Corals & Coral Reefs

Revision Notes
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IAS ZoologyOption Syllabus :

CORAL REEFS. THEIR TYPES & THEIR FORMATION

IAS Previous Years’ Questions on COELENTERATA >>

2015 : 2(b) What are Corals & Coral Reefs. Describe different types of
Coral Reefs and their formation indicating various theories : 15/50 marks

2014 : 1(b) Give an account of the structure of the cnidoblast and various
types of nematocysts of Hydta : 10/50 marks ... 150 words

2013 : 4(a) Give an account of coral reefs, their constituent compartments

and significance : 25/50 marks

2010 : 1(a) What are coral reefs ? Enlist their geographical districution,types
and threats being faced by them : 20/60 marks ... 200 words

RESOURCE NOTE UPDATE VERSION : REEFS_001_08082017

CORALS & CORAL REEFS

Strictly as per the IAS Zoology Option SYLLABUS, the emphasis has to
be on CORAL REEFS than on CORALS as such.

1. Corals are anthozoan coelenterates in which the animal resides within a

soft (alcyonarians), horny (gorgonaceans) or stony (madreporarians)
exoskeleton covering. Examples : Soft corals or alcyonarians - Dead
man’s finger or Alcyonium, Horny corals or gorgonaceans – Sea fan or
Gorgonia, Stony corals or madreporarians – Madrepora. Generally,
corals are also classified on the basis of their branching or general
structural patterns and/or colors of the polyps/stony mass. For example,
Brain coral is a common name given to corals in the family Mussidae,
 so called due to their generally spheroid shape and grooved surface
which resembles a brain (cerebellum). Color-wise, coral have been
named as red, blue or black corals etc.

2. Coral reefs are massive mounds of lime formed by asexually

multiplying corals (hermatypic) in such oceanic regions as provide
favourable conditions for the purpose. Some corals do not participate in
reef formation (ahermatypic), though corals are not by any means the
the only animals inhabiting or constituting these reefs (read associated
fauna of coral reefs later). Example : Great Barrier Reef in the north-
east of Australia.

3. Process of coral exoskeleton formation (underlying chemistry) : the

epidermis of all coral polyps contains special secreting-cells called
CALICOBLAST CELLS. These cells harbor a special algae variety
within themselves, called Zooxanthellae. While undertaking its routine
photosynthetic activity, the algae picks up Ca(HCO3)2 from sea water
and (reversibly) converts it to CaCO3 + H2O + C02. Though this is
indeed a reversible equation, its keeps proceeding excessively to the
RIGHT, as one of the products [CO2] is constantly removed for
utilization in photosynthesis. Thus, over a period of time, huge mounds
of lime [CaCO3] are deposited and mesh with other organic matter from
the sea water to form giant coral reefs – with all their inherent associated
fauna. THIS MUCH OF THEORY IS FAIRLY IMPORTANT &
PERTIMENT and MUST BE INSERTED WHENEVER THERE IS
AN OPPORTUNITY.

4. Types and variety of coral reefs

5. Conditions required for asexual multiplication & reef formation
6. Economic Importance of Coral Reefs
7. Threats to Coral Reefs

FORMATION OF CORAL REEFS & THEIR TYPES

Coral reefs are built from a unique type of coral called a hermatypic coral
and can only exist in warm ocean water. As mentioned above, hermatypic
corals are if fact a symbiotic combination of a coral animal and an algal
organism called a zooxanthellae. It is the unique relationship between these
two species that allows coral reefs to exist grow and grow massively year
after year, providing a place for many other species and the rich habitat of
the coral reef.

