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Ancient History

Lecture – 07
Later Vedic Period
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Later Vedic Period

Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC):
❖ The history of this age is primarily derived from Vedic texts compiled after the Rig Vedic age. This era
witnessed significant changes in social, economic, political, and religious aspects of society.
❖ The Later Vedic culture is also known as the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture of the Iron Age.
Around 700 sites with Painted Grey Pottery have been identified in the northern doab, with excavations
conducted at four sites: Atranjikheda, Jakheda, Hastinapur, and Noh.
❖ The tribes of this period include the Kurus, Panchalas, Vashas, and Ushinaras.
Political Life
❖ Jana converted into Janapad and Mahajanapada. The theory of the origin of the king is first found in the
Aitareya Brahmin, the rights of the king increased.
❖ King Parikshit is mentioned in the Atharvaveda, in the Upanishads there is a mention of Asvapati of
Kaikeya, Ajatashatru of Kashi, Janak of Videha, Aruni Uddalaka of Kuru, pravahan Jabali of Panchala.
❖ King's office bearers-they were called Ratnins, in the Satapatha Brahman there are about 12 Ratnins mentioned.
❖ other officials-
➢ Senani-head of the army
➢ Purohit-King's Advisor
➢ Yuvraj-son of the king
➢ Sangreehita-treasurer
➢ Bhagadudh-tax collector
➢ Akshwap-The king's friend in the game of dice
➢ Palagal-clown
➢ Govikartan-hunter.
❖ Rig Vedic tribal assemblies saw diminished significance with increasing royal power, eventually leading
to the disappearance of Vidatha.
❖ The authority of the Rajana (king) became more pronounced as titles like Rajavisvajanan (king of the world),
Ahilabhuvanapathi (lord of all earth), Ekrat, and Samrat (sole ruler) emerged. Concepts of Samrat/Samrajya
(emperor/empire) developed.
❖ Hereditary kingship was on the rise, although remnants of elective kingship were evident in later Vedic texts.
❖ Terms such as rashtra (territory) and rajya (sovereign power) came into use.
❖ The king relied on key functionaries such as priests, commanders, and the chief queen to fulfill his duties.
❖ Village assemblies, under dominant clan chiefs, handled local matters.
❖ Wars shifted focus from cattle raids to territorial disputes as society became more agrarian.
❖ Chiefs expanded their influence at the expense of the tribal peasantry, reinforcing their authority through
rituals like the Rajasuya, Ashvamedha, and Vajapeya. These rituals promoted territorial cohesion by
involving people from across the kingdom.
❖ Srauta sacrifices were conducted to control and distribute resources effectively.
❖ The king performed various yajnas:
➢ Rajasuya (royal consecration, conferring supreme power),
➢ Vajapeya (chariot race to establish supremacy among kinsmen),
➢ Ashwamedha (ritual ensuring control over territories where the royal horse ran uninterrupted).
❖ Despite these rituals, kings did not maintain standing armies.
❖ The significance of sabhas (assemblies) and samitis (councils) declined, and the institution of vidatha
disappeared.
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Social Status:
❖ The foundation of society rested on Varnashrama and the joint family system, which was patriarchal.
❖ The varna system's basis shifted from being karma-based to birth-based.
❖ The Aitareya Brahmana provides details about the duties of the four varnas.
❖ In the Satapatha Brahmana, Kshatriyas are described as superior to Brahmins.
❖ Teaching became primarily associated with Brahmanas. Wives of Brahmanas and cows held significant
status.
❖ Rajanya refers to Kshatriyas, who were warriors and rulers receiving 'Bali' as tax.
❖ The Panchavimsa Brahmana places Kshatriyas above Brahmanas, whereas the Satapatha Brahmana
places Brahmanas above Kshatriyas.
❖ The king asserted authority over the three varnas, with references in texts like the Aitreya Brahmana
suggesting Brahmanas sought royal support and could be removed from their positions by the king.
❖ Emphasis on sacrificial rituals grew, enhancing the influence and power of Brahmanas.
❖ The concept of ashramas, denoting various stages of life (like brahmacharya, grihastha, and vanaprastha),
was incipient. Sannyasa had not yet developed.
❖ The concept of Dvija (twice-born) emerged during this period.
