Scientific and Industrial instrument

EEE 315

Chapter 1-3 (A. K. Sawhney)

 Course Material

 A Course in Electrical and Electronic Measurements and Instrumentation

---by A. K. Sawhney

 Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques

---by Albert D. Helfrick
William D. Cooper

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 Measurement

 Measurement: It is a process of converting physical parameters in

meaningful numerical numbers.

Example : Your friend is suffering from fever. Now you ask “How is your
fever?” He replies “Very high”. This does not involve any measurement. But if
he replies “My temperature is 102 0F” then it is a meaningful number and it
gives more clear idea of his fever.

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 Instrument

Instrument: A device for determining the value or magnitude

of a quantity or variable.

Example: A thermometer is required to measure the temperature

of a human body.

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 Measurement
 Types of Measurement Methods:
(i) Direct method of measurement:
In this method the unknown quantity is directly compared with a standard. It
involves, no mathematical calculations to arrive at the results.
For example, measurement of length by a graduated scale. The method is not
very accurate because it depends on human insensitiveness in making
judgement.

(ii) Indirect method of measurement:

In this method several parameters (to which the quantity to be measured is
linked with) are measured directly and then the value is determined by
mathematical relationship.
For example, measurement of density by measuring mass and geometrical
dimensions.

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 Measurement
 Types of Measurement Methods:
(i) Direct method of measurement:
In this method the unknown quantity is directly compared with a standard. It
involves, no mathematical calculations to arrive at the results.
For example, measurement of length by a graduated scale. A human being can
make direct length comparisons with a preciseness of about 0.25 mm. The
method is not very accurate because it depends on human insensitiveness in
making judgement.

(ii) Indirect method of measurement:

In this method several parameters (to which the quantity to be measured is
linked with) are measured directly and then the value is determined by
mathematical relationship.
For example, measurement of density by measuring mass and geometrical
dimensions.
In Engineering applications Measurement systems are used which6
required need of indirect methods for measurement purpose.
Classification of instruments

According to history of
development of instruments

(i)Mechanical Instruments

(ii)Electrical Instruments

(iii) Electronic Instruments

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Classification of instruments

According to methods

(i)Absolute Instruments

(ii)Secondary Instruments

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Absolute Instruments

 These instruments give the magnitude of the

quantity under measurements in terms of
physical constants of the instrument
 There is no necessity of calibrating or
comparing with other instruments
Examples: Tangent Galvanometer and
Rayleigh’s current balance
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Absolute Instruments

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Secondary Instruments
 These instruments are so constructed that the
quantity being measured can only be
measured by observing the output indicated
by the instrument
 These instruments are calibrated by
comparison with an absolute instrument or
any other secondary instrument which has
already been calibrated against an absolute
instrument
 Examples: A voltmeter, a glass thermometer
and a pressure gauge
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Why we use Secondary Instruments
 Working with absolute instruments for
routine work is time consuming. Therefore,
secondary instruments are most commonly
used.
 Absolute instruments are seldom used
except in standard institutions and
laboratories while secondary instruments
find usage almost in every sphere of
measurement.

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 Measurement

 Relation between Measurement and Control:

Comparator
Reference Feedforward Output
Error Actuator
+_ elements Plant
(amplifier)

Desired
output Measuring
Instruments
or
Transducer

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 Calibration

 Calibration:
Calibration is a comparison between a known measurement (the standard)
and the measurement using your instrument.

In other words, calibration is a process of adjusting the output or indication

on a measurement instrument to agree with value of the applied standard,
within a specified accuracy.

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Characteristics of instruments

 Static characteristics: The static characteristics are defined for

the instruments which measure the quantities which do not vary
with time.

The various static characteristics are accuracy, precision, resolution,

error, sensitivity, threshold, reproducibility, zero drift, stability and
linearity

 Dynamic characteristics: Dynamic characteristics on the other

hand, shows the relationship between the system input and output
when the measured quantity is varying rapidly.

Some of the dynamic characteristics of instruments are Dynamic

Error, Response Speed, Fidelity, Lag, Retardation Lag, and Time
Delay Lag 15
 Accuracy

Accuracy: How much the instrument reading is close to the

actual quantity.

Example: Suppose you want to find the weight of a pumpkin

purchased from market. The shopkeeper takes the weight by
his “Daripalla” to be 1kg and 100 g. But if you take the
weight with a balance in your Laboratory, you may find it to
be 1.1053 kg, which is more closer to the actual quantity.

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 Accuracy depends on inherent limitations of
instrument and shortcomings in measurement
process.

Unit of accuracy:
1. Percentage of true value (% of T.V.)
= (Measured value – True value) *100
True value
2. Percentage of Full Scale Deflection (% of
fsd) = (Measured value – True value) *100
Maximum Scale value
 Precision

Precision: Precision is a measure of the consistency or

repeatability of measurements i.e. successive readings do not
differ. It is the consistency of the instrument output for a given
value of input.

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Accuracy vs Precision

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Precision is often confused with accuracy. High
precision does not imply anything about measurement
accuracy.
Accuracy Precision

• Accuracy represents degree

• Precision represents degree of
of correctness of the repeatability of several
measured value w.r.t. true independent measurements of
value. desired input at the same
reference conditions
• Accuracy of instrument • Precision of instruments
depends on systematic depends on factors that cause
errors. random or accidental errors.
 Sensitivity
Sensitivity: The ratio of the output 150
100 200
signal or response of the instrument to a
change of the input signal.
V
Example: Suppose two voltmeters are
used to measure the voltage of the same
circuit. Now the circuit is slightly
changed so that the voltage is also
changed by a small quantity. The pointer 200
of one meter moves by small distance, 100 400
whereas the pointer of the other meter
moves by a larger distance. Therefore the
second meter is more sensitive.
V

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 Resolution

 Resolution: It is the minimum change or smallest increment in the

measured value that can be detected with certainty by the
instrument

Example: Suppose you purchase a fish. The fisherman has a “Daripalla” and
“Butkhara”, the minimum size of the “Butkhara” which he has is 100 g. So
the weight of your fish will be either 800 g or 900 g or 1000 g etc.

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Repeatability
• Repeatability is defined as ability of instrument to
reproduce a group of measurements of same
measured quantity, made by same observer, using
same instrument, under same conditions.
Dead Space : Threshold
Dead space/ Threshold
is defined as the range
of different input values
over which there is no
change in output value.
 Tolerance
- Tolerance is a term that is closely related to
accuracy and defines the maximum error that
is to be expected in some value.
- Tolerance describes the maximum deviation of
a manufactured component from some
specified value
Range or span
- The range or span of an instrument defines the
minimum and maximum values of a quantity
that the instrument is designed to measure.
Linearity

Input output relationship of a

device must be linear.
But practical systems shows
small deviations from the
linear shape ( allowed within
the specified limits)
Reliability

Reliability is the probability that a device will adequately

perform (as specified) for a period of time under specified
operating conditions. Some sensors are required for safety or
product quality, and therefore, they should be very reliable.
 Instrument Drift

• It is defined as the variation of output for a given input

caused due to change in sensitivity of the instrument due to
certain interfering inputs like temperature changes,
component instabilities, etc.
Static error and its
related math from book
Example 2.1-2.3
 Dynamic Characteristics of an Instrument
Some of the dynamic characteristics of instruments are Dynamic Error, Response Speed,
Fidelity, Lag, Retardation Lag, and Time Delay Lag.

Dynamic Error
Dynamic Error is the variation between the true values of a measurable quantity to the
values indicated by the measuring instrument which are affected by operating conditions.

Response Speed
 Response Speed is defined as the rapidity of the instrument to responds to the changes
in the measuring variable.
 It indicates how active and fast the system is.
Fidelity
Fidelity is defined as the degree to which a measuring instrument reproduces change in
input faithfully without any dynamic error
Lag
The lag time is taken by the system to respond, since every instrument takes at least some time
to respond, whatever time it may be to the changes in the measured variable.
 Error

 Error: Deviation from the true value of the measured

variable.

Error = Measured value - True value

All errors may be classified into three different types.
 Gross Error

Systematic Error

Random Error

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 Error

 Gross Error:
 Human error

 Misreading of instrument

 Incorrect adjustment

 Improper application

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Gross Error

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 Error

 Systematic Error: two types

Instrumental Error Environmental Error

 Frictional loss  Dusty environment
 Irregular spring tension  Temperature change
 Overloading  Humidity
 Permanent Stress  Electromagnetic field

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 Error
Random Error: These errors are of variable magnitude and
sign and do not maintain any known law. These errors cannot be
determined in the ordinary process of taking the measurements.

Example: Suppose a voltmeter is used to monitor the voltage of

a circuit at an interval of 1/2 hour. Sometimes it is observed that
the meter reading includes small amount of deviations in each
reading, even if all cautions are taken.

Solution: The only way to offset these errors is by increasing the

number of readings and using statistical means to obtain the best
approximation of the true value of the quantity under
measurement.

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 Measurement

 Limiting Errors (Guarantee Error):

In most instruments the accuracy is guaranteed to be within a certain
percentage of the rated value. Thus the manufacturer has to specify the
deviations from the nominal value of a particular quantity. The limits of
these deviations from the specified value are defined as Limiting Error or
Guarantee Error.

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 Measurement

 Relative Limiting Errors :

Relative Limiting Errors defined as the ratio of the Error to the specified
nominal magnitude of a quantity.

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Limiting Error related
math from book
Example 3.1-3.3
 The incapability of the system to faithfully measure the input signal in
undistorted form is called loading effect. This results in loading error
The loading effects, in a measurement system, not only occur in the detector–
transducer stage but also occur in signal conditioning and signal presentation
stages as well

Sometimes loading effect occurs due to the connection of measuring

instruments in an improper way. Suppose a voltmeter is connected with
parallel of a very high resistance. Due to the high resistance of the voltmeter
itself, the circuit current changes. This is the loading effect of a voltmeter
when they are connected in parallel with a very high resistance. Similarly, an
ammeter has a very low resistance. So if an ammeter is connected in series
with a very low resistance, the total resistance of the circuit changes, and in
succession, the circuit current also changes. This is the loading effect of
ammeters when they are connected in series with very low resistance.