Fundamental of Mechanical Engineering and

Mechatronics

Unit – 4

Measurements and Control System

Dr. Ajay Singh Verma

 Unit-4: Syllabus
• Topics
• Measurements and Control System:
• Concept of Measurement, Error in measurements, Calibration,
measurements of pressure, temperature, mass flow rate, strain, force
and torques; Concept of accuracy, precision and resolution, Basic
Numerical problems.
• System of Geometric Limit, Fit, Tolerance and gauges, Basic Numerical
Problems.
• Control System Concepts:
• Introduction to Control Systems, Elements of control system, Basic of
open and closed loop control with example.
 Measurement
• “Measurement” is the act of determining a target's size, length,
weight, capacity, or other aspect.
• There are a number of terms similar to “measure” but which
vary according to the purpose (such as “weight,” “calculate,”
and “quantify.”)
• In general, measurement can be understood as one action
within the term “instrumentation.”
• Procedure in which an unknown quantity is compared to a
known standard, using an accepted and consistent system of
units.
• The measurement may involve a simple linear rule to scale the
length of a part.
• It may require a sophisticated measurement of force versus
deflection during a tension test.
• Measurement provides a numerical value of the quantity of
interest, within certain limits of accuracy and precision.
 Inspection

Procedure in which a part or product feature, such is a

dimension, is examined to determine whether or not it
conforms to design specification.
Many inspections rely on measurement techniques, while
others use gauging methods
•Gauging determines simply whether the part
characteristic meets or does not meet the design
specification.
•Gauging is usually faster than measuring, but not
much information is provided about feature of
interest.
 Measurement Methods
• Measuring a target can be done through either direct measurement or
indirect measurement.
• Direct Measurement
• Direct measurement is measurement done by bringing the target into
contact with the measurement system to read the length, height, or other
aspect directly.
• Although direct measurement allows measurement results to be known Direct Measurement
as they are, errors may occur depending on the skill of the person doing
the measurement.

• Indirect Measurement
• Indirect measurement is done, for example, by using a dial gauge to
measure the height difference between a measurement target and a
gauge block and using that height to indirectly determine the target's
height.
• Because this type of measurement is based on a reference, indirect
measurement is also referred to as “comparative measurement.” Indirect Measurement
 Measurement Methods
• Inline Measurement
• Inline measurement and offline measurement refer to
different methods of measurement.
• Inline measurement can also be referred to as “automatic
measurement,” and offline measurement can also be referred
to as “Manual measurement.”
• A structure that includes a sensor mounted along a
manufacturing line to constantly monitor products passing
underneath would be an example of inline measurement.
• Offline Measurement
• Offline measurement is measurement performed through the
manual manipulation of the measurement system in order to
obtain measurements for any given point such as While
measuring with vernier calipers and micrometers.
Metrology
• Metrology is the science of measurement. It includes all theoretical and practical aspects
of measurement.

• Concerned with seven fundamental quantities (standard units International Bureau of

Weights and Measures (BIPM: Bureau International des Poids et Mesures):

• Length (meter)

• Mass (kilogram)

• Time (second)

• Electric current (ampere)

• Temperature (degree Kelvin)

• Light intensity (candela)

• Matter (Objects that take up space and have mass are called matter) (mole)
Metrology
From these basic quantities, most other physical quantities are
derived, such as:
• Area

• Volume

• Velocity and acceleration

• Force

• Electric voltage

• Heat energy
 Characteristics of measurement systems
Characteristics that show the performance of an instrument are accuracy, precision,
resolution, sensitivity etc.

It allows users to select the most suitable instrument for specific measuring jobs.
The performance characteristics may be broadly divided into two groups, namely
„static‟ and „dynamic‟ characteristics.

•Static characteristics: Static characteristics refer to the characteristics of the

system when the input is either held constant or varying very slowly.

•Dynamic characteristics: Dynamic characteristics refer to the performance of the

instrument when the input variable is changing rapidly with time.
For example, human eye cannot detect any event whose duration is more than one-
tenth of a second;
10
Characteristics of measurement systems Contd…
Accuracy
Accuracy describes the degree of exactness (closeness) of measurement
compared to the true value., i.e., a highly accurate measuring device will
provide measurements very close to the standard, true or known values.

Example: in target shooting a high score indicates the nearness to the bull's
eye and is a measure of the shooter's accuracy. Refer to pictures below:

11
Characteristics of measurement systems Contd…
PRECISION
•Precision is the degree to which several measurements provide answers very close to each
other.
•It is an indicator of the scatter in the data.
•The lesser the scatter, higher the precision.

EXAMPLES
•If we measure the length of a foot-ruler and get values of 12.01 in, 12.00 in, 11.99 in, 12.00 in.
These numbers are precise enough for us to believe that if we measure it again we would get
12.00(+-).01 in.
•These measurements are precise but necessarily accurate. The foot-ruler may actually be
metric ruler of 30.0 cm long. Our measurement is precise but not accurate.
APPROXIMATIONS
Even though physicists usually try for a high degree of precision, there are times when only a
close approximation is need.
Physicists some times make rough estimates for making tentative decisions. The accuracy of
estimates depends on reference materials available, time devoted, and experience with similar
problems. 12
Characteristics of measurement systems Contd…

Accuracy vs. Resolution

Resolution

The smallest change in a measurement variable to which an instrument can detect.

In some instruments, the output increases in discrete steps, for continuous increase
in the input

True value

measurement
Characteristics of measurement systems Contd…
Accuracy vs. Precision

Precision Accuracy Precision

without without and
accuracy precision accuracy
 Characteristics of measurement systems Contd…
RESOLUTION
Resolution is the ability of the measurement system to detect and faithfully indicate small
changes in the characteristic of the measurement result.
It is the smallest change in a measured variable to which an instrument will respond.