❖ Upanayana (sacred thread ceremony) was restricted to the upper echelons of society, marking initiation
into education. The fourth varna was denied this privilege, and Sudras were also barred from reciting the
Gayatri mantra. Women were likewise excluded from Upanayana and the Gayatri mantra.
❖ Certain artisanal groups achieved elevated status, such as Rathakaras (chariot makers) who were allowed to
wear the sacred thread.
❖ Vaishyas, referred to as common people, engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding, and artisanal work
before transitioning into trade. They paid taxes to kings.
❖ Some social groups were ranked even lower than Sudras.
❖ Society was predominantly rural, though signs of urbanism emerged towards the end of the period. Texts
like the Taittiriya Aranyaka mention towns (Nagar).
❖ The gotra system became prevalent during this period.
❖ The ashram system was established, with three ashrams mentioned: Brahmacharya, Grihastha, and
Vanaprastha.
❖ The Jabalopanishad describes four ashrams, whereas the Chandogya Upanishad describes only three.
❖ The family held significant social importance, characterized by patriarchal structures with patrilineal
descent. Relations within the family were hierarchical, and polygyny (having multiple wives) was
common.
❖ Household structures became more organised, developing specific rituals for family welfare. The married
man and his wife were collectively known as the Yajamana.
❖ Joint families, encompassing three or four generations, lived together.
❖ Archaeological sites in Western Uttar Pradesh, such as Atranjikhera and Ahichchhtra, revealed communal
food preparation within large family units.
❖ The concept of gotra emerged during the later Vedic period, denoting a group of people tracing descent
from a common ancestor. Individuals of the same gotra were considered siblings and were prohibited from
marrying each other.
❖ Several unilineal descent groups existed, comprising related clans that formed tribes.
❖ Marriages within the same gotra were forbidden, with Chandrayana serving as penance for men marrying
women of the same gotra.
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Status of Women:
❖ A decline in the societal status of women compared to the Rig Vedic age was observed.
❖ Women were no longer permitted to attend assemblies.
❖ While women had participated in rituals during the Rig Vedic period, they were excluded in the later Vedic period.
❖ The patriarchal family structure confined women's roles to domestic tasks.
❖ Practices such as Sati and Child Marriage were prevalent.
❖ Daughters were often viewed as a source of sorrow (Aitreya Brahmana).
❖ Despite these restrictions, exceptional women like Gargi and Maitreyi excelled in knowledge; for
instance, Gargi famously outwitted Yajnavalkya in a philosophical discourse.
❖ In the Maitrayani Samhita, women are portrayed as three major evils along with dice and wine (sura).
❖ In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, there is a dialogue between Yajnavalkya and Gargi, where it is suggested
that Gargi's head should be broken.
❖ In the Shatapatha Brahmana, Women are referred to as Ardhangini.
❖ Child marriage, the purdah system, and the Sati system are not mentioned.
Economic Structure
❖ There was an increased importance of iron, known as Shyam or Krishna Ayas in later Vedic texts.
❖ The earliest evidence of iron has been found in Atranjikheda, Etah district of Uttar Pradesh around 1100 BC,
which led to an agricultural revolution.
❖ Agriculture emerged as the primary livelihood practice, albeit primitive.
❖ Agricultural tools were predominantly made of wood, although few iron tools have been found.
❖ The Vedic people cultivated barley, rice, and wheat, with wheat being the staple food in the Punjab region
and rice becoming prevalent in the Ganga-Yamuna doab.
❖ Rice, rather than wheat, was noted in Vedic rituals.
❖ Mixed farming, combining cultivation and herding, was practiced.
❖ Oxen-drawn wagons were widely used for transportation.
❖ Land ownership was communal, controlled by the 'vish' (clan) with participatory rights.
❖ The Grahpati (head of the household) owned the land.
❖ Exchange continued through barter, using items like "Nishka," a gold or silver ornament.
❖ Shreni, associations of traders, merchants, and artisans, were headed by a Shreshthi.
❖ Taxation evolved from voluntary contributions to mandatory taxes and tributes, primarily collected from
Vaishyas by Sangrihitri (tax collectors).
❖ Trade and exchange flourished during the Later Vedic age, evident in the material culture unearthed at
archaeological sites. Specialised caravan traders played a crucial role in commerce.
Knowledge of Metals:
❖ The use of iron began around 1200 BC and was termed Krishna Ayas/Shyama Ayas.
