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Computer Network Practical

Bachelor of Computer Applications (I. K. Gujral Punjab Technical University)

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Q1) Familiarization with networking components and devices: LAN Adapters, Hubs,
Switches, Routers?

Network Device
Network devices are components used to connect computers or other electronic devices
together so that they can share files or resources like printers or fax machines. Devices used to
setup a local area network (LAN) are the most common types of network devices used by the
public. A LAN requires a Hub, Switch, router. Network Devices are called Communicating
Devices.
Identify the purpose, features, and functions of the following network
Components:
. LAN Adapter
. Hubs
. Switches
. Bridges
. Routers
. Gateways
. CSU/DS U
. Wireless access points (WAPs)
. Modems
. Network interface cards (NICs)
. ISDN adapters
. Transceivers
. Firewalls

LAN Adapter

A LAN adapter is a device used to allow a computer to interface with a network. Many computers
may have some sort of LAN adapter already installed, but others may require a special
installation, which is accomplished by adding a network interface card to the system or possibly
connecting the adapter to a USB port. Most networks that are used in an office or home
environment are known as local area networks (LANs). This type of network is one used over a
limited geographic area. Most of the time, the network goes no further than the building which
houses its main components, though that is not always the case. A LAN adapter is simply one that
is able to access this type of network.

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HUB

Hubs are simple network devices, and their simplicity is reflected in their low cost. Small hubs
with four or five ports (often referred to as workgroup hubs) cost less than $50; with the requisite
cables, they provide everything needed to create a small network. Hubs with more ports are
available for networks that require greater capacity.

Advantages of Hub:

1) Hub is less expensive product.

2) Hubs can extend a network total distance.
3) Hubs do not seriously affect network performance.

Disadvantages of Hub:

1) It will broadcast to all the ports

2) It runs half duplex
3) If 10 Ports in a hub it will share bandwidth of 100 Mb Ps. So, each port share 10 Mbps
Switches

A network switch also connects computers to each other, like a hub. Where the switch differs from
a hub is in the way it handles packets of data. When a switch receives a packet of data, it
determines what computer or device the packet is intended for and sends it to that computer only.
It does not broadcast the packet to all computers as a hub does which means bandwidth is not
shared and makes the network much more efficient

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Advantages of Switches:

1) Reduces the number of Broadcast Domains .

2) Supports VLAN's which can help in Logical segmentation of ports [physical ports].Splitting up
the broadcast domain.
3) Intelligent device [compared to Hub's] which can make use of CAM table for Port to MAC
mapping
4) Compared to Bridge, Switches are more H/w oriented therefore operations are less CPU
intense [Basic operations].
5) The cost to number of ports ratio is best for a cheaper cost you get switches with more
number of ports available than Routers.

Disadvantages of Switches :

1) Not as good as a router in limiting Broadcasts

2) Communication b/w VLAN's need inter VLAN routing [Router],but these days there are a
number of Multilayer switches available in the market.
3) Handling Multicast packets needs quite a bit of configuration & proper designing.
4) At times switches when in Promiscuous mode is an opening for Security attacks
[Spoofing IP address or capturing Ethernet Frames using ethereal]

Router

A router connects networks. Based on its current understanding of the state of the network it is
connected to, a router acts as a dispatcher as it decides which way to send each information
packet. A router is located at any gateway (where one network meets another), including
each point-of-presence on the internet. A router is often included as part of a network switch.

How does a router work?

A router may create or maintain a table of the available routes and their conditions and use this
information along with distance and cost algorithms to determine the best route for a given
packet. Typically, a packet may travel through a number of network points with routers before
arriving at its destination. Routing is a function associated with the network layer (Layer 3) in the
standard model of network programming, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model

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Advantage of Routers -

1) Router limits the collision domain.

2) Router can function on LAN & WAN.
3) Router can connects different media & architectures.
4) Router can determine best path/route for data to reach the destination.
5) Router can filter the broadcasts.

Disadvantage of Routers -

1) Router is more expensive than Hub, Bridge & Switch.

2) Router only works with routable protocol.
3) Routing updates consume bandwidth.
4) Increase latency due to greater degree of packet filtering.

Q2) Familiarization with transmission media and tools: Coaxial cable, UTP cable,
Crimping tool, Connectors etc.

Transmission media, also known as communication channels or communication mediums, refer

to the physical pathways through which data, information, or signals are transmitted from one
location to another in a communication system. These pathways can be wired or wireless and
play a crucial role in enabling the transfer of data between devices and systems. Different types
of transmission media have varying characteristics in terms of bandwidth, data rate, range,
susceptibility to interference, and cost. Here are some common types of transmission media:

1. **Twisted Pair Cable: **

- Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together.
- Used for telephone lines and Ethernet connections.
- Two main types: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted pair (STP).

2. **Coaxial Cable: **
- Consists of a central conductor surrounded by an insulating layer, a metallic shield, and an
outer insulating layer.
- Used for cable television, broadband internet, and certain networking applications.

3. **Fiber Optic Cable: **

- Uses light signals to transmit data through thin strands of glass or plastic fibers.
- Offers high bandwidth and is immune to electromagnetic interference.

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- Used for long-distance telecommunications and high-speed internet connections.

4. **Wireless Media: **
- Includes various wireless technologies like radio waves, microwaves, and infrared.
- Examples include Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular networks, satellite communication, and more.
- Allows for flexible and mobile communication but may be affected by interference and signal
degradation.

5. **Microwave Transmission: **
- Uses microwave frequencies for point-to-point communication.
- Often used for long-distance communication links and in line-of-sight scenarios.

6. **Satellite Communication: **
- Involves communication signals transmitted to and from satellites orbiting the Earth.
- Used for global communication, broadcasting, navigation, and remote sensing.