SENSITIVITY
•Sensitivity of an instrument is defined as the ratio of the
magnitude of Output signal to the magnitude of input signal.
•It denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to
which the instrument responds.
•The sensitivity of an instrument is the smallest amount it can
measure, of whatever it's built to measure.
•Sensitivity = Change in Output signal / Change of input signal
15
Characteristics of measurement systems Contd…

THRESHOLD
The minimum value of input signal that is required
to make a change or start from zero.
The minimum value of input below which no output
can be appeared in known as threshold.

ERROR
STATIC ERROR = Am-Ar
Am = Measured value of quantity
Ar= Real value
16
Characteristics of measurement systems Contd…

ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS
•All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are only valid under controlled
conditions of temperature, pressure etc.
•These standard ambient conditions are usually defined in the instrument
specification.
•As variations occur in the ambient temperature, etc., certain static instrument
characteristics change, and the sensitivity to disturbance is a measure of the
magnitude of this change.
•Such environmental changes affect instruments in two main ways, known as zero
drift and sensitivity drift.
•Zero drift is sometimes known by the alternative term, bias.
17
Characteristics of measurement systems Contd…
REPEATABILITY

Repeatability is the variability of the measurements obtained by one person while

measuring the same item repeatedly. This is also known as the inherent precision of
the measurement equipment.

The density functions were constructed from measurements of the thickness of a piece
of metal with Gage A and Gage B. The density functions demonstrate that Gage B is
more repeatable than Gage A.

18
Characteristics of measurement systems Contd…

REPRODUCIBILITY
 Reproducibility is the variability of the
measurement system caused by differences in
operator behavior.
Mathematically, it is the variability of the
average values obtained by several operators
while measuring the same item.

19
Characteristics of measurement systems Contd…
RANGE AND SPAN
 Range represents the minimum and maximum values which can be determined
by an instrument or equipment.

 Difference between upper and lower range is known as Span.

 Span can be the same for two different range instruments.

 In the case of a thermometer, its scale goes

from −40°C to 100°C. Thus its span is 140°C.

20
•Hysteresis –
•Hysteresis is the difference between two
separate measurements taken at the same
point, the first is taken during a series of
increasing measurement values, and the
other during a series of decreasing
measurement values.
•The hysteresis is caused by the natural
reluctance of a material to return to an
original state after adding and removing a
physical change, such as an increase and
decrease in temperature or pressure.
 Characteristics of measurement systems Contd…

DEAD ZONE
Dead zone is defined as the largest change
of input quantity for which there is no output
of the instrument.

DEAD TIME
Dead time is defined as the time duration
during dead zone.

22
Sensors
Physical Measurement
phenomenon Output

A device for sensing a physical variable of a physical system or

an environment.
Classification of Sensors
Mechanical quantities: Displacement, Strain, rotation velocity,
acceleration, pressure, force/torque, twisting, weight, flow
Thermal quantities: Temperature, heat.
Electromagnetic/optical quantities: Voltage, current,
visual/images, light, magnetism.
Chemical quantities: Moisture, pH value
 Specifications of Sensor
• Accuracy:
Error between the result of a measurement and the true value
being measured.

• Resolution:
The smallest increment of measure that a device can make.

• Sensitivity:
The ratio between the change in the output signal to a small
change in input physical signal. Slope of the input-output fit line.

• Repeatability/Precision:
The ability of the sensor to output the same value for the same
input over a number of trials.
Error
Error is the difference between the measurement and the corresponding true value.

• Positive error refers when measurement is greater then the true value.

• Negative error refers when measurement is less then the true value.

Types of Errors:

A) Error of Measurement:

B) Instrumental error

C) Error of observation

D) Based on nature of errors

E) Based on control
 Errors in measurements

•Errors accompany any measurement, however well it is conducted.

•The error may be inherent in the measurement process or it may be induced due to
variations in the way the experiment is conducted.
•The errors may be classified as:

GROSS ERRORS RANDOM ERRORS SYSTEMATIC ERRORS

A) Error of Measurement:
1) Systematic error:
• It is the error which during several measurements, made under the
same conditions, of the same value of a certain quantity, remains
constant in absolute value and sign or varies in a predictable way in
accordance with a specified law when the conditions change.
•The causes of these errors may be known or unknown. The errors
may be constant or variable. Systematic errors are regularly repetitive
in nature.
2) Random error:
•This error varies in an unpredictable manner in absolute value & in
sign when a large number of measurements of the same value of a
quantity are made under practically identical conditions.
•Random errors are non-consistent. Random errors are normally of
limited time duration.
3) Parasitic error:
It is the error, often gross, which results from incorrect execution of
measurement.
B) Instrumental error:
1) Error of a physical measure: It is the difference between the nominal value
and the conventional true value reproduced by the physical measure.
2) Error of a measuring mechanism: It is the difference between the value
indicated by the measuring mechanism and the conventional true value of the
measured quantity.
3) Zero error: It is the indication of a measuring instrument for the zero value of
the quantity measured.
4) Calibration error of a physical measure: It is the difference between the
conventional true value reproduced by the physical measure and the nominal
value of that measure.
5) Error due to temperature: It is the error arising from the fact that the
temperature of instrument does not maintain its reference value.
6) Error due to friction: It is the error due to the friction between the moving
parts of the measuring instruments.
7) Error due to inertia: It is the error due to the inertia (mechanical, thermal or
otherwise) of the parts of the measuring instrument
C) Error of observation:
1) Reading error: It is the error of observation resulting from incorrect reading
of the indication of a measuring instrument by the observer.
2) Parallax error: It is the reading error which is produced, when, with the
index at a certain distance from the surface of scale, the reading is not made
in the direction of observation provided for the instrument used.

