:

Root locus technique is used to find the stability of system in time domain analysis. Bode and nyquist
techniques are used to stability of system in frequency domain. All the methods are applicable for linear
systems

Bode plot:

It is a logarithmic plot which consists of two plots

i) Plot of logarithm of magnitude against frequency in logarithmic scale
ii) Plot of phase angle against frequency in logarithmic scale
i) Bode Magnitude Plots

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THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS

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Step 1
Factor the transfer function into pole-zero form.
Step 2
Find the frequency response from the Transfer function.
Step 3
Use logarithms to separate the frequency response into a sum of decibel terms
Step 4
Use to find the starting magnitude.
Step 5
The locations of every pole and every zero are called break points. At a zero breakpoint, the slope of
the line increases by 20dB/Decade. At a pole, the slope of the line decreases by 20dB/Decade.

Step 6
At a zero breakpoint, the value of the actual graph differs from the value of the straight-line graph by
3dB. A zero is +3dB over the straight line, and a pole is -3dB below the straight line.

Step 7
Sketch the actual bode plot as a smooth-curve that follows the straight lines of the previous point, and
travels through the breakpoints.

Bode Phase Plots

Step 1
If A is positive, start your graph (with zero slope) at 0 degrees. If A is negative, start your graph with
zero slope at 180 degrees (or -180 degrees, they are the same thing).
Step 2

For every zero, slope the line up at 45 degrees per decade when (1 decade before the break
frequency). Multiple zeros means the slope is steeper.

Step 3

For every pole, slope the line down at 45 degrees per decade when (1 decade before the
break frequency). Multiple poles means the slope is steeper.
Step 4
Flatten the slope again when the phase has changed by 90 degrees (for a zero) or -90 degrees (for a
pole) (or larger values, for multiple poles or multiple zeros.

Root locus:

Procedure to Plot Root Locus

Keeping all these points in mind we are able to draw the root locus plot for any kind of system. Now let us
discuss the procedure of making a root locus.

1. We obtain the open loop poles and closed loop poles from their respective transfer functions.

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2. Number of poles or order of the characteristic equation give the number of loci.
3. Each locus starts at an open-loop pole (at k=0) and terminates at open loop zero(at k=α).
4. Root loci either moves along the real axis or can move as comples conjugate pairs.
5. The break-away point from real axis is obtained by differentiatin the open loop transfer function w.r.t to
s and equating it to zero.
6. As one moves far enough from the open-loop poles and zeros, the root-loci become asymptotic to lines
making angle θnto the real axis
nπ
θn = ±
𝑃−𝑍

Where P=Number of open loop poles

Z=Number of open loop zeros
N=an odd integer=(2m+1) , where m = 0,1,2,….(P-Z-1)
7. Intersection of asymptotes with real axis at points is given by
Σpoles− Σ zeros
σA= 𝑃−𝑍

where σAis Centroid of the open loop pole – zero configuration

8. Intersection of toot-loci with imaginary axis are obtained by using routh criterion or by putting s=jw and
equating imaginary parts to zero.
9. Angles of departure and arrival of a loot-loci is found from complex poles and zeros. The angle of
departure from an open loop pole is given by
` ɸp = ±180º(2q+1) +ɸ; q=0,1,2,3,….
Where ɸ is the net angle contribution at this pole of all other open loop poles and zeros.
Similarly, the angle of arrival at open loop zero is given by
ɸp = ±180º(2q+1) - ɸ; q=0,1,2,3,….
10. The absolute value of K at any point s1 on the complete root-loci is determined from
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)𝑡𝑜 𝑠1
K=𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑤𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐺(𝑠)𝐻(𝑠)𝑡𝑜 𝑠1

Nyquist plot

Steps of drawing the Nyquist path

• Step 1 - Check for the poles of G(s) H(s) of jω axis including that at origin.

• Step 2 – Select the proper Nyquist contour –

a) Include the entire right half of s-plane by drawing a semicircle of radius R with R tends to infinity.

• Step 3 – Identify the various segments on the contour with reference to Nyquist path

• Step 4 – Perform the mapping segment by segment substituting the equation for respective segment in the
mapping function. Basically we have to sketch the polar plots of the respective segment.

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• Step 5 - Mapping of the segments are usually mirror images of mapping of respective path of +ve imaginary
axis.

• Step 6 - The semicircular path which covers the right half of s plane generally maps into a point in G(s)
H(s) plane.

• Step 7- Interconnect all the mapping of different segments to yield the required Nyquist diagram.

• Step 8 – Note the number of clockwise encirclement about (-1, 0) and decide stability by N = Z – P

is the Open loop transfer function (O.L.T.F)

is the Closed loop transfer function (C.L.T.F)

N(s) = 0 is the open loop zero and D(s) is the open loop pole From stability point of view no closed loop poles
should lie in the RH side of s-plane . Characteristics equation 1 + G(s) H(s) = 0 denotes closed loop poles .

Now as 1+ G(s) H(s) = 0 hence q(s) should also be zero.