7. **Free Space Optics (FSO): **

- Uses lasers to transmit data through the air in a line-of-sight configuration.
- Offers high bandwidth but is sensitive to atmospheric conditions.

8. **Power Line Communication (PLC): **

- Utilizes existing electrical power lines for data transmission.
- Used for home automation, smart grids, and some networking applications.

The choice of transmission media depends on factors such as the required data rate, distance,
cost, susceptibility to interference, and the specific application. Different types of media are
often used in combination to create a comprehensive communication network that meets
various needs.

Crimping Tool

A crimping tool is a device that is used to make cold weld joints between wires and a connector
through deforming one or both of them to hold the other. A special connector is used to join metals
together. The weld joint properties (mechanical and electrical) are strong as the parent materials
when the tool works and offer some result, which is known as crimp. An instance of crimping is to
affixing a connector to the end of a wire. For example, a crimping tool is used to create phone
cable sand network cables to combine RJ-11 and RJ-45 connectors to both ends of the phone or
Cat 5 cable. The below picture is an example of RJ-11 (6-pin) and RJ-45 (8-pin) crimping tools.

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A crimping tool is a handheld device used to connect two pieces of metal or other
materials by deforming one or both of them to hold them together. This process is known as
crimping, and it's commonly used in various industries, including electrical,
telecommunications, automotive, and more.

Crimping involves using the crimping tool to compress a metal sleeve (crimp connector) onto a
wire or cable, creating a secure and electrically conductive connection. This is often used in
situations where soldering or welding might not be practical or desired. The crimped connection
provides mechanical strength, electrical conductivity, and is often more resistant to
environmental factors like vibration and corrosion.

Crimping tools are designed to work with different types and sizes of crimp connectors, each
suited for specific applications. There are various types of crimping tools, including:

1. **Manual Crimping Tools: ** These are handheld tools that require manual force to operate.
They are suitable for low to moderate crimping volumes and are commonly used for tasks like
terminating wires and connectors in electrical work.

2. **Ratcheting Crimping Tools: ** These tools have a ratcheting mechanism that ensures
consistent pressure during crimping. This can help achieve uniform and reliable connections.
They are often used for tasks that require precision and repeatability.

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3. **Hydraulic Crimping Tools: ** Hydraulic crimping tools use hydraulic pressure to perform
crimps. They are capable of generating higher levels of force and are used for heavy-duty
applications.

4. **Pneumatic Crimping Tools: ** These tools use compressed air to perform crimps. They are
often used in industrial settings where repetitive crimping is required.

5. **Battery-Powered Crimping Tools: ** These cordless tools are powered by rechargeable

batteries and offer portability and ease of use. They are commonly used in fieldwork where
access to power sources might be limited.

When using a crimping tool, it's important to select the appropriate tool and crimp connector for
the specific application. Incorrect crimping can result in poor electrical connections, increased
resistance, and potential safety hazards. It's also crucial to follow manufacturer guidelines and
industry standards to ensure reliable and safe connections.

Remember that my knowledge is based on information available up until September 2021, so

there might have been developments or changes in crimping technology or tools since then.

Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable, often referred to as coax cable, is a type of electrical cable that consists of a
central conductor, an insulating layer, a metallic shield, and an outer insulating layer. It's widely
used in various applications for transmitting radio frequency (RF) signals, such as television
signals, internet data, telephone signals, and more. Here’s a breakdown of the components of
coaxial cable:

1. **Central Conductor: ** This is usually a copper or aluminum wire that carries the electrical
signal. It serves as the core conductor through which the signal travels.
2. **Insulating Layer (Dielectric): ** Surrounding the central conductor is an insulating layer
made of materials like foam, plastic, or other non-conductive materials. The purpose of the
insulating layer is to maintain a consistent spacing between the central conductor and the
shield, preventing signal loss and interference.
3. **Metallic Shield: ** The metallic shield consists of a layer of conductive material, usually
braided wire or a metallic foil. Its main function is to provide electromagnetic shielding,
protecting the signal from external interference and preventing the signal from radiating out and
causing interference with other devices.
4. **Outer Insulating Layer: ** The entire cable is wrapped in an outer insulating layer made of
materials like PVC (polyvinyl chloride) or other plastics. This layer protects the cable from
environmental factors like moisture and physical damage.
Coaxial cables come in various types and sizes, each designed for specific applications. Some
common types of coaxial cables include:
- **RG-6: ** Used for cable television (CATV), satellite TV, and broadband internet connections.
- **RG-59: ** Previously used for analog cable television, now used for shorter-distance
applications like security cameras.

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- **RG-11: ** Similar to RG-6 but with a larger diameter, used for long cable runs in CATV and
satellite installations.
- **RG-8: ** Used for amateur radio (ham radio) and certain data communication applications.

Coaxial cables offer several advantages, including efficient transmission of RF signals, good
shielding against external interference, and relatively low signal loss over moderate distances.
However, they can be bulkier and less flexible compared to other types of cables like twisted-
pair cables, which are commonly used for Ethernet connections.
When working with coaxial cables, it's important to properly terminate and connect them using
appropriate connectors, such as BNC (Bayonet Neill-Concelman) or F-type connectors,
depending on the application. Proper installation techniques help maintain signal quality and
minimize signal degradation.

UNSHIELDED-TWISTED-PAIR (UTP) CABLE

UTP stands for "Unshielded Twisted Pair," and it refers to a type of networking cable commonly
used for Ethernet connections. UTP cables consist of pairs of insulated copper wires that are
twisted together in a specific pattern. These cables are widely used for local area networks
(LANs), telephone connections, and other data transmission applications.

Key features of UTP cables include:

1. **Twisted Pairs:** Each UTP cable consists of multiple pairs of twisted copper wires. The
twisting of the wires helps to reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external sources
and crosstalk between adjacent pairs. Crosstalk occurs when signals from one pair of wires
interfere with signals in another pair.