❖ By around 1000 BC, iron was utilised in regions like Gandhara, eastern Punjab, western UP, MP, and
Rajasthan.
❖ Excavations indicate that Aryans used iron weapons such as arrowheads and spearheads in western UP
from around 800 BC onwards.
❖ Iron axes were employed to clear forests in the upper Gangetic basin. Towards the end of the Vedic
period, knowledge of iron spread to eastern UP and Videha (Mithila region).
❖ Other metals such as copper, tin, gold, bronze, and lead are also mentioned.
❖ Copper objects were primarily used for making weapons used in war and hunting.
❖ They were also knowledgeable about glass manufacturing.
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Arts and Crafts:

❖ During this period, four main types of pottery were prevalent: (1) Painted Grey Ware; (2) Black and Red
Ware; (3) Black-slipped Ware; and (4) Red Ware. Burnt bricks were not widely used.
❖ Professions such as weaving, leatherwork, pottery, and carpentry were well-established.
❖ Specific terms like Kulala (referring to potters) and Urna sutra (referring to wool) appear in the texts.
❖ Various specialized professional groups are mentioned, including bow makers, rope makers, arrow makers,
hide dressers, stone breakers, physicians, goldsmiths, and astrologers.
❖ Additional professions such as physicians, washermen, hunters, boatmen, astrologers, and cooks are also
noted.
❖ Performers of Vedic sacrifices were considered a type of service provider.
❖ References to elephants and elephant keepers are frequently found in the Atharva Veda.
Agriculture:
❖ Agriculture was the primary occupation of the Aryans during this period.
❖ Evidence of barley, rice, and wheat has been found in Atranjikheda, and rice and wild varieties of sugarcane
in Hastinapur.
❖ The Shatapatha Brahmana mentions farming with bullocks, while the Kathaka Samhita mentions farming
with 24 bullocks.
❖ Agricultural Activities Mentioned in the Shatapatha Brahmana:
➢ Plowing (traction), sowing (weaning), and harvesting (lunan) are mentioned.
➢ Various cereals are named: Paddy (Brihi), Barley (Yava), Urad (Maan), Moong (Mridag), Wheat
(Godhum), Mustard (Sharishka), Sugarcane (Ichhhu), etc.
➢ Famine is mentioned in the Chandogya Upanishad.
Animal Husbandry:
❖ The main domesticated animals were cows, bulls, horses, elephants, buffaloes, sheep, goats, donkeys, and
camels.
❖ The big bull was called 'Mahoksha'.
❖ According to the Aitareya Brahmana, the chariot of the gods Ashwin is pulled by two donkeys.
Industry:
❖ The main tradespeople included metal workers, potters, fishermen, washermen, goldsmiths, weavers, and
others.
❖ Lists of occupations are found in the Bajaseni Samhita and the Taittiriya Brahmana.
➢ Potter: Kulal
➢ Manufacturer of bamboo articles: Kantkikar
➢ Cloth dyer: Rajyitri
➢ Fisherman: Dheever/Kaivarta
❖ The basic unit of weight was called Rattika.
❖ Drona was used to measure grain.
Trade:
❖ The terms Shresthi in the Aitareya Brahmana and Shresthin in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad were
used for the business class.
❖ Trade was based on the barter system, with cows and nishk as mediums of transaction.
❖ The word Kusid, referring to a loan, is found in the Taittiriya Samhita, and the term Kusidin for the lender is
found in the Shatapatha Brahmana.
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Religious Life:
❖ In the Later Vedic period, the main deity became Prajapati.
❖ Indra, Agni, and Varuna lost their importance. Rudra was considered the god of animals, and Vishnu
became the foster god.
❖ During this period, Varuna became the god of water, and Pushan became the god of the Shudras.
❖ The complexity of the Yagyas and the importance of rituals increased. Instead of the seven priests of the
Rig Vedic period, 14 priests are mentioned in the Later Vedic period.
❖ The doctrine of reincarnation is mentioned for the first time in the Shatapatha Brahmana.
❖ Signs of the emergence of idolatry can be observed.
❖ The increased importance of animal sacrifices overshadowed prayers in placating gods.
❖ Correct performance of rituals and payment of Dakshina were emphasized.