D) Based on nature of errors:

1) Systematic error:
2) Random error:

E) Based on control:
1) Controllable errors: The sources of error are known and it is possible to
have a control on these sources. These can be calibration errors, environmental
errors and errors due to non-similarity of condition while calibrating and
measuring.
2) Non-controllable errors: These are random errors which are not
controllable
1) GROSS ERROR:
•This class of error mainly covers human mistakes in reading instruments, recording and calculating
measurement results.
•Gross errors may be of any amount and therefore their mathematical analysis is
impossible.(Personal errors).

2) SYSTEMATIC ERRORS (BIAS):

•Systematic errors due to faulty or improperly calibrated instruments. These may be reduced or
eliminated by careful choice and calibration of instruments.
•Sometimes bias may be linked to a specific cause and estimated by analysis. In such a case a
correction may be applied to eliminate or reduce bias.
•Bias is an indication of the accuracy of the measurement. Smaller the bias more accurate the data.

3. RANDOM ERRORS:
•Random errors are due to non-specific causes like natural disturbances that may occur during the
measurement process. These cannot be eliminated.
•The magnitude of the spread in the data due to the presence of random errors is a measure of the
precision of the data.
•Smaller the random error more precise is the data. Random errors are statistical in nature.
•These may be characterized by statistical analysis.
Relative Error Or Percentage Error:
The relative error is the ratio of the mean absolute error
Δamean to the mean value amean of the quantity measured.
i.e. Relative error = Δamean/ amean
When the relative error is expressed in per cent, it is called
the percentage error (δa).
⇒ δa = (Δamean/ amean) × 100%
 SOURCES OF SYSTEMATIC ERROR

 Systematic errors in the output of many instruments are due to factors inherent
in the manufacture of the instrument arising out of tolerances in the
components of the instrument.
 They can also arise due to wear in instrument components over a period of
time.
 In other cases, systematic errors are introduced either by the effect of
environmental disturbances or through the disturbance of the measured
system by the act of measurement.
S.NO. SYSTEMATIC ERRORS RANDOM ERRORS

1 It can be controlled by It cannot be determine from the

magnitude and sense. knowledge of measuring system

2 It is repetitive nature It is non consistent

3 Property analyzed can be Cannot be eliminated

determine and reduced
4 These types of errors are Random errors are inherent in the
due to improper condition or measuring system.
procedures.
5 These include the variation in It includes error due to displacement of
atmospheric conditions, level joints, error due to friction.
misalignment errors.
 Minimizing Errors
•Using instruments of higher precision, improving experimental
techniques, etc., we can reduce the least count error.
•Repeating the observations several times and taking the arithmetic
mean of all the observations, the mean value would be very close
to the true value of the measured quantity.
•Gross errors can be minimized only if the observer is very careful
in his observations and sincere in his approach.
Figure : Example showing the presence of systematic and random errors in data.
Ex: In a series of successive measurements in an experiment, the readings of the period of
oscillation of a simple pendulum were found to be 2.63s, 2.56 s, 2.42s, 2.71s and 2.80s.
Calculate (i) the mean value of the period of oscillation (ii) the absolute error in each
measurement (iii) the mean absolute error (iv) the relative error (v) the percentage error.
Express the result in proper form.
Ex: A resistor has a marking as “470 Ω, 10%”? What will be the true value of
resistor?

Answer: 470 Ω, 10% means, the resistor has percentage error of 10%.

it means the true value lies within 470 ± 10% i.e. 470 ± 47. (10% of

470 is 47)

∴ true value lies between 423Ω to 517 Ω.

Ex: A rectangular board is measured with a scale having mean absolute
error of 0.2cm. The length and breadth are measured as 35.4 cm and 18.4
cm respective. Find the relative error and percentage error of the area
calculated.
Given length (l) = 35.4 cm, Δl = 0.2cm
Width = 18.4cm and Δw = 0.2cm
Area (A) = l × w = 35.4 × 18.4 = 651.36 cm 2

Relative error in Area (δA) = ΔA/A = Δl/l + Δw/w

=0.2/35.4 + 0.2/18.4 = 0.006 + 0.011 = 0.017
Percentage error = ΔA/A × 100 = 0.017 × 100 = 1.7%
The results shown in Figure compare the response of a particular
thermocouple (that measures temperature) and a standard
thermocouple.
The measurements are reported between room temperature (close to
20°C) and 500°C.
That there is a systematic variation between the two is clear from the
figure that shows the trend of the measured temperatures indicated by
the particular thermocouple.
The systematic error appears to vary with the temperature.
The data points indicated by the full symbols appear also to hug the
trend line.
However the data points do not lie on it. This is due to random
errors that are always present in any measurement.
Actually the standard thermocouple would also have the random
errors that are not indicated in the figure.
We have deliberately shown only the trend line for the standard
thermocouple.
Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy: Degree to which a measured value agrees with the true value of the quantity
of interest.

Precision: Degree of repeatability in the measurement process.

• Good precision means that random errors in the measurement procedure are minimized.
Calibration
Calibration is process of defining the system response to known, controlled signal inputs.

Importance of Calibration
Assurance of accurate of measurements

Ability to trace measurements to International standards

International acceptance of test/calibration reports

Correct diagnosis of illness (medical reports)

Consumer protection (legal metrology)

Meeting the requirements of ISO 9000 and 17025

Pressure Measurement
Pressure is defined as the force acting per
unit area. It is the normal force exerted by a
medium(usually a fluid),on a unit area. It is
measured in N/m2

1 pascal=1N/m2

1 bar=105 or 750.06 mm of Hg

1 atm=760 mm Hg

Relation between various pressure terms

• Absolute pressure=Atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure
• Absolute pressure=Atmospheric-vacuum pressure
Pabs  Patm  Pgage
Some Fluid = Some Pressure = Some absolute pressure

No Fluid = No Pressure = Zero absolute pressure

WHY MEASURE PRESSURE?