2. **Unshielded:** Unlike shielded cables that have a metallic shield around the wire pairs to
provide additional protection against interference, UTP cables do not have this shielding. The
twisting of the wire pairs serves as the primary means of reducing interference.

3. **Categories:** UTP cables come in different categories, such as Cat 5e, Cat 6, Cat 6a, Cat 7,
and more. These categories define the cable's performance characteristics, including
bandwidth, data transmission speed, and maximum cable length. For example, Cat 5e cables are
commonly used for 1 Gbps Ethernet, while Cat 6 and higher categories support faster speeds
and better performance.

4. **Connectors:** UTP cables use connectors known as RJ-45 connectors, which look similar to
telephone connectors (RJ-11) but are slightly larger. RJ-45 connectors have eight pins and are
used to plug into Ethernet ports on computers, routers, switches, and other networking devices.

5. **LAN Applications:** UTP cables are widely used in Ethernet networks for connecting
computers, printers, servers, and other devices to create local area networks. They are also
commonly used in telephone systems for carrying voice signals. **Flexibility and Cost:** UTP

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cables are more flexible and easier to work with compared to shielded cables. They are also
generally less expensive, making them a popular choice for a wide range of networking
applications.It's important to choose the appropriate category of UTP cable based on the
desired network speed and performance. For example, if you're setting up a network with
Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps) speeds, using Cat 5e or higher cables is recommended to ensure
optimal performance.UTP cables have become the standard choice for many networking
applications due to their cost-effectiveness, ease of installation, and reliability in typical office
and home environments.

Connectors
Connectors play a crucial role in various industries and technologies, facilitating the secure and
reliable connection of cables, wires, components, and devices. There are numerous types of
connectors, each designed for specific purposes and applications. Here are some common
types of connectors and their applications:

1. **RJ-45 Connector:** This is the most common type of connector used for Ethernet
networking cables, particularly UTP cables. RJ-45 connectors have eight pins and are used to
connect computers, routers, switches, and other networking devices to create local area
networks.

2. **USB Connector:** Universal Serial Bus (USB) connectors are used to connect various
peripherals to computers and other devices. They come in different versions, including USB-A,
USB-B, USB-C, and micro-USB, each with varying sizes and features.

3. **HDMI Connector:** High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) connectors are used for
transmitting audio and video signals between devices like TVs, monitors, projectors, and
multimedia sources such as computers and gaming consoles.

4. **VGA Connector:** Video Graphics Array (VGA) connectors were commonly used for analog
video connections between computers and displays. While less common today due to digital
technologies like HDMI and DisplayPort, they are still found in some older systems.

5. **DisplayPort Connector:** DisplayPort connectors are used for transmitting digital audio and
video signals between computers, monitors, and other display devices. They offer higher
resolutions and refresh rates compared to VGA and DVI connectors.

6. **DVI Connector:** Digital Visual Interface (DVI) connectors are used to transmit digital and
analog video signals. They come in different formats, including DVI-A (analog), DVI-D (digital),
and DVI-I (integrated digital and analog).

7. **XLR Connector:** XLR connectors are commonly used for professional audio applications,
such as microphones, speakers, and audio mixers. They provide a balanced connection that
helps reduce interference and noise.

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8. **3.5mm Audio Jack:** Also known as a headphone jack, this connector is used for audio
connections in devices like smartphones, laptops, and audio equipment.

9. **Coaxial Connector (BNC):** Bayonet Neill-Concelman (BNC) connectors are often used in RF
applications, such as connecting coaxial cables to devices like televisions, security cameras,
and oscilloscopes.

10. **Power Connectors:** Various types of connectors are used for power connections, such as
the IEC 60320 connectors used for AC power cords, DC barrel connectors, and AC power plugs
and sockets used for wall outlets.

11. **Fiber Optic Connector:** Fiber optic connectors, like SC, LC, and ST connectors, are used
to terminate optical fibers in telecommunications and networking applications, allowing for high-
speed data transmission using light signals.

These are just a few examples of the wide variety of connectors available for different
applications. The type of connector chosen depends on factors such as the type of signals being
transmitted, the devices being connected, the environment in which they'll be used, and the
desired level of performance and reliability.

Q3) Preparing straight and cross cables?

Straight-through and crossover cables are two types of Ethernet cables used to connect
different network devices, such as computers, routers, switches, and hubs. The distinction
between these cables lies in the wiring arrangement of their connectors. Here's how to prepare
both types of cables:

**1. Straight-Through Cable:**

A straight-through cable is used to connect devices with different functions, such as a computer
to a switch or router. The wiring arrangement on one end of the cable should match the
arrangement on the other end. The standard wiring for a straight-through cable is as follows:
**TIA/EIA-568B Wiring Scheme (most commonly used):**
- Pin 1: White/Orange (Stripe) - Transmit +
- Pin 2: Orange - Transmit -
- Pin 3: White/Green (Stripe) - Receive +
- Pin 4: Blue - Not used
- Pin 5: White/Blue (Stripe) - Not used
- Pin 6: Green - Receive -
- Pin 7: White/Brown (Stripe) - Not used
- Pin 8: Brown - Not used
**Steps to Prepare a Straight-Through Cable:**
1. Cut a length of Ethernet cable to the desired size.