❖ Rituals became more complex, resource-intensive, and time-consuming. The resort to rituals and sacrifices
as solutions for problems led to the belief that material wealth could achieve anything.
❖ Cows, gold, cloth, and horses were given as sacrificial gifts. Sometimes, priests claimed portions of
territory as Dakshina, though the grant of land as a sacrificial gift was not well established.
❖ Agricultural produce began to be offered in rituals.
➢ Items of Dana and Dakshina included cooked rice (wheat was rarely used).
➢ Til, from which the first widely used vegetable oil was derived, came to be used in rituals.
❖ Towards the end of the Later Vedic age, resistance against priestly dominance, cults, and sacrificial
practices emerged, particularly in regions like Panchala and Videha.
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UPPSC Batch
Ancient History DMP–04
Later Vedic Period – Practice Questions
1. Discuss the social, political, and economic life during the later Vedic period. (12 Marks, 200 Words)
How to approach the question:
❖ Introduction: Briefly introduce the Late Vedic period (1000-600 BCE) in 20-30 words.
❖ Main body: Discuss the social, political and economic life of the Late Vedic period in 130-140 words.
❖ Conclusion: Discuss the overall impact of the Late Vedic period on subsequent Indian history in 20-30
words.

Model Answer:
Introduction:
The Later Vedic Period (1000-600 BC) marks a significant phase in ancient Indian history, characterised
by notable changes in social, political, and economic life. Our understanding of this era is primarily derived
from Vedic texts such as the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads, alongside archaeological findings like
Painted Grey Ware (PGW) sites.
Body:
Social Life:
❖ During the Later Vedic period, society was organised into a hierarchical structure based on the
varna system. This system evolved from being based on individual karma (actions) to being determined
by birth, with four primary varnas: Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Sudras.
➢ Brahmanas: They were the priests and scholars, responsible for conducting rituals and preserving
sacred knowledge.
➢ Kshatriyas: The warrior class, who also served as rulers and administrators.
➢ Vaishyas: Common people engaged in agriculture, cattle rearing, and trade. They began to gain
prominence due to their economic activities.
➢ Sudras: They were the labourers and service providers, with limited rights and were excluded from
many religious practices.
❖ Family life was patriarchal, with joint families being the norm. The gotra system became prevalent,
dictating marriage rules and reinforcing kinship bonds.
❖ Women’s roles were primarily domestic, and their participation in religious rituals was limited.
However, some artisan groups, like the Rathakaras (chariot makers), enjoyed elevated status.
Political Life:
❖ The Later Vedic period witnessed the transformation from tribal assemblies to more centralized forms
of governance. The concepts of Janapada (territory) and Mahajanapada (large kingdom) emerged,
indicating the growth of political units.
❖ Kingship became hereditary, and the power of the king increased significantly. Titles such as
Rajavisvajanan (king of the world) and Samrat (sole ruler) began to appear.
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❖ The king’s authority was supported by a council of officials known as Ratnins, including roles like
Senani (army chief), Purohit (royal priest), and Sangreehita (treasurer).
❖ Major rituals like Rajasuya (royal consecration), Vajapeya (chariot race for supremacy), and
Ashvamedha (horse sacrifice for territorial control) were performed to legitimise and reinforce the
king’s power. These rituals also played a role in integrating different regions and people under a single
political authority.
Economic Life:
❖ The economy during the Later Vedic period was primarily agrarian, with significant advancements
due to the use of iron tools. This technological progress improved agricultural productivity and
supported the growing population.
❖ Cattle continued to be an essential part of the economy, not only for agricultural purposes but also as a
form of wealth. The Vaishyas, engaged in agriculture, trade, and artisanal work, became crucial to the
economy. Trade expanded, facilitated by the non-violent principles of emerging religions like Buddhism
and Jainism, which reduced conflicts and supported commercial activities.
❖ Taxation was a critical aspect of the economic system, with the king collecting revenues to maintain
administrative and military functions. Artisans and craftsmen, including blacksmiths and weavers,
contributed to the economy by producing goods for both local use and trade.
Conclusion:
The Later Vedic period was a transformative era in ancient Indian history, marked by significant
developments in social, political, and economic spheres. The evolution of the varna system, the rise of
centralised political units, and advancements in agriculture and trade laid the foundation for subsequent
periods in Indian history. The changes during this time reflect a society in transition, adapting to new
challenges and opportunities.
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