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The early medieval period in India (750–1200 AD) saw significant socio-economic transformations, including the peasantization of tribes and the proliferation of castes, driven by economic stagnation and land redistribution. This era led to the emergence of new social classes, such as a landed aristocracy and distinct occupational castes, while also fostering immobility and enserfment among peasants. The integration of tribal communities into the agrarian system and the influence of religious movements further contributed to the complex caste-based social order that continues to impact Indian society.

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text 4

The early medieval period in India (750–1200 AD) saw significant socio-economic transformations, including the peasantization of tribes and the proliferation of castes, driven by economic stagnation and land redistribution. This era led to the emergence of new social classes, such as a landed aristocracy and distinct occupational castes, while also fostering immobility and enserfment among peasants. The integration of tribal communities into the agrarian system and the influence of religious movements further contributed to the complex caste-based social order that continues to impact Indian society.

Uploaded by

Moksh Kothari
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Social Changes and Proliferation of Castes in Early Medieval India (750–1200 AD)

The early medieval period (750–1200 AD) in India witnessed remarkable socio-
economic transformations, marked by the peasantization of tribes, proliferation of
castes, and significant shifts in social hierarchies. This period, driven by
economic stagnation, land redistribution, and localism, led to the emergence of new
social classes and occupational castes. Drawing from the works of historians like
R.S. Sharma, B.N.S. Yadava, and R.N. Nandi, this essay examines these pivotal
changes and their lasting impact on Indian society.

---

Economic Context and Emergence of Feudalism

A crucial backdrop to the social changes was the evolution of a feudal economy, as
emphasized by R.S. Sharma. This phase saw:

Large-scale land grants to secular and religious beneficiaries.

Decline in trade and coin circulation, leading to a closed village economy.

Emergence of “fiscal and administrative islands”, fostering localism and


immobility.

According to Sharma, these changes resulted in reduced mobility of peasants and


artisans, who became tied to their land and local patrons, reminiscent of serfdom
in medieval Europe.

---

Peasantization of Tribes

The expansion of agriculture into new regions resulted in the integration of tribal
communities into the agrarian system. This process, known as peasantization,
involved:

Land grants facilitating the settlement of tribes in newly cultivated areas.

Brahmanization and Hinduisation of tribes, incorporating them into the Hindu social
order.

Tribal groups, like the Bhillas and Abhiras, being absorbed into various caste
categories based on their occupations.

B.N.S. Yadava highlights how the inclusion of tribes into the agrarian economy led
to the formation of dependent peasantry and the decline of tribal autonomy.

---

Immobility and Enserfment of Peasants

The socio-economic conditions of the time fostered immobility among peasants and
artisans, as illustrated by:
Copper plate inscriptions referring to the transfer of villages with their
inhabitants.

Terms like jana-sahita (together with inhabitants) indicating their attachment to


land.

Peasants were subjected to:

Forced labor (vishti), as referenced in texts like the Kamasutra and Padma Purana.

Increased taxation and debt, resulting in widespread impoverishment.

Yadava and Sharma both describe this as a form of enserfment, with peasants losing
control over their labor and land.

---

Social Hierarchy and Stratification

The social structure underwent significant changes, marked by:

1. Formation of New Classes:

The emergence of a landed aristocracy (samantas), holding power and control over
land.

A dependent and impoverished peasantry, subject to the authority of landlords.

2. Rise of Kayasthas:

Kayasthas, initially Brahmin scribes, became a distinct administrative caste,


maintaining records and land grants.

They developed their own subcastes, practicing class endogamy and family exogamy.

---

Proliferation of Castes

This period saw an explosion of new castes due to various factors:

Fragmentation of existing varnas into multiple jatis.

Occupational specialization leading to the creation of craft-based castes.

Religious sects contributing to the formation of sect-based castes.

Examples of Caste Proliferation:


Brahmins: Inscriptions record 194 different gotras, highlighting their regional
diversity.

Rajputs: The rise of Rajputs as a Kshatriya group, driven by lineage-based state


formation and political consolidation.

Shudras: Differentiation into sat Shudras (pure) and asat Shudras (impure), with
many tribal groups categorized as untouchables.

---

Occupational Castes and Ruralization

The decline of trade and commerce resulted in the localization of crafts, leading
to the formation of hereditary occupational castes. Examples include:

Craft villages, such as Kumbharapadraka (potters’ village), signifying caste-based


occupations.

Transformation of guilds into closed groups, resembling castes.

As manual work became stigmatized, artisans and craftsmen found their social status
diminished, further reinforcing caste hierarchies.

---

Peasant Resistance and Social Unrest

The period was marked by instances of peasant resistance and social unrest, driven
by:

1. Conflicts between Brahmins and Peasants:

Peasants resisted Brahminical control over land and taxes.

2. Samanta-Brahmin Clashes:

Feudatories often clashed with Brahmins over privileges and land rights, as
documented in the Sorab Taluk inscription.

3. Peasant Uprisings:

Notable revolts, like the Kaivarta rebellion in Bengal, where peasants protested
against oppressive taxation.

---
Religious Influences and Sectarian Castes

Religious movements played a significant role in shaping social identities:

The rise of Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Jainism, and Buddhism led to the formation of
sect-based castes.

Despite their egalitarian ideals, these sects often adhered to caste norms, further
fragmenting society.

---

Conclusion

The early medieval period in India was characterized by profound social changes,
driven by economic conditions, land redistribution, and the integration of tribal
communities. The processes of peasantization, proliferation of castes, and the
emergence of new social groups like Kayasthas and Rajputs reshaped the socio-
economic landscape. These developments laid the foundation for the complex caste-
based social order that continues to influence Indian society. Through the insights
of historians like R.S. Sharma, B.N.S. Yadava, and R.N. Nandi, it becomes evident
that this period played a crucial role in shaping India’s social and cultural
history.

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