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2. Strip about an inch of the outer insulation from both ends of the cable.
3. Arrange the wires according to the TIA/EIA-568B wiring scheme mentioned above.
4. Trim the wires to the same length and insert them into an RJ-45 connector.
5. Ensure that the wires are fully inserted and in the correct order.
6. Use a crimping tool to crimp the connector onto the cable securely.
**2. Crossover Cable:**
A crossover cable is used to connect devices of the same type, such as two computers or two
switches, without the need for a hub or router. The wiring arrangement on one end of the cable
is "crossed" so that the transmit signals on one device connect to the receive signals on the
other device. The standard wiring for a crossover cable is as follows:
**TIA/EIA-568B on one end and TIA/EIA-568A on the other end:**
- Pin 1: White/Orange (Stripe) - Transmit +
- Pin 2: Orange - Transmit -
- Pin 3: White/Green (Stripe) - Receive +
- Pin 4: Blue - Not used
- Pin 5: White/Blue (Stripe) - Not used
- Pin 6: Green - Receive -
- Pin 7: White/Brown (Stripe) - Not used
- Pin 8: Brown - Not used
**Steps to Prepare a Crossover Cable:**
1. Follow the same steps as for preparing a straight-through cable but use the crossover wiring
scheme described above.
2. Make sure to maintain the crossover wiring on one end while using either TIA/EIA-568A or
TIA/EIA-568B on the other end.
Keep in mind that many modern networking devices have built-in auto-sensing capabilities,
which means that they can detect the cable type and adjust accordingly. However, having both
straight-through and crossover cables can be useful in case you encounter devices that do not
have this auto-sensing feature.

Q4)Study of various LAN topologies and their creation using network devices, cables
and computers?
Local Area Network (LAN) topologies refer to the ways in which network devices, cables, and
computers are interconnected to form a network within a limited geographical area, such as a
building or a campus. Different topologies offer various advantages and disadvantages in terms
of cost, scalability, reliability, and performance. Here are some common LAN topologies and
how they can be created using network devices, cables, and computers:
1. **Star Topology:**
In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub or switch. It's a common topology
in modern Ethernet networks.
**Creation:**
- Place a central hub or switch at a central location.
- Connect each computer or device to the hub or switch using Ethernet cables.
- This topology provides easy management and isolation of network issues, but if the central
hub fails, the entire network might be affected.
2. **Bus Topology:**
In a bus topology, devices are connected to a single central cable (the bus), with terminators at
both ends to prevent signal reflection.
**Creation:**
- Lay a single cable throughout the network area.
- Connect each device to the cable using taps or connectors.
- Use terminators at both ends of the cable to prevent signal bounce.
- This topology is simple but can suffer from signal reflection issues and a single point of
failure.
3. **Ring Topology:** In a ring topology, devices are connected in a circular manner, where
each device is connected to exactly two other devices.

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**Creation:**
- Connect each device to its adjacent devices in a circular manner.
- This topology can be challenging to manage, and failure of one device can disrupt the entire
network.
4. **Mesh Topology:**
In a mesh topology, every device is connected to every other device. There are partial and full
mesh topologies.
**Creation:**
- Establish direct connections between every pair of devices.
- Partial mesh involves connecting only important devices, while full mesh connects all devices.
- Provides redundancy and fault tolerance but can be expensive and complex to implement.
5. **Tree (Hierarchical) Topology:**
A tree topology combines multiple star topologies into a larger network by connecting hubs or
switches.
**Creation:**
- Create smaller star topologies by connecting devices to switches or hubs.
- Connect these switches or hubs to a central switch or hub, forming a hierarchical structure.
- Provides scalability and better management than a pure star topology.
6. **Hybrid Topology:**
A hybrid topology is a combination of two or more different topologies, providing flexibility and
customization.
**Creation:**
- Combine different topology elements to meet specific needs.
- For example, you could combine a star topology with a ring topology.
When creating these LAN topologies, consider the following factors:
- **Network Devices:** Use switches, hubs, and routers to connect devices based on the chosen
topology.
- **Cables:** Use appropriate cables, such as Ethernet cables (e.g., Cat 5e, Cat 6), for
connecting devices.
- **Computers:** Connect computers or devices to the network using network interface cards
(NICs).
- **Configuration:** Configure devices and network settings to ensure proper
communication.Select the topology that best suits your network's requirements, taking into
account factors such as scalability, fault tolerance, cost, and ease of management.

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Q5) Configuration of TCP/IP Protocols in Windows and Linux?

