By Zoffoli and Galli CORAL REEFS: 04/04/22

INTROUDUCTION:

The coral reef is a typical formation of tropical seas and oceans, composed of
underwater rock formations and from coral skeletons from mostly intact coral colonies.
As other chemical elements in corals are incorporated into calcium carbonate deposits,
aragonite (a mineral) is formed. However, fragments of shells and remnants of coral
algae can increase the ability of the reef to withstand storm damage and other threats.
Such mixtures are visible in structures such as Eniwetok Atoll. Coral reefs are formed by
Polypis
the slow sedimentation of the limestone skeletons of corals, polypoid animals that are
part of the anthoze class, As the polyps live, they reproduce and die, leaving behind
their skeletons. A coral reef, therefore, consists of layers and layers of these skeletons, which are
then colonized by living polyps. The polyps reproduce through fragmentation, that is, the moment
when a piece detaches from their body and forms new polyps, or through sexual reproduction
culminating with the spawning by the female.. These barriers have created real environments
with a very complex ecosystem in fact contain thousands of species of fish, crustaceans, mollusks
and echinoderms that shelter and live inside them. So they are very important for their
biodiversity. Light is the "fuel" of the barrier, as it is captured by
Deep water coral reef
photosynthetic pigments (also contained in chloroplasts, they
capture the energy of visible light, and use it to synthesize
carbohydrates) of some particular algae that live in close symbiosis (coexistence, association)
with the corals, called for this zooxanthellate. Being light their "fuel" the coral reefs need the sun
to live and if they rise too slowly, they could drown for the lack of light needed. This is only for
low-water coral reefs, also called mesophotic, because of their dependence on light. Instead, a
deep-water coral reef, also known as cold water coral reef, is a coral reef that develops in the
deepest parts of the oceans, in habitats characterized by the absence of light. Most coral reefs Low-water coral reef
were formed after the last glacial period, when ice melting caused sea levels to rise and
continental shelves to flood. Subsequently, coral reefs grew upwards, stimulating rising sea levels.

REPRODUCTION:

Corals reproduce both sexually and asexually. A single

polyp uses both reproductive modes during its lifetime.
Corals reproduce sexually by internal or external
fertilization. Reproductive cells are located on the
mesenteres, membranes that radiate inwards from the
layer of tissue lining the stomach cavity. Some mature
adult corals are hermaphroditic; others are exclusively
male or female. Some species change sex as they grow.
Internally fertilized
eggs develop in
the polyp for a
period ranging
from days to
weeks. The subsequent development produces a tiny larva, known as a planula. Externally
fertilized eggs develop during synchronized spawning. Polyps across a coral reef
simultaneously release eggs and sperm into the water in bulk. Eggs disperse over a large
area. The timing of spawning depends on the time of year, water temperature, and tidal and moon cycles.

BIODIVERSITY:

CORAL ALGAE: Coral algae contribute significantly to the structure of the coral reef.
Although their mineral deposition rates are much slower than corals, they are more
tolerant of the action of rough waves, and therefore help to create a protective
crust on those parts of the reef subject to the greatest forces from the waves, like
the front of the reef facing the open ocean. They also strengthen the structure of
the coral reef by depositing limestone in sheets on the
surface of the coral reef.
SCLEROSPONGIAE AND SPONGIAE: The sclerosponges still help corals build modern coral reefs, but like coral algae they have much
slower growth than corals and their contribution is (usually) less.

FISHES: there are more than 4000 varieties of fish in the

coral reefs. The most common ones are: The clown
fish that is a territorial fish that moves in
small groups where the dominant head is female, the
moray eel is a fish that lives on the seabed, and is very
common not only in the Barrier Reefbut also in the
Mediterranean
Clown fish Sea. The moray in fact, is a predatory fish
that nourishes of small fishes and molluscs, the Moray eel criptobentonici
seahorse that is very special type of fish. The particular
structure of the seahorse makes it an unattractive prey, the lionfish that is a dangerous fish infact it has
venomous spines along the dorsal and anal fin, the giant mantra that is a very dangerous fish and is one of the
largest and heaviest fish in the world and the criptobentonici, which is one of the main nutrients of
mantra fish of coral reefs. In the coral reefs are also present molluscs, crustaceans and invertebrate organisms.

INVERTEBRATES: In this category we have sea urchins and sea snails that
generally feed on algae. Then we also have the "criptofauna" that inhabit
the skeleton substrate of the coral itself, piercing the skeletons (through
the process of bioerosion) or living in pre-existing voids and fissures.
Rock-digging animals include sponges, bivalve molluscs and sipunculans.
Those that settle on the reef include many other species, especially
crustaceans and polychaetes worms.

SEABIRDS: Coral reef systems provide important habitats for species of seabirds, some of them
endangered. Each species of seabirds has specific sites on the atoll where they nest. And that’s why
coral reefs are so important.

OTHERS: Sea snakes that feed exclusively on fish and their eggs are also
part of the coral reefs. Herons, pelicans
that feed on reef fish. Some terrestrial
reptiles such as the monitor lizards, the sea crocodile and the semi-
aquatic snakes, such as Laticauda colubrina and the sea turtles ( in
particular the hawksbill sea turtles) that feed on sponges.