Therefore , from the stability point of view zeroes of q(s) should not lie in RHP of s-plane. To define
the stability entire RHP (Right Hand Plane) is considered. We assume a semicircle which encloses all points
in the RHP by considering the radius of the semicircle R tends to infinity. [R → ∞]. The first step to understand
the application of Nyquist criterion in relation to determination of stability of control systems is mapping from
s-plane to G(s) H(s) - plane. s is considered as independent complex variable and corresponding value of G(s)
H(s) being the dependent variable plotted in another complex plane called G(s) H(s) - plane. Thus for every
point in s-plane there exists a corresponding point in G(s) H(s) - plane. During the process of mapping the
independent variable s is varied along a specified path in s - plane and the corresponding points in G(s)H(s)
plane are joined. This completes the process of mapping from s-plane to G(s)H(s) - plane.
Nyquist stability criterion says that N = Z - P where N is the total no. of encirclement about the origin, P is
the total no. of poles and Z is the total no. of zeroes .

Case 1:- N = 0 (no encirclement), so Z = P = 0 & Z = P If N = 0, P must be zero therefore system is stable.

Case 2:- N > 0 (clockwise encirclement), so P = 0 , Z ≠0 & Z > P For both cases system is unstable.
Case 3 :- N < 0 (counterclockwise encirclement), so Z = 0, P ≠0 & P > Z System is stable.

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Frequency response is the steady state response of a system when the input to the system is a sinusoidal
signal. Consider a LTI system H .let x (t) be an input sinusoidal signal. The response or output of the system
is also a sinusoidal signal of the same frequency, but with different magnitude and phase angle.

PROCEDURE:

1. Enter the command window of the MATLAB.

2. Create a new M – file by selecting File - New – M – File
3. Type and save the program in the editor Window with .m (dot m file)
4. Execute the program by either pressing Tools – Run.
5. View the results.
PROGRAM:

%Root locus of 5th order system

clearall;
clc;
xmin=-6;
xmax=6;
ymin=-6;
ymax=6;
axis([xminxmaxyminymax]);
n=[100 200 75];
d=[1 27.5 261.5 1039 1668 864];
sys=tf(n,d);
rlocus(sys);
sgrid(0.2,0.01);
k=rlocfind(sys);
figure;
t=0:0.01:20;
n=[k 2*k 0.75*k];
d=[1 27.5 261.5 1039 1668 864+k];
c=step(n,d,t);
plot(t,c);

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OUTPUT GRAPH

Root Locus
20

15

10

5
Imaginary Axis

0.2
0.01
0
0.2

-5

-10

-15

-20
-30 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5
Real Axis

Select a point in the graphics window

selected_point =
-4
x 10
6

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

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%Bode plot of 5th order system

clearall;
clc;
num=[100 200 75];
den=[1 27.5 261.5 1039 1668 864];
sys=tf(num,den);
bode(sys);
margin(sys);
[p,q]=margin(num,den);
disp('Gain margin in linear scale=');
disp(p);
disp('gain margin in db=');
disp(20*log10(p));
disp('phase margin=');
disp(q);
%NYQUIST PLOT OF 5TH ORDER SYSTEM

clearall;
clc;
num=[100 200 75];
den=[1 27.5 261.5 1039 1668 864];
sys=tf(num,den);
nyquist(sys);
[p,q]=margin(num,den);
disp('gain margin in linear scale =');
disp(p);
disp('gain margin in db=');
disp(20*log10(p));
disp('phase margin=');
disp(q);

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OUTPUT GRAPH
Bode Diagram
Gm = 33.5 dB (at 14.4 rad/sec) , Pm = Inf
0

-50
Magnitude (dB)

-100

-150
90

0
Phase (deg)

-90

-180

-270
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (rad/sec)

Gain margin in linear scale =

gain margin in db =
phase margin =

OUTPUT GRAPH

Nyquist Diagram
0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05
Imaginary Axis

-0.05

-0.1

-0.15

-0.2
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4
Real Axis

gain margin in linear scale =

gain margin in db =
phase margin =

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Result:

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VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Define root locus?

2. Define bode plot?
3. Define centroid?
4. Define frequency domain specifications?
5. Define the angle of departure?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 12

Controllability and Observability of State Space

Model

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CONTROLLABILITY AND OBSERVABILITY TEST USING MATLAB

Experiment No: Date:
AIM: To check the controllability and observability of the given state space form by using MAT LAB.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED: MATLAB-M file

PROBLEM:
For the given state space equations, check the observability and controllability.

 x1. 
 .   6  11  6  x1  1 
 x 2  =  1 0 0   x 2  + 0  u
 x 3.   0 1 0   x 3  0 
  
 x1 
y= 0 1 3  x 2 
 x 3 

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VIVA QUESTIONS

1. Define controllability?
2. Define observability?
3. Which test is used to check controllability?
4. What is state, state variables and state model?
5. What is the necessity of state space analysis?

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PROCEDURE:

1.Open MATLAB.

2.Create a new M-file by selecting file -new-M-file.

3.Write the program and save in the editor window with .m extension.
4.Run the program or execute the program.
5.View the results.

PROGRAM:
A= [-6 -11 -6; 1 0 0; 0 1 0]
B= [1 0 0; 0 0 0; 0 0 0]
C=[0 1 3]
cm=ctrb(A,B);
if (rank(cm) == rank(A))
disp('Given system is controllable.')
else
disp('Given system is uncontrollable.')
end
om=obsv(A,C);
if (rank(om) == rank(A))
disp('Given system is observable.')
else
disp('Given system is unobservable.')
end

RESULT:

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