Configuring TCP/IP protocols in both Windows and Linux involves setting up network parameters
to enable communication between devices on a network. TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the foundation of the modern internet and is used for
communication between computers and devices.
Here's a basic guide to configuring TCP/IP protocols in both Windows and Linux:
**Configuring TCP/IP in Windows:**
1. **Windows 10:**
- Open "Settings" and navigate to "Network & Internet."
- Click on "Ethernet" or "Wi-Fi," depending on your connection type.
- Click on the connected network and select "Change adapter options."
- Right-click on your network adapter and choose "Properties."
- Select "Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4)" and click on "Properties."
- Choose "Use the following IP address" and enter the IP address, subnet mask, default
gateway, and preferred DNS server.
- Click "OK" to save the settings.
2. **Windows 7:**
- Open the "Control Panel" and go to "Network and Sharing Center."
- Click on "Change adapter settings."
- Right-click on your network adapter and select "Properties."
- Select "Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4)" and click on "Properties."
- Choose "Use the following IP address" and enter the IP address, subnet mask, default
gateway, and preferred DNS server.
- Click "OK" to save the settings.
**Configuring TCP/IP in Linux:**
1. **Ubuntu (using NetworkManager):**
- Open "Settings" and navigate to "Network."
- Select your network connection and click on the gear icon to access settings.
- In the "IPv4" tab, choose "Manual" under "Method."
- Enter the IP address, subnet mask, default gateway, and DNS server(s).
- Click "Apply" to save the settings.
2. **Ubuntu (using /etc/network/interfaces):**
- Open a terminal and edit the `/etc/network/interfaces` file using a text editor.
- Configure the interface with the required parameters. Example:
```
auto eth0
iface eth0 inet static
address 192.168.1.2
netmask 255.255.255.0
gateway 192.168.1.1
- Save the file and restart the networking service using `sudo service networking restart`.
3. **CentOS (using NetworkManager):**
- Open the "Settings" menu and navigate to "Network."
- Select your network connection and click on the gear icon to access settings.
- Configure the IPv4 settings as described above for Ubuntu.
4. **CentOS (using /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts):**
- Edit the appropriate interface file in the `/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/` directory (e.g.,
`ifcfg-eth0`).
- Configure the settings similar to the Ubuntu example above.
- Save the file and restart networking using `sudo systemctl restart network`.
Remember that the specifics may vary slightly depending on the Linux distribution you are using.
Always back up your configuration files before making changes.

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In both Windows and Linux, the basic configuration involves setting the IP address, subnet mask,
default gateway, and DNS servers. These settings enable devices to communicate within the
network and access the internet.

Q6) Implementation of resource sharing (file, printer etc.)?

Implementing resource sharing, such as file and printer sharing, is a common practice in both
home and business networks. It allows multiple devices to access shared resources like files,
printers, and other peripherals. I'll provide a general guide on how to set up file and printer
sharing in Windows environments:
**Setting Up File Sharing:**
1. **Windows 10:**
- Open "Settings" and go to "Network & Internet."
- Click "Sharing options."
- Turn on "Network discovery" and "File and printer sharing."
- Under "All Networks," select "Turn on sharing so anyone with network access can read and
write files in the Public folders."
- Save changes.

2. **Windows 7:**
- Open the "Control Panel" and go to "Network and Sharing Center."
- Click on "Change advanced sharing settings."
- Enable "Turn on network discovery" and "Turn on file and printer sharing."
- Save changes.
**Sharing Folders:**
1. **Windows 10 and 7:**
- Right-click on the folder you want to share, then select "Properties."
- Go to the "Sharing" tab.
- Click "Advanced Sharing."
- Check "Share this folder" and give the share a name.
- Set permissions for the shared folder (Read, Write, etc.).
- Click "OK" to save.
**Setting Up Printer Sharing:**
1. **Windows 10 and 7:**
- Connect the printer to one of the computers on the network.
- Open "Control Panel" > "Devices and Printers."
- Right-click on the printer you want to share and select "Printer properties."
- Go to the "Sharing" tab.
- Check "Share this printer" and give it a share name.
- Click "OK" to save.
**Accessing Shared Resources:**
1. **Windows 10 and 7:**
- Open "File Explorer."
- In the address bar, type `\\computername` (replace "computername" with the name of the
computer sharing the resources).
- Press Enter to access shared folders on that computer.
- For printers, they should appear in the "Devices and Printers" section.
Remember to set appropriate permissions to control who can access shared resources. You can
also create user accounts on the sharing computer and grant access based on those accounts.
Additionally, for Linux, the process of sharing resources can be slightly different, depending on
the distribution you're using. File sharing can often be achieved using Samba, which enables
Linux systems to share files and printers with Windows systems. CUPS (Common Unix Printing
System) is commonly used for printer sharing.
Keep in mind that network security is essential when sharing resources. Always configure
sharing permissions carefully and consider using passwords and encryption to protect sensitive
data.

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Q7 Designing and implementing class A, B and C networks.

Class A, B, and C networks are part of the IPv4 addressing scheme, defining ranges of IP
addresses for different types of networks. Here's a brief overview and steps to design and
implement them:

• Class A Network:
- **Range:** 1.0.0.0 to 126.255.255.255
- **Subnet Mask:** 255.0.0.0
- **Usage:** Suitable for large organizations or companies with a vast number of hosts.

**Steps:**
1. **Plan:** Determine the number of subnets and hosts required. Class A provides a large
number of hosts per network.

2. **Assign IP Range:** Allocate a range within the Class A range for your network.

3. **Subnetting:** Decide on subnet sizes based on your requirements. Subnetting allows you to
create smaller, more manageable networks.

4. **Configure Devices:** Assign IP addresses to devices within each subnet. Configure routers
and switches accordingly.

• Class B Network:
- **Range:** 128.0.0.0 to 191.255.255.255
- **Subnet Mask:** 255.255.0.0
- **Usage:** Suitable for medium-sized organizations with a moderate number of hosts.

**Steps:**
1. **Plan:** Determine the number of subnets and hosts required. Class B offers a balance
between hosts and network size.

2. **Assign IP Range:** Allocate a range within the Class B range for your network.

3. **Subnetting:** Subnet the network based on your needs. Class B allows for a moderate
number of hosts per subnet.

4. **Device Configuration:** Assign IP addresses to devices and configure network devices