DARWIN AND HIS THEORY: "On the structure and distribution of coral
banks and madrepore islands" is a work written by Darwin in 1842 and relived in 1874. In the work is
written that during a stay in Tahiti, Polynesia, Darwin went to the top of the highest peak of the
island. in that place observed that Moorea is surrounded by a coral reef and in his work he described the
regularity with which it followed perfectly the coasts of the island. Darwin was one of the first to
describe what, according to him, were the causes that had caused their appearance. The coral polyps
had exploited the shallow areas around the island, where there were optimal lighting and temperature
conditions for the formation of corals; in this way the ring of corals had formed. In his journey, he also
came across the coral reefs of the Cocos Islands (Keeling), in the south part of Indonesia, and
he observed these structures that over thousands of years often assumed ring shapes which were
similar to those seen in Moorea but without the island in the center. Today we talk about "Darwin point"
to indicate places where water temperatures are enought hot to permit to the reef to grow upwards.
 POLLUTION: The rising of the atmospheric temperature means that the sea
absorbs more carbon dioxide andthe acid-prone pH damages the ability of the
synthesis corals of calcium
carbonate and the increase of
the water temperatures is a source of
stress for the coral reefs, this
phenomenon is called "coral
whitening". By the year two thousand
hundred, the climate change could have a very negative impact on coral
reefs especially those of the ocean. This problem has eliminated half of Australia’s
Great Barrier Reef. About 70-90% of all coral reefs could disappear in the next twenty
years due to the warming of the oceans, acid water and the environmental pollution. Also the ocean heat waves of 2016 and 2017
have eliminated about a third of the corals of many coral reefs. The problem of coral reefs affects the organisms of which it is
composed but also all those species that live in those. Coral reefs in addition to global warming have to face also with
the pollution, with the massive presence of gases and hydrocarbons, with the pollution caused by agricultural land, with overfishing
and with storms that break entire pieces of corals. Coral reefs usually are able to heal from the damage caused by these
problems in 10 years but cyclones and storms are becoming more frequent and global warming slows growth. According to
researchers Katie Cramer and Jeremy Jackson the main reason of the progressive disappearance of coral reefs aren’t the pollution
or the storms but the deforestation and the intensive fishing. Intensive fishing has halved the number of fish that feed on
weeds so coral reefs must also fight with other living organisms to survive. there are some ideas to try to slow this dangerous
process of destruction of the oceanic coral reefs. Some entrepreneurs, infact, are opening coral farms, a coral farm is a very
important ideato save the coral reefs. The purpose of the so-called "Coral farms" is to take pieces of small corals from the oceans
let them grow until the coral itself is ready to be reinserted into its natural habitat. Another idea to help the ocean coral reefs, is to
use underwater speakers and reproduce the sounds of healthy coral reefs. By doing this, it is supposed to attract fish to the reefs
and support the ocean reefs back to life.

IN THE WORLD:

The Great Barrier Reef covers two thirds of the northeastern coast of Australia and can
be considered Australia’s most famous natural
heritage. Is composed by over 2 900 single coral
reefs and 900 islands. With its 2,300 km, it is the
largest coral system in the world. It is home to over
1,600 species of fish, 411 species of hard corals and
150 species of corals and more than 30 species of
whales and dolphins and six of the seven species of
living sea turtles in the world. The grat barrier coral reef was included as a World
Heritage Site in 1981 and the CNN included it in its seven wonders of the world. Continuing westward in April 1770 he landed at
Botany Bay, heading north. Cook kept close to the coast but the ship soon ran aground the coral reefs. In the two months it took to
repair it, Cook had the time to study the wonder of the barrier.

The Red Sea reef is located off the coast of Egypt, Israel and Saudi Arabia. The ten percent of the 1,200 species found in this reef are
unique to this area. This place includes the Blue Hole of Dahab, one of the most popular but dangerous
dive sites in the world.

New Caledonia Barrier Reef, in the South

Pacific, is the third longest reef in the
world. There are more than 1,000
different species present within this
coral reef. This coral reef encloses a
circular lagoon of 1,500 Km and
reaches an average depth of 25
meters. In 2008, UNESCO listed it as a
World Heritage Site.

Apo Reef is a coral reef system in the Philippines and is situated in the western waters of Occidental
Mindoro province in the Mindoro Strait. It is considered the world's second-largest contiguous coral reef
system, and is the largest in the country. It is one of the best known and most popular diving regions in the country, and is in the
tentative list for UNESCO World Heritage Sites.

The Coral Triangle is a triangular area in the tropical waters around

Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New
Guinea, the Philippines, the Solomon
Islands and Timor-Leste and is located
between the Pacific and Indian
oceans. This area contains at least 500
species of reef-building corals. The
coral triangle is considered the
global center of marine
biodiversity and is a global
priority in conservation.

Belize barrier reef is the largest coral reef in the

northern hemisphere and is second
only to the Australian Great Barrier
Reef. Atolls, beaches, lagoons and
mangrove forests are also part of
Belize’s natural reef system. In 1996,
the Belize Barrier Reef was listed as
a UNESCO World Heritage Site

TIPOLOGY: There are three types of coral reefs: those so-called coastlines that
extend almost directly from the coast, the real barrier that extends parallel to the
coast, and atolls that are ring-shaped reefs developed in the open sea around the
summit of ancient submerged volcanoes. Inside the atoll there is always a lagoon.
The distribution of flora and fauna in this inner part of the atoll is quite different
from that of the outer part, mainly because it is not exposed to the strong action of
the waves. On the lagoon slope of the atoll the coral formations become abundant,
often assuming larger and more elaborate forms than elsewhere thanks to the
absence of a strong wave action.

CURIOSITY: In the coral reefs

there can be particular
species, this in particular is
the greatest mollusc of the
earth, it can weigh more than
200 kg and reach the four
meters of length. It’s called
the giant tridach. Napoleon
fish is a characteristic animal
out of the ordinary, in size and
personality. Their curious
tridach
nature resembles the
behavior of a puppy, often
begins to play and follow those who dive.

Napoleon fish

SITOGRAPHY: