CPE 198

Methods of
Research
Prof. Almera Mode-Sales, MST
Course Instructor
Research: An Introduction
Research is an intellectual activity. It is responsible for
bringing to light new knowledge. It is also responsible
for correcting the present mistakes, removing existing
misconceptions and adding new learning to the existing
fund of knowledge.

Research is also considered as the application of

scientific method in solving the problems. It is a
systematic, formal and intensive process of carrying on
the scientific method of analysis.
Definitions of Research
“Research is an endeavor / attempt to discover, develop
and verify knowledge. It is an intellectual process that
has developed over hundreds of years ever changing in
purpose and form and always researching to truth.”
J. Francis Rummel

“Research may be defined as a method of studying

problems whose solutions are to be derived partly or
wholly from facts.”
W.S. Monroes
“Research is an honest, exhaustive, intelligent
searching for facts and their meanings or implications
with reference to a given problem. The product or
findings of a given piece of research should be an
authentic, verifiable contribution to knowledge in the
field studied.”
P.M. Cook

“Research is a systematic effort to gain new

knowledge.”
Redman & Mori
“Research is considered to be the more formal, systematic
intensive process of carrying on the scientific method of
analysis. It involves a more systematic structure of
investigation, usually resulting in some sort of formal record
of procedures and a report of results or conclusion.”
John W. Best
“Research comprises defining and redefining problems
,formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions, collecting
,organizing and evaluating data, making deductions and
reaching conclusions and at last careful testing the conclusions
to determine whether they fit the formulated hypothesis.”
Clifford Woody
“Social research may be defined as a scientific
undertaking which by means of logical and systematized
techniques aims to discover new facts or verify and test
old facts , analyse their sequences , interrelationships
and casual explanation which were derived within an
appropriate theoretical frame of reference , develop
new scientific tools , concepts and theories which would
facilitate reliable and valid study of human behavior.”
P.V. Younge
Purpose of Research
The purpose of research is to discover
answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedure.
The main aim of research is to find out
the truth which is hidden and which has
not been discovered as yet.
Though each research study has its own specific
purpose, some general objectives of research are
stated below:

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or

to achieve new insights into it. (Studies with
this object in view are termed as exploratory
or formative research studies).
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group.
(Studies with this object in view are known as
descriptive research studies).
3. To determine the frequency with which
something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else. (Studies with this object in
view are known as diagnostic research studies).
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal
relationship between variables. (Such
studies are known as hypothesis-testing
research studies).
Characteristics of Research
1. Research is directed toward the solution of a
problem.
2. Research requires expertise.
3.Research emphasizes the development of
generalizations, principles, or theories that will be
helpful in predicting future occurrences.
4. Research is based upon observable experience or
empirical evidences.
5. Research demands accurate observation and
description.
6. Research involves gathering new data from
primary or first-hand sources or using existing data
for a new purpose.
7. Research is characterized by carefully designed
procedures that apply rigorous analysis.
8. Research involves the quest for answers to un-
solved problems.
9. Research strives to be objective and logical,
applying every possible test to validate the
procedures employed the data collected and the
conclusions reached.
10. Research is characterized by patient and
unhurried activity.
11. Research is carefully recorded and collected.
12. Research sometimes requires courage.
 Types of Research
(A) On the basis of nature of information:
On the basis of nature of information we can classify the research
into two types;

(i) Qualitative Research: When information is in the

form of qualitative data.
(ii) Quantitative Research: When information is in the
form of quantitative data.
 Types of Research
(B) On the basis of utility of content or nature of
subject matter of research:
On the basis of these criteria we can categorize the research into
two categories.

(i) Basic/ Fundamental /pure or Theoretical

Research: Its utility is universal.
(ii) Experimental or Applied Research: Its utility is limited.
Types of Research
(D) On the basis of method of research :
On the basis of research method we may classify a research into five
different categories.

(i) Philosophical Research: It is purely qualitative in

nature and we are focusing on the vision of others on
the content of research.
(ii) Historical Research: It is both qualitative as well as
quantitative in nature and deals with past events.
(iii) Survey Research: It deals with present events and is
quantitative in nature. It may further be sub-divided
into; discretional, correlational and exploratory type of
research.
(iv) Experimental Research: This is purely quantitative in
nature and deals with future events.
(v) Case-Study Research: It deals with unusual events.
It may be qualitative as well as quantitative in nature
depending upon the content.
Research Process
Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively
carry out research. These actions or steps are;
1. Formulating the Research Problem
2. Extensive Literature Survey
3. Developing the Research Hypothesis
4. Preparing the Research Design
5. Determining the Research Design
6. Collecting the Research Data
7. Execution of the Project
8. Analysis of Data
9. Hypothesis Testing
10. Generalization and Interpretation
11. Preparing of the Report or Presentation of the Result
Formulation of Research Problem
At the very outset, the researcher must
decide the general area of interest or
aspect of a subject matter that he would
like to inquire into and then research
problem should be formulated.
Extensive Literature Survey
Once the problem is formulated the researcher
should undertake extensive literature survey
connected with the problem. For this purpose, the
abstracting and indexing journals and published or
unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to
academic journals, conference proceedings,
government reports, books etc. must be tapped
depending on the nature of the problem.
Development of Working Hypothesis
After extensive literature survey, researcher
should state in clear terms the working hypothesis
or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative
assumption made in order to draw out and test its
logical or empirical consequences. It’s very
important or it provides the focal point for
research.
Preparing the Research Design
After framing hypothesis we have to prepare a research
design i.e. we have to state the conceptual structure
within which research would be conducted. The
preparation of such a design facilitates research to be as
efficient as possible yielding maximal information.
In other words, the function of research design is to
provide for the collection of relevant evidence with
optimum effort, time and expenditure. But how all these
can be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose.
Determining Sample Design
A sample design is a definite plan determined before any
data is actually collected for obtaining a sample from a
given population.in census inquiry we involve a great deal of
time, money and energy so it it not possible in practice
under many circumstances.
Sample designs can be either probability or non-probability.
With probability samples each element has a known
probability of being included in the sample but the non-
probability samples do not allow the researchers to
determine this probability.
Collecting the Data
There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which
differ considerably in context of cost, time and other resources at
the disposal of the researcher. Primary data can be collected
either through experiment or through survey. In case of survey,
data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways;
By observation,
 Through personal interview,
 Through telephonic interviews,
 By mailing of questionnaires or
 Through schedules.
Execution of the Project
Execution of project is a very important step in the
research process. If the execution of the project
proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected
would be adequate and dependable .A careful
watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in
order to keep the survey realistic as much as
possible.
Hypothesis Testing
After analyzing the data, the researcher is in a position to
test the hypothesis, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the
facts support the hypothesis or they happen to be contrary?
This is the usual question which is to be answered by
applying various tests like ‘t’ test, ’F’ test etc. F test have
been developed by statisticians for the purpose .
Hypothesis testing will result in either accepting the
hypothesis or in rejecting it. If the researcher had no
hypothesis to start with, generalizations established on the
basis of data may be stated.
Generalizations and Interpretation
If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it
may be possible for the researcher to arrive at
generalization i.e. to build a theory. As a matter of
fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to
arrive at certain generalizations. If the researcher had
no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his
findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as
interpretation.
Preparation of the Report or the Thesis
Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of
what has been done by him. The layout of the report
should be as follows; the preliminary pages, the main
text and end matter. The preliminary pages carry title,
acknowledgements and forward and then index. The
main text of the report should have introduction,
review of literature and methodology.
 Criteria of Good Research
One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:

(a) The purpose of the research should be clearly

defined and common concepts be used.
(b) The research procedure used should be described in
sufficient detail
to permit another researcher to repeat the researcher
for further advancement, keeping the continuity of what
has already been attained.
 Criteria of Good Research
(c) The procedural design of the research should be carefully
planned to yield results that are as objective as possible.
(d) The researcher should report with complete frankness,
flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects upon
the findings.
(e) The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to
reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used
should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data
should be checked carefully.
 Criteria of Good Research
(f) Conclusions should be confined to those
justified by the data of the research and limited
to those for which the data provide an adequate
basis.
(g) Greater confidence in research is warranted if
the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
THANK YOU