accordingly.

• Class C Network:
- **Range:** 192.0.0.0 to 223.255.255.255
- **Subnet Mask:** 255.255.255.0
- **Usage:** Suitable for small networks or organizations with fewer hosts.

**Steps:**
1. **Plan:** Assess the number of subnets and hosts required. Class C provides fewer host
addresses but more networks.

2. **Assign IP Range:** Choose a range within the Class C range for your network.

3. **Subnetting:** Subnet the network according to your needs. Class C is often used for smaller,
departmental networks.

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4. **Device Configuration:** Assign IP addresses to devices and configure network devices

accordingly.

General Tips:
- **Documentation:** Keep detailed records of your IP address assignments, subnets, and
network configurations.

- **Router Configuration:** Set up routing between subnets if your network spans multiple
subnets.

- **Security:** Implement security measures such as firewalls and access controls, especially
between different subnets.

Q8. Subnet mask planning and its implementation

Sub Netting - What is Subnetting?

The process of subnetting involves dividing a network up into smaller networks called subnets or sub networks.
Each of these subnets has its own specific address. To create these additional networks we use a subnet mask. The
subnet mask simply determines which portion of the IP address belongs to the host. The subnet address is created
by dividing the host address into network address and host address.

To start, you'll need to choose the right subnet mask, which determines the size of each subnet. The most common
ones are /24, /25, /26, etc. The smaller the number after the "/", the more hosts you can have in a subnet .For
example, a /24 subnet has 256 addresses, but when you subtract the network address and broadcast address,
you're left with 254 usable IPs. If you go with a /26, you'd have 64 addresses, with 62 usable. When planning,
consider the number of hosts needed in each subnet and future growth. Also, think about the physical layout of
your network – different departments, floors, or even buildings might warrant separate subnets

The network address specifies the type of subnetwork in the network and the host address specifies the host of
that subnet. Subnets are under local administration. As such, the outside world sees an organization as a single
network and has no detailed knowledge of the organization's intema1 structure. Subnetting provides the network
administrator with several benefits, including extra flexibility, more efficient use of network address and the
capability to contain broadcast traffic. A given .network address can be broken up into may subnetworks. For
example, 172.16.1.0, 172.16.2.0, 172.16.3.0 and 172.16.4.0 are all subnets within network 171.16.0.0.

Implementing Subnet Planning

Without subnets, the organization operates as a single network. These flat topologies result in short
routing tables but, as the network grows, the use of bandwidth becomes inefficient. (All systems on
the network receive all the broadcasts on the network.) Network addressing can be made more
efficient by breaking the addresses into smaller segments, or subnets. Subnetting provides
additional structure to an addressing scheme without altering the addresses. In the figure, the
network address 172.16.0.0 is subdivided into four subnets:
172.16.1.0, 172.16.2.0, 172.16.3.0, and 172.16.4.0. If traffic were evenly distributed to each end
station, the use of subnetting would reduce the overall traffic seen by each end station by 75
percent.

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Subnet Mask
A subnet mask is a 32-bit value written as four octets. In the subnet mask, each bit determines how
the corresponding bit in the IP address should be interpreted (network, subnet, or host). The subnet
mask bits are coded as follows:
•
Binary 1 for the network bits
•
Binary 1 for the subnet bits
• 0 for the host bits
Binary
Although dotted decimal is the most common format, the subnet can be represented in
several ways:
•
Dotted decimal—172.16.0.0 255.255.0.0
•
Bit count—172.16.0.0/16
•
Hexadecimal—172.16.0.0 0xFFFF0000

The ip netmask-format command can be used to specify the format of network masks for the
current session. Dotted decimal is the default.

Default Subnet Masks

Each address class has a default subnet mask. The default subnet masks only the network portion of
the address, the effect of which is no subnetting. With each bit of subnetting beyond the default, you
can create 2n – 2 subnets. These examples show the effect of adding subnet bits.

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How Routers Use Subnet Masks

To determine an address’s subnet, a router performs a logical AND operation with the IP address
and subnet mask. Recall that the host portion of the subnet mask is all 0s. The result of this
operation is that the host portion of the address is removed, and the router bases its decision on
only the network portion of the address. In the figure, the host bits are removed, and the network
portion of the address is revealed. In this case, a 10-bit subnet address is used, and the network
(subnet) number 172.16.2.128 is extracted.

Broadcast Addresses
Broadcast messages are sent to every host on the network. There are three kinds of broadcasts:
• broadcasts—You can broadcast to all hosts within a subnet and to all subnets within
Directed
a network. (170.34.2.255 sends a broadcast to all hosts in the 170.34.2.0 subnet.)
•
Hop count is used as the metric for path selection (the maximum is 15).
•
Flooded broadcasts (255.255.255.255)—Local broadcasts within a subnet.

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You •can also broadcast messages to all hosts on all subnets within a single network.
(170.34.255.255 sends a broadcast to all subnets in the 170.34.0.0 network.)
Identifying Subnet Addresses
Given an IP address and subnet mask, you can identify the subnet address, broadcast address, first
usable address, and last usable address using this method:
1Write down the 32-bit address. Directly below that, write down the subnet mask.
2Draw a vertical line just after the last 1 bit in the subnet mask.
3Copy the portion of the IP address to the left of the line. Place all 0s for the remaining free
spaces to the right. This is the subnet number.
4Copy the portion of the IP address to the left of the line. Place all 1s for the remaining free
spaces to the right. This is the broadcast address.
5Copy the portion of the IP address to the left of the line. Place all 0s in the remaining free
spaces until you reach the last free space. Place a 1 in that free space. This is your first
usable address.
6Copy the portion of the IP address to the left of the line. Place all 1s in the remaining free
spaces until you reach the last free space. Place a 0 in that free space. This is your last
usable address.

How to Implement Subnet Planning

Subnetting decisions should always be based on growth estimates rather than current needs. To
plan a subnet, follow these steps:
1Determine the number of subnets and hosts for each subnet required.
2The address class you are assigned and the number of subnets required determine the