Pressure negates the properties of a fluid: State, flow, forces.
Quality and Safety of Operation: Tire, compressors, etc.

Pressure measurements is used in various general, industry and research

applications.
Static Pressure
It is the pressure where no motion is occurring of the liquid. Its
value increases as the liquid head in the tank increases.

Dynamic Pressure
It is the pressure that it exerts on its surroundings while the fluid
is in motion. It increases as the liquid velocity increases.
Pressure measuring instrument
Low Pressure measuring instruments
Pressure below 1 mm Hg is considered low pressure. Unit of low
pressure are torr
and micron.
1 torr=1 mm hg =133.322368 pascals
1 micron=10-3 torr
Moderate Pressure measuring instrument
For measuring pressure above 1 mm Hg and below 1000 atmosphere.
High Pressure measuring instrument
For measuring pressure above 1000 atmosphere.
 Low pressure measuring instrument:
 Pirani gauge
 MC leod gauge
 Knudsen gauge
 Ionization gauge

Moderate pressure measuring instrument:

 Manometer
 Elastic element pressure gauge- Bourdon tube, Bellows, Diaphragm
High pressure measuring instrument:
For measuring pressure above 1000 atmosphere. For such purpose, high
pressure transducer is used.
(a) Electrical pressure gauges
(i) Resistance type
(ii) Photo electric type
(iii) Piezoelectric type
(iv) Variable capacitor type
 Cont…Low pressure measuring instrument:

Pirani gauge:
It is also known as thermal conductivity
gauge,

It is based on the principal that the

temperature of a current conductor will not
only depend upon the magnitude of
current and

the resistivity of conductor but also on rate

at which heat is dissipated.
Pirani gauge
When a current flow in the wire filament, the filament gets
heated depends upon the gas pressure.

Advantages
1. It is simple in design and easy to use.
2. They are more accurate than thermocouple
gauges.
3. They can measure between 20 micron to 1 mm of Hg.
Limitation
1.The gauge must be calibrated.
2.It is passive type of gauge & need electrical power.
 Mcleod gauge
•McLeod gauge comprises a
system of glass tubing made of
tough glass and mercury is used
to trap the known volume of gas.
•The gauge is connected to the
unknown gas whose pressure is
to be measured.
•The plunger moves up, lowers
the mercury level to the cut off
positions, entering the gas at
unknown pressure through the
tube.
McLeod Gauge
Advantages of McLeod Gauge
1. It is very simple in use.
2. Measurement is independent of gas composition and it is
related to physical dimensions of gauge
3. It is a very accurate pressure measuring device.
4. It can be used as a standard to calibrate other low pressure
gauges.
Limitation of McLeod Gauge
1. If the gas contains the vapor, it may not give correct result.
2. It is applicable to those systems where mercury is tolerable.
3. It does not give continuous output.
Cont…Low pressure measuring instrument:
•Ionization gauge:
•It consists of vacuum tube connected to vacuum
source.
• Ionization gauges are the most sensitive gauges
for very low pressures (also referred to as hard or
high vacuum). It can only measure pressure less
than 1 micron.
• They sense pressure indirectly by measuring the
electrical ions produced when the gas is
bombarded with electrons. Fewer ions will be
produced by lower density gases.
• Thermionic emission generate electrons, which
collide with gas atoms and generate positive ions.
The ions are attracted to a
suitably biased electrode known as the collector.
• The current in the collector is proportional to the
rate of ionization, which is a function of the
pressure in the system. Hence, measuring the
collector current gives the gas pressure.
 Moderate pressure measuring instrument:
Manometer:
1) The manometer consists of a tube
filled with liquid of known density
2) A pressure difference across the tube
causes the liquid to shift position
3) The change in position can be
measured to give the pressure.
4) Best suited to static pressure
measurement.
5) Difficult to use for small pressure
changes, unsuitable for very large
pressures & it is a very simple
manometer
 Bourdon Tube
It works in principal that volume of gas whose pressure is
to be measured is trapped and then compressed
P1V1=P2V2

Where, P1 = Pressure of gas at initial condition (applied

pressure).
P2 = Pressure of gas at final condition.
V1 = Volume of gas at initial Condition.
V2 = Volume of gas at final Condition.

(It is used foe measuring the pressure in range

0.01 to 1000 microns).
It consists of a metal tube oval-cross section, bent in
the form of circular shape having 200 to 250°.
The tube has two ends, out of which one end is sealed
and closed.
This end is connected to pointer and scale through
deflection arrangement.
 Bourdon Tube
Types of Bourdon Tube
1. C-Tube, 2. Helical,
3. Spiral, 4. Twisted

Advantage

1. Bourdon gauges are more robust than manometers.

2. Bourdon tubes are also used in liquid, gas filled thermal
system for measurement of temp.
3. They are relatively less expensive.
Limitation
1. Accuracy in precision measurements is limited
2. These are influenced by shock and vibrations.
Elastic elements
2. Bellows

59
Elastic elements
3. Diaphragm

60
High pressure measuring instrument:

For measuring pressure above 1000 atmosphere.

For such purpose, high pressure transducer is used.
 Piezoelectric type

•The quartz crystals of a piezoelectric pressure

sensor generate a charge when pressure is applied.
•Even though the electrical insulation resistance is
quite large, the charge eventually leaks to zero.
•The rate at which the charge leaks back to zero is
dependent on electrical insulation resistance.
62
Resistance type pressure transducers

63
LVDT Pressure gauge

64
Temperature measurement

65
Temperature Standards and Definition
“Temperature can be closely described as the property of an object that
describes its hotness or coldness, concepts that are clearly relative.”

The International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS) uses this philosophy and
defines six primary fixed points for reference temperatures in terms of:
• The triple point of equilibrium hydrogen 259.34°C
• The boiling point of oxygen 182.962°C
• The boiling point of water 100.0°C
(all at standard atmospheric pressure)
Thermometer Instruments:
• Change in physical dimension (Thermal expansion) :
• Expansion in solids : bimetallic thermometers
• Expansion in liquids : liquid in glass thermometers
• Changes in pressure :
• Vapour filled thermometers
• Liquid filled thermometers
• Gas filled thermometers
• Change in electrical properties:
• The thermoelectric effect ( Thermocouple)
• Resistance thermometers
• Sensitivity of semiconductor device
• Change in emitted thermal radiation:
• Radiation pyrometers
• Optical pyrometers
• Colour change
Expansion Thermometers
1. Liquid(Hg) in glass thermometer
 2. Bimetallic thermometer
• A thermometer which uses two different metal
strips for converting the displacement of
temperature into mechanical.
• The metals used in the thermometer are steel,
copper & brass.
• These strips are connected and they will enlarge at
different rates once they heated.
• This change will compare with the real temperature
& moves a needle beside the scale.
• These thermometers are low-cost, simple, and
strong.
2. Bimetallic thermometer

• Different common forms

of bimetallic sensors are
listed:-
• Helix type.

• Spiral type.

• Cantilever type.
 Pressure Thermometer

Working principle: The fluid is heated , thus pressure is raised and the
temperature can be determine by bourdon tube pressure gauge.

1. Vapoure type thermometer

2. Liquid filled thermometer - Mercury

3. Gas filled thermometer- Nitrogen and Helium

1. Vapour type thermometer

p = 3 to 100 bar
T = 120 to 230 deg.
Centigrade
• In vapour pressure thermometers a highly volatile
liquid is used, but only partially occupies the
thermometer volume.
• The liquid begins to vaporize and fills the rest of
the volume with steam. As a result, the pressure
rises until an equilibrium between the liquid phase
and the gas phase is reached.
• This equilibrium between vapour and liquid
depends on the temperature .If the temperature
rises, more liquid will vaporize and the vapour
pressure will rise accordingly.
• This rising vapour pressure is indicated by a
Bourdon tube, as with gas filled thermometers.
Conversely, a drop in temperature causes part of
the gaseous vapour to condense and the vapour
pressure to decrease. The indicated temperature
decreases.
•
 Thermocouple Thermometers

Measures temperature up to 650 0C

Thermoelectric effect

1. Seebeck

2. Peltier

3. Thomson

4. Joulean

5. Conduction
Seebeck effect
If two wires of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and
one end is heated, current will flow.
Voltage is a function of temperature and metal types.
•The Seebeck effect is when
electricity is created between a
thermocouple when the ends
are subjected to a temperature
difference between them.
•The Peltier effect occurs when
a temperature difference is
created between the junctions
by applying a voltage difference
across the terminals.
 Thermocouple
•A thermocouple is a device consisting of two different conductors (usually metal alloys)
that produce a voltage, proportional to a temperature difference, between either end of
the two conductors
•Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor for measurement and
control and can also be used to convert a temperature gradient into electricity.

Applications

•Thermocouples are suitable for measuring over a large temperature range, up to 2300 °C.

•They are less suitable for applications where smaller temperature differences need to be
measured with high accuracy, for example the range 0-100 °C with 0.1 °C accuracy.

•For such applications thermistors, silicon band gap temperature sensors and resistance
temperature detectors are more suitable.

• Include temperature measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other
industrial processes.
Mass Flow Measurement
•Measurement of flow, whether it is a liquid or gas, is commonly a critical
parameter in many processes.
•In most operations it is important to know that the right fluid is at the right
place at the right time.
•Some critical applications require the ability to conduct accurate flow
measurements to ensure product quality.
•Health & Safety is always an important factor when working with liquids
and gases, investment in ensuring your team can operate in a safe and
productive environment is very important.
•Measuring flow and pressure can provide this security to the process and
personnel.
 Types of Flow Meters
•Coriolis Meters.

•DP Meters.

•Magnetic Meters.

•Multiphase Meters.

•Turbine Meters.

•Ultrasonic Meters.

•Vortex Meters.
•The Flow Meters

•The Coriolis measuring principle is all around us in

the physical world.

•A tube is energised by a fixed vibration.

•When a fluid passes through this tube the mass

flow momentum will cause a change in the tube
vibration, the tube will twist resulting in a phase
shift.

•This phase shift can be measured and a linear

output derived proportional to flow.
 Differential pressure flowmeters

•Differential pressure flowmeters use Bernoulli's

equation to measure the flow of fluid in a pipe.
•Differential pressure flowmeters introduce a
constriction in the pipe that creates a pressure
drop across the flowmeter.
•When the flow increases, more pressure drop is
created.
•Through this pressure difference flow is
measured
 Turbine flow meters

•Turbine flow meters measure the

velocity of liquids, gases and vapors in
pipes, such as hydrocarbons,
chemicals, water, cryogenic liquids, air,
and industrial gases.
•A turbine flow meter is used for
volumetric total flow and/or flow rate
measurement and has a relatively simple
working principle.
•As fluid flows through the turbine meter,
it impinges upon turbine blades that are
free to rotate about an axis along the
center line of the turbine housing.
STRAIN MEASUREMENT
Strain Measurements

Strain
gauge
• Strain in a body subjected to direct tensile and compressive force is defined as
ratio of change in length to its original length .
• It is a dimensionless quantity .
L
  Stress σ = εE
L

Transducers - These are the instruments use to convert one physical quantity into
another physical quantity.

Strain Gauge - Transducers used to measure strain are known as strain gauge.
 Strain Gauge Transducers
•The strain gauge transducer is an example of a passive transducer;

•It uses electrical resistance variation in wires to sense the strain produced

by a force on the wires.

•It is a very versatile detector and transducer for measuring weight, pressure,

mechanical force and displacement.

 Types of Strain Gauges

Strain
Gauge

Electrical Optical Mechanical

Change in Change in Change in

resistance inductance Capacitance

Wire
Foil Type Semiconductor type
wound
Electrical strain Gauge
Principle of Resistance strain gauges

• The resistance of a metal wire is given by:

L
R
A

• As the wire is stretched, L increases and A decreases.

• As a result, R increases.

• Compressing the wire has the opposite effect.

• These effects are exploited in strain gages

 Bonded Strain Gauge
• These gauges are bonded directly to the surface of specimen with a thin
layer of adhesive cement .
• Adhesive cement used to transmit the strain and act as a electric
insulator.
• In FLAT GRID TYPE wire is just put on the specimen with the help of epoxy
and paper.
• They are reasonably inexpensive.
• They can pull off overall accuracy of better than +/-0.10%.
• These strain gauges are only moderately affected by temperature
changes.
• They are extremely sensitive and have low mass.
• Bonded resistance strain gages can be employed to measure both static
and dynamic strain.
• These types of strain gauges are appropriate for a wide variety of
environmental conditions.
• They can measure strain in jet engine turbines operating at very high
temperatures and in cryogenic fluid applications at temperatures as low
as -452*F (-269*C).
WIRE WOUND TYPE Strain Gauge
• In WIRE WOUND TYPE wire is wounded over specimen .
• Wire is made of Ni-Cu , Ni Cr , Ni-Fe alloys .
• Wire grid type have more sensitivity due to max. transfer of strain and has less
hysteresis .
Force & Torque
Measurement
Force Measurement By An Elastic Element

Elastic elements are often employed for force measurements via stress/strain
Hooke‟s law

F  Ky
Where K is the deflection constant and y is the deflection at some characteristic point.
Table 13.1 lists some characteristic cases:
Load Cells
•A load cell is a physical
element or transducer that can
translate pressure (force) into
an electrical signal.
•Load cells are sensors that
detect force (mass, torque,
etc.).
•When force is applied to a
load cell, it converts the
force into an electrical signal.
•Load cells are also known
as "load transducers,"
because they convert a load
(force) into electrical signals.
Measurement Of Force by load cells

1. Hydraulic load cell

•Hydraulic load cells use a

conventional piston and cylinder
arrangement to convey a change in
pressure by the movement of the
piston.
•A diaphragm arrangement which
produces a change in the pressure
on a Bourdon tube connected with
the load cells.
2. Pneumatic load cell

Pneumatic load cells use air

pressure applied to one end of a
diaphragm, and it escapes through
the nozzle placed at the bottom of
the load cell, which has a pressure
gauge inside of the cell.
 3. Strain Gauge Load Cells
•A strain gauge load cell, which is a
mechanical element of which the force is being
sensed by the deformation of a (or several)
strain gauge(s) on the element.
•Strain-gage load cells convert the load
acting on them into electrical signals.
•The gauges themselves are bonded onto a
beam or structural applied.
•In most cases, four strain gages are used to
obtain maximum sensitivity and temperature
compensation.
•Two of the gauges are usually in tension, and
two in compression, and are wired with
compensation adjustments.
•
 Torque Measurements
• Most often, torque sensors are used in measuring the power of rotary machines,
hence their other name, dynamometers.

• In this, we measure dissipated energy by applying brake load to the shaft of a rotary
engine, and measuring the angular velocity and torque.

P  T   FR
where
T is torque,
F is force at displacement
R from the axis of rotation and
 is an angular velocity (radian/s)
Torque Measurements
• Torque measurement is of great importance to the engineers, users,
and manufacturers of test benches in various industries.
• It is a crucial parameter used to determine the condition and
performance of most of the mechanical measuring systems such as
pumps, rotational cutting equipment, gearbox shafts, vehicle axles,
and electric motors.
• Furthermore, measuring torque also helps in reducing downtime,
improving product quality, and maximising the energy efficiency of
the test equipment.
 Different type of dynamometer
Based on the medium which dissipates energy (heat), dynamometers are
classified as mechanical, hydraulic, electrical and transmission.
Transmission dynamometers are passive elements inserted into the system -
they do not dissipate energy.

• Transmission dynamometer

• Absorption dynamometer

• Belt dynamometer

• Gear dynamometer
 Torque Measurement by strain gauge
•A strain gauge converts torque into an electrical
signal.
•The sensor is bonded to a rotating shaft that
deforms when a torque is applied.
•Generally, four strain gauges are attached to the
rotating shaft in the form of a Wheatstone bridge
circuit.
•When torque is applied to the shaft, the shaft gets twisted to the direction of
rotation, thereby producing shear strain.
•This causes elongation in gauges 1 and 3 and compression in gauges 2 and 4.
•These changes in the strain gauges lead to an increase in the circuit resistance
due to tensile strain generated by one pair of gauges and a decrease in the circuit
resistance due to the compression strain generated by the other pair.
•This results in an unbalanced bridge, which produces an electrical output
corresponding to the applied torque.
105
 Interchangeability System
Interchangeability can be defined as it is a system of producing the mating parts. any one of the
components will be selected at random to mate with other components which will also be selected at
random.
The manufacture of interchangeable parts require precision.
Precision is the degree of accuracy to ensure the functioning of a part as intended.
 However, experience shows that it is impossible to make parts economically to the exact
dimensions.
This may be due to,
(i) inaccuracies of machines and tools,
(ii) inaccuracies in setting the work to the tool, and
(iii) error in measurement, etc.
The workman, therefore, has to be given some allowable margin so that he can produce a part, the
dimensions of which will lie between two acceptable limits, a maximum and a minimum. 106
 Important Terms used in limit system

Nominal Size :- It is the

exact theoretical size arrived
at design. No tolerances are
given.

Basic Size:- It is the size

whose limit dimensions are
specified using the upper and
lower deviations.

Actual Size:- Actual

Measure from the part.

107
 LIMIT

The two extreme permissible sizes

between which the actual size is
contained are called limits.
•The maximum size is called the
upper limit
• The minimum size is called the
lower limit.

108
 TOLERANCE

The tolerance of a size is defined as the difference between the upper and
lower limit dimensions of the part.
Tolerance= Upper Limit – Lower Limit

109
When machining we try to achieve a diameter of 50 mm, which is called
basic or nominal diameter.
The shaft shall be satisfied if the diameter lies between 50+0.06=50.06 mm
and 50-0.06 = 49.94 mm.
The dimension 50.06 mm is called the upper limit and
the dimension 49.94 is called lower limit.
Tolerance = 50.06 – 49.94 = 0.12 mm.
Note that tolerance always is a positive quantitative number.
 TYPES OF TOLERANCE
Unilateral tolerance
A unilateral tolerance exists when a target dimension is given along with a
tolerance that allows variation to occur in only one direction.

111
 TYPES OF TOLERANCE

Bilateral Tolerances
When the two limit dimension is above and below the nominal size, Then the tolerances
are said to be bilateral.

112
Unilateral Bilateral

113
SPECIFICATIONS OF TOLERANCES ?

114
 Allowance

Allowance:
•It is the difference between the basic dimensions of the mating
parts.
•Allowance may be positive or negative. Positive allowance
indicates a clearance fit, and an interference fit is indicated by a
negative allowance.
•When the shaft size is less than the hole size, then the
allowance is positive and
•When the shaft size is greater than the hole size, then the
allowance is negative
 FITS

A fit may be defined as the degree of tightness and looseness between two mating
parts
Mating Parts : These parts supposed to fit together in an assembly.

The degree of fit is important e.g. clearance, transition, and interference fit

1. A Clearance Fit : in which the shaft is always smaller than the hole
2. An Interference Fit : in which the shaft is always bigger than the hole
3. A Transition Fit : in which the shaft may be either bigger or smaller than the hole into which
it
118
 Clearance Fit

•In clearance fit, an air space or clearance exists between the shaft and hole.
•Such fits give loose joint.
•A clearance fit has positive allowance, i.e. there is minimum positive clearance between
high limit of the shaft and low limit of the hole.
•Allows rotation or sliding between the mating parts.
Types of Clearance Fit
Loose Fit
It is used between those mating parts where no precision is required. It
provides minimum allowance and is used on loose pulleys, agricultural
machineries etc.
Running Fit
For a running fit, the dimension of shaft should be smaller Types of
Clearance Fit. For a running fit, the dimension of shaft should be smaller
enough to maintain a film of oil for lubrication. It is used in bearing pair
etc.
Slide Fit or Medium Fit
It is used on those mating parts where great precision is required. It
provides medium allowance and is used in tool slides, slide valve,
automobile parts, etc.
Interference Fit

•A negative difference between diameter of the hole and the shaft is called
interference.
•In such cases, the diameter of the shaft is always larger than the hole diameter.
•It used for components where motion, power has to be transmitted.
•Interference exists between the high limit of hole and low limit of the shaft.
 Types of Interference Fit
Shrink Fit or Heavy Force Fit
It refers to maximum negative allowance. In assembly of the hole and the shaft, the
hole is expanded by heating and then rapidly cooled in its position. It is used in fitting
of rims etc.
Medium Force Fit
These fits have medium negative allowance. Considerable Types of Interference Fit
These fits have medium negative allowance. Considerable pressure is required to
assemble the hole and the shaft. It is used in car wheels, armature of dynamos etc.
Tight Fit or Force Fit
One part can be assembled into the other with a hand hammer or by light pressure. A
slight negative allowance exists between two mating parts (more than wringing fit). It
gives a semi-permanent fit and is used on a keyed pulley and shaft, rocker arm, etc.
 Transition Fit
•It may result in either clearance fit or interference fit depending on the actual
value of the individual tolerances of the mating components.
•Transition fits are a compromise between clearance and interference fits.
•They are used for applications where accurate location is important but either a
small amount of clearance or interference is permissible.
Types of Transition Fit

Push Fit or Snug Fit

It refers to zero allowance and a light pressure is required in assembling the
hole and the shaft. The moving parts show least vibration with this type of fit.
Force Fit or Shrink Fit
A force fit is used when the two mating parts are to be rigidly Types of
Transition Fit A force fit is used when the two mating parts are to be rigidly
fixed so that one cannot move without the other. It either requires high
pressure to force the shaft into the hole or the hole to be expanded by
heating. It is used in railway wheels, etc.
Wringing Fit
A slight negative allowance exists between two mating parts in wringing fit. It
requires pressure to force the shaft into the hole and gives a light assembly. It
is used in fixing keys, pins, etc.
125
FITS

126
DEVIATION :It is the algebraic difference between a
size (actual, maximum, etc.) and the corresponding
basic size.
1. Upper Deviation: It is the algebraic difference
between the maximum limit of the size and the
corresponding basic size.
2. 2. Lower Deviation: It is the algebraic difference
between the minimum limit of the size and the
corresponding basic size.
3. Fundamental Deviation : The distance from the
basic size to the closest end of the tolerance zone

127
 DEVIATION
Shafts, ei = es – IT
Holes, EI = ES – IT

ES ... hole upper deviation

EI ... hole lower deviation
es ... shaft upper deviation
ei ... shaft lower deviation
IT = Tolerance

The lower deviation of a hole is represented by a symbol EI (Ecart Inferior) and of a shaft, it
is represented by ei.
The upper deviation of a hole is represented by a symbol ES (Ecart Superior) and of a shaft, it
is represented by es.
128
Basic System

Hole Basis System :

In this system, the basic diameter of the hole is
constant while the shaft size varies according to
the type of fit.
Therefore lower deviation is zero for hole basis
system.
This system leads to greater economy of
production. This is widely used in the industry
FIG. HOLE-BASIS
because standard drills, reamers, etc are
designed to give standard hole sizes.