number of subnetting bits used. For example, with a Class C address and a need for 20
subnets, you will have a 29-bit mask (255.255.255.248). This allows for the Class C default
24-bit mask and 5 bits required for 20 subnets. (The formula 2n – 2 yields only 14 subnets
for 4 bits, so 5 bits must be used.)
3The remaining bits in the last octet are used for the host field. In this case, each subnet has
23 – 2, or 6 hosts.
4The final host addresses are a combination of the network/subnet plus each host value. The
hosts on the 192.168.5.32 subnet would be addressed as 192.168.5.33, 192.168.5.34,
192.168.5.35, and so forth.

Implementing Subnet Planning Summary:

•
Breaking up networks into smaller segments (or subnets) improves network efficiency and
conserves IP addresses.

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•
A 32-bit subnet mask determines the boundary between the subnet host portions of the IP
address using 1s and 0s.
•
A subnet defines a broadcast domain in a routed network.
•
Cisco IOS Software supports directed, local network, and subnet broadcasts.
•
Subnet planning should be based on future growth predictions rather than current needs.

Q9. To configure dynamic IP address for a computer connected to a LAN

A basic process to configure a dynamic IP address for a computer connected to a LAN (Local
Area Network). We'll assume you're using a Windows operating system.

**Step 1: Open Network Settings**

1. Press `Win + X` and select "Network Connections" or go to "Control Panel" > "Network and
Sharing Center" > "Change adapter settings."

**Step 2: Access Network Adapter Properties**

2. Right-click on the network adapter connected to the LAN and select "Properties."

**Step 3: Select Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4)**

3. In the list of items, find "Internet Protocol Version 4 (TCP/IPv4)" and select it. Click on the
"Properties" button.

**Step 4: Obtain an IP address automatically**

4. In the properties window, select the option "Obtain an IP address automatically" and "Obtain
DNS server address automatically." Click "OK" to apply the changes.

**Step 5: Verify the Configuration**

5. Go back to the "Network and Sharing Center" and click on "Change adapter settings" again.
Right-click on your network adapter and select "Status." Check the IPv4 address; it should now
be assigned dynamically.

**Step 6: Test the Connection**

6. Open a command prompt (`Win + R`, type `cmd`, and press Enter) and type `ipconfig` to view
the IP configuration. Ensure that the IPv4 address is assigned dynamically (DHCP).

Q10.Use of commands like ping, ipconfig for trouble shooting network related
problems
Troubleshooting network-related problems using the `ping` and `ipconfig` commands. We'll
assume you're using a Windows system.

**Scenario: Troubleshooting Connectivity Issues**

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**Problem Description:** You are experiencing connectivity issues on a computer in your LAN.
The user reports that they cannot access the internet.

**Steps to Troubleshoot:**

**Step 1: Check Network Configuration**

1. Open a command prompt (`Win + R`, type `cmd`, and press Enter).

2. Type `ipconfig` and press Enter to check the computer's IP configuration.

3. Verify that the IP address, subnet mask, gateway, and DNS servers are correctly configured.

**Step 2: Ping the Gateway**

4. Type `ping <gateway_IP>` and press Enter (replace `<gateway_IP>` with the actual IP address
of your router or gateway).

5. If the pings are successful, it indicates that your computer can communicate with the local
network.

**Step 3: Ping an External Server**

6. Type `ping 8.8.8.8` and press Enter (this is the IP address of Google's public DNS server).

7. If the pings are successful, it indicates that your computer can reach external servers. If not,
there might be an issue with the internet connection.

**Step 4: DNS Resolution**

8. Type `ping google.com` and press Enter. This checks if DNS resolution is working.

9. If the pings fail, there might be a DNS issue. Verify DNS server settings in the network
configuration.

**Step 5: Check Firewall Settings**

10. Verify that there are no firewall rules blocking the connection. You can disable the firewall
temporarily for testing purposes.

**Step 6: Check Physical Connections**

11. Ensure that cables are securely connected. If using Wi-Fi, check that you're connected to the
correct network.

**Step 7: Review Network Adapter Status**

12. Type `ipconfig /all` to see detailed information about the network adapters, including their
status.

**Step 8: Gather Information for Support**

13. Note down the IP configuration, ping results, and any error messages. This information will
be helpful if you need to seek further assistance.

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Q11Develop a program to compute the Hamming Distance between any two code
word
Hamming Distance
Hamming distance is a metric for comparing two binary data strings. While
comparing two binary strings of equal length, Hamming distance
is the number of bit positions in which the two bits are different.The Hamming
distance between two strings, a and b is denoted as d(a,b).It is used for error
detection or error correction when data is transmitted over computer networks. It
is also using in coding theory for comparing equal length data words.
Calculation of Hamming Distance

In order to calculate the Hamming distance between two strings, and , we perform
their XOR operation, (a⊕ b), and then count the total number of 1s in the
resultant string.

Example

Suppose there are two strings 1101 1001 and 1001 1101.

11011001 ⊕ 10011101 = 01000100. Since, this contains two 1s, the Hamming
distance, d(11011001, 10011101) = 2.

Minimum Hamming Distance

In a set of strings of equal lengths, the minimum Hamming distance is the

smallest Hamming distance between all possible pairs of strings in that set.

Example

Suppose there are four strings 010, 011, 101 and 111.

010 ⊕ 011 = 001, d(010, 011) = 1.

010 ⊕ 101 = 111, d(010, 101) = 3.

010 ⊕ 111 = 101, d(010, 111) = 2.

011 ⊕ 101 = 110, d(011, 101) = 2.

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011 ⊕ 111 = 100, d(011, 111) = 1.

101 ⊕ 111 = 010, d(011, 111) = 1.

Hence, the Minimum Hamming Distance, dmin = 1.

Lets Understand the Process Of Hamming Distance With program.

Code:

Output:

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Q12. Installation of FTP server and client

Setting Up FTP Server on Windows:

1. Install FileZilla Server: Download and install [FileZilla Server](https://filezilla-project.org/) on your Windows
machine. Follow the installation wizard to complete the setup.

2. Configure FileZilla Server: Open FileZilla Server and configure server settings, create users, and set their
permissions.

3. Open FTP Ports in Windows Firewall: Allow incoming connections on FTP ports (default is 21) in the
Windows Firewall.

Setting Up FTP Client on Windows:

1. Install WinSCP:

- Download and install [WinSCP](https://winscp.net/eng/download.php) on your Windows machine.

2. Configure WinSCP:

- Open WinSCP and enter the FTP server details (hostname, username, password, port).

Communicating with Linux Red Hat Virtual Machine:

1. Install FTP Server on Linux: On your Red Hat Linux virtual machine, install an FTP server.

2. Configure FTP Server on Linux: Edit the vsftpd configuration file (`/etc/vsftpd/vsftpd.conf`) to set up user
access, security options, etc.

3. Start and Enable FTP Service:Start and enable the vsftpd service.

4. Open FTP Ports in Linux Firewall: Allow incoming connections on FTP ports in the Linux firewall.

5. Find Linux Machine IP: Use `ifconfig` or `ip addr` to find the IP address of your Linux machine.

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Connecting WinSCP to Linux:

1. Open WinSCP: Open WinSCP on your Windows machine.

2. Configure Connection: Enter the Linux machine's IP, username, password, and port in WinSCP.

3. Connect: Click "Login" to establish a connection to the Linux machine.

Now, you should be able to transfer files between your Windows machine and the Red Hat Linux virtual
machine using WinSCP. Make sure to adjust security settings, user permissions, and firewall rules based on
your specific requirements and network setup.

13. To configure proxy server

Proxy Server Definition

A proxy server is a system or router that provides a gateway between users and the
internet. Therefore, it helps prevent cyber attackers from entering a private network. It is a
server, referred to as an “intermediary” because it goes between end-users and the web
pages they visit online.

When a computer connects to the internet, it uses an IP address. This is similar to your
home’s street address, telling incoming data where to go and marking outgoing data with a
return address for other devices to authenticate. A proxy server is essentially a computer on
the internet that has an IP address of its own.

Proxy Servers and Network Security

Proxies provide a valuable layer of security for your computer. They can be set up as web filters
or firewalls, protecting your computer from internet threats like malware.

This extra security is also valuable when coupled with a secure web gateway or other email
security products. This way, you can filter traffic according to its level of safety or how much
traffic your network—or individual computers—can handle.

How to use a proxy: Some people use proxies for personal purposes, such as hiding their
location while watching movies online, for example. For a company, however, they can be
used to accomplish several key tasks such as:

1. Improve security
2. Secure employees’ internet activity from people trying to snoop on them
3. Balance internet traffic to prevent crashes

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4. Control the websites employees and staff access in the office

5. Save bandwidth by caching files or compressing incoming traffic

Configuration Of Proxy Server:

1. Open Settings:

- Click on the Start menu and select "Settings"

2. Go to Network & Internet:

- In the Settings window, choose "Network & Internet."

3. Proxy Settings:

- On the left sidebar, select "Proxy."

4. Manual Proxy Setup: - Under the "Manual proxy setup" section, toggle the switch to turn on the manual
proxy configuration.

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5. Enter Proxy Details:

- Enter the IP address and port number of your proxy server in the corresponding fields.

6. Save Changes:

- Click "Save" to apply the changes.

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Make sure to obtain the correct proxy server details from your network administrator or service provider. If
your proxy server requires authentication, you might need to enter your username and password as well.

14. Familiarization with network simulation tools.

Network simulation tools are essential for understanding and testing the behavior of computer
networks in a controlled environment. There are several tools available, each with its own strengths.
Some popular ones include:

GNS3 – Graphical Network System 3

Graphical Network System 3 (GNS 3) is Network Simulation/Emulation Tool & Software, and it is a kind of Virtual
Network in a Suitcase. GNS3 can simulate the complex network and scenarios and supports the combination of
virtual and real network devices. GNS3 is one of the best network simulation tools to build, design, configure, and
test your network scenarios in a completely risk-free virtual environment. GNS3 network simulation tool is
available for Windows, Linux & Mac.

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Name GNS 3: Graphical Network Simulator-3

Official Website https://www.gns3.com/

Tool Major Objective Design and Configure

Cisco Packet Tracer

Cisco Packet Tracer is a dominant network simulation tool built by Cisco Systems. You can make a
simple or complex network inside the Packet tracer to create, plan, configure, and test your
network scenarios in a completely virtual ecosystem. This Network Simulation tool allows users to
create network topologies and imitate those in modern computer networks. Packet Tracer is one
of the most famous Networks Simulation software among networking aspirants and beginners. It
is used actively during the Cisco CCNA Certification Training.

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Name Cisco Packet Tracer

Official Website https://www.netacad.com/courses/packet-tracer

Tool Major Objective Design and Configure

Putty
PUTTY is a completely free and open-source terminal emulator, serial console, and network file
transfer application. It supports several network protocols, including SCP, SSH, Telnet, login, and
raw socket connection.

Name Putty

Official Website https://www.putty.org/

Tool Major Objective Configure

Secure CRT
SecureCRT presents the capability to create an SSH connection with a dynamic port forwarding
configuration that can be used as a SOCKS proxy to reach all machines in a remote network (behind

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the gateway). Using an SSH SOCKS proxy, any application that is SOCKS 4 or 5 compatible
(including other sessions established with SecureCRT) will be able to have their connections
forwarded through this SSH SOCKS proxy and on to the desired destination.

Name SecureCRT

Official Website https://www.vandyke.com/products/securecrt/

Tool Major Objective Configure

WIRESHARK
Wireshark is a free and open-source packet analyzer. Wireshark development project, started by
Gerald Combs in 1998, is today’s world’s foremost and widely-used network protocol analyzer. It is
used for network troubleshooting, interpretation, review, protocol development, and education.
Wireshark will also help you see what’s happening on your network at a microscopic level.

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Name Wireshark

Official Website https://www.wireshark.org/

Tool Major Objective Capturing and Monitoring

Network Simulator -NS3

NS is a name for a series of discrete event network simulators, specifically ns-1, ns-2, and ns-3. The
Network Simulator – NS-3 is a discrete event simulator targeted at networking research. Network
Simulator -NS3 tool provides substantial support for simulation of TCP, routing, and multicast
protocols over wired and wireless (local and satellite) networks. It is publicly available for research,
development, and use.

Name Network Simulator -NS3

Official Website https://www.nsnam.org/

Tool Major Objective Design and Monitor

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