129
Shaft Basis System :Here the hole
size is varied to produce the
required class of fit with a basic size
shaft.
Therefore upper deviation is zero for
shaft basis system.
A series of drills and reamers is
FIG. SHAFT-BASIS
required for this system, therefore it
tends to be costly.
130
Ex. A hole and shaft have a basic size of 25 mm, and are to have a clearance fit with a maximum
clearance of 0.02 mm and a minimum clearance of 0.01 mm. The hole tolerance is to be 1.5 times
the shaft tolerance. Determine: limit for both hole and shaft (a) using a hole basis system (b)
using a shaft basis system.
Control System Concepts
Input
The stimulus or excitation applied to a control system from an
external source in order to produce the output is called input
Output
The actual response obtained from a system is called output.
System
A system is an arrangement of or a combination of different physical
components connected or related in such a manner so as to form an entire unit
to attain a certain objective.
Control
It means to regulate,
direct or command a
system so that the
desired objective is
attained
 Control system
Combining the definitions

System + Control = Control System

Control system
It is an arrangement of different physical elements connected in
such a manner so as to regulate, direct or command itself to
achieve a certain objective.
Difference between System and Control System
Difference between System and Control System
A Fan: Can't Say System
 A Fan: Can be a System
•A Fan with blades but without regulator can be a “SYSTEM”
•Because it can provide a proper output i.e. airflow
•But it cannot be a “Control System”
•Because it cannot provide desired output i.e. controlled airflow
Classification of Control System
 Open Loop Control System
Definition: “A system in which the control action is totally independent
of the output of the system is called as open loop system”
Open Loop Control System: Examples

Electric hand drier – Hot air (output)

comes out as long as you keep your
hand under the machine, irrespective
of how much your hand is dried.
Open Loop Control System: Examples

Automatic washing machine –

This machine runs according to
the pre-set time irrespective of
washing is completed or not.
Open Loop Control System: Examples

Automatic tea/coffee
Vending Machine –
These machines also function
for pre adjusted time only.
Advantages of Open Loop Control System:
 Simple in construction and design.

 Economical.

 Easy to maintain.

 Generally stable.

 Convenient to use as output is difficult to

measure.
Disadvantages of Open Loop Control System:

 They are inaccurate

 They are unreliable

 Any change in output cannot be

corrected automatically.
Closed Loop Control System
Definition: “A system in which the control action is somehow dependent on
the output is called as closed loop system”
Automatic Electric Iron
Automatic Electric Iron- Heating elements are
controlled by output temperature of the iron.
Advantages of Closed Loop Control System

 Closed loop control systems are more accurate even in the presence of non-

linearity.

 Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due to presence of feedback

signal.

 Bandwidth range is large.

 Facilitates automation.

 The sensitivity of system may be made small to make system more stable.

 This system is less affected by noise.

Disadvantages of Closed Loop Control System
 They are costlier.

 They are complicated to design.

 Required more maintenance.

 Feedback leads to oscillatory response.

 Overall gain is reduced due to presence of feedback.

 Stability is the major problem and more care is needed to design a stable closed

loop system.
Difference Between OLCS & CLCS
Difference Between OLCS & CLCS
Basic Elements of Generalized Process Control

In the process control, four basic elements are

normally involved:
1. Process
2. Measurement
3. Evaluation (with a controller)
4. Control element
Fig. shows the block diagram of generalized
process control and the function of each block
are given as follows:
 Process
The term Process as used in relation to process control refers
to the methods of converting raw materials into the end
product(s).
The raw materials which either pass through or remain in a
liquid, gaseous, or slurry (a mix of solids and liquids) state
during the process, are transferred, measured, mixed, heated
or cooled, filtered, stored, or handled in some other way to
produce the end product.
Many dynamic variables may be involved in a process, and it
may be desirable to control all these variables at the same time.
There are single-variable processes, in which only one
variable is to be controlled.
.
Measurement
•To perform control, it is necessary to measure the
process parameter, so that we can have information on
the variable itself.
•In general, a measurement refers to the transduction of
the variable into some corresponding analog of the
variable, such as a pneumatic pressure, an electrical
voltage, or current.
•A transducer is a device that performs the initial
measurement and energy conversion of a dynamic
variable into analogous electrical or pneumatic
information.
•Further transformation or signal conditioning may be
required to complete the measurement function.
•The result of the measurement is a transformation of the
dynamic variable into some proportional information in a
useful form required by the other elements in the
process-control loop
Evaluation
•The next step in the process-control sequence is to examine the
measurement and determine what action, if any, should be taken.
•The evaluation may be performed by an operator, or by electronic/pneumatic
signal processing, or by a computer.
•A controller is a device that receives data from a measurement instrument,
compares that data to a programmed set-point, and, if necessary, signals a
control element to take corrective action.
•The controller requires an input of both a measured representation of the
dynamic variable and a representation of the desired value of the variable,
expressed in the same terms as the measured value.
•The desired value of the dynamic variable is referred to as the set point.
•Thus, the evaluation consists of a comparison of the controlled variable
measurement and the set point and a determination of action required to
bring the controlled variable to the set point value.
 Control element
•The correcting or final control element is the part of the control system that acts to

physically change the manipulated variable.

•This element accepts an input from the controller, which is then transformed into some

proportional operation performed on the process.

•In any process control loop, final control elements are typically used to correct a variable

that is out of set-point.