Classic coral reef formations undergo change with the passage of time.
They begin with a brand new tropical island (produced by an oceanic hot
spot or at a plate boundary) and gradually change through thousands of years
from a fringing reef, to a barrier reef, to an atoll, and finally to an extinct
reef as a seamount or guyot. A new oceanic island in the tropics has no
terrestrial or marine life when it is first formed. This new island is made
entirely of crustal material (rock) with little or no evidence of life forms. If
there is no more volcanic activity and the island cools there will be a
succession of life forms that may arrive by flying, floating or swimming.
These forms may stay and establish themselves if conditions there are. good
for them. Over time a thriving community will be found on land as well as in
the ocean.
 Aerial view of the stages of coral reefs (fringing, barrier, atoll)

A fringing reef forms along the shoreline of most new tropical islands. This is because the
reef building coral animal is one of the few marine organisms that can survive in the warm,
nutrient-poor surface tropical waters. In fact, the reef building coral (hermatypic) can only
survive in warm, clear ocean waters (such as would be common around a new oceanic
island). The coral animal reproduces sexually with a microscopic planktonic larval form that
is abundant in tropical waters during coral reproduction. Most of these larvae never grow to
adults because there is no place for them to exist in the warm surface ocean waters on a solid
surface. They need to attach to a solid surface that will stay in the warm, sunlit, clear tropical
water and most places are already taken … but not on a new island. So a coral reef forms
along the edge of this new island, right next to the island and is called a fringing reef - the
first step in 'classical' coral reef formation.

A barrier reef forms as the oceanic island begins to sink into Earth's crust due to the absence
of volcanic island building forces, the added weight of the coral reef, and erosion at the
surface of the island. As the island sinks, the coral reef continues to grow upward. The coral
animals lay down tremendous amounts of calcium carbonate (in part due to their symbiotic
zooxanthellae) in the form of their skeletons (called corallites). If conditions are good they
can usually keep pace with the sinking island. Their living tissue remains in the upper part of
the reef in the warm, clear, tropical water. The lower part of the reef is composed of the
calcium carbonate skeletons left by the reef building coral. This upward growth creates a
lagoon of water between the top of the reef (that started as a fringing reef) and the sinking
crustal island. The lagoon fills in with eroded material from both the reef and the island and
is a haven for marine forms that require protection from waves and storms. This barrier reef
is generally not a complete circle as it may be broken, here and there, by storms.

An atoll forms when the oceanic island sinks below the surface of the ocean but the coral
reef continues to grow upward. The atoll is usually circular in shape but a broken circle (due
to the history of storms). Eroded reef material may pile up on parts of the reef, creating an
area above sea level, an island called a 'cay.'

WORLDWIDE DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL REEFS :

Coral reefs are estimated to cover 284,300 square kms, with the Indo-Pacific region
(including the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia and the Pacific) accounting for 91.9
percent of the total. Southeast Asia accounts for 32.3 percent of that figure, while the Pacific
including Australia accounts for 40.8 percent. Atlantic and Caribbean coral reefs only
account for 7.6 percent of the world total.

Coral reefs are either restricted or absent from along the west coast of the Americas, as well
as the west coast of Africa. This is due primarily to upwelling and strong cold coastal
currents that reduce water temperatures in these areas (Nybakken, 1997). Corals are also
restricted from off the coastline of South Asia from Pakistan to Bangladesh (Spalding et al.,
2001). They are also restricted along the coast around north-eastern South America and
Bangladesh due to the release of vast quantities of freshwater from the Amazon and Ganges
Rivers respectively. Famous coral reefs and reef areas of the world include : the Great Barrier
Reef - largest coral reef in the world, Queensland, Australia; the Barrier Reef of Roatán -
second largest in the world, Honduras, Central America; the Red Sea Coral Reef - located off
the coast of Egypt.

SIGNIFICANCE OF CORAL REEFS, AND THE THREATS :

Reefs are physically as well as biologically important; they play a fundamental role in
protecting coastlines from erosion and contribute to the formation of white sandy beaches.
These complex, fragile ecosystems are deteriorating at an alarming rate worldwide.
The major threats to Coral Reefs include : Pollution, Overexploitation and Recreation
The coral species that are the reef's foundation have very specific needs for light,
temperature, salinity, and oxygen. They are easily damaged or killed because of these
complex requirements for survival. Human-caused deterioration lessens the reef's ability to
withstand natural events such as hurricanes, cyclones, and other storms. Reefs are sensitive to
unusually warm waters caused by El Nino, a phenomenon thought to be connected to global
warming. Large areas of reef died in Costa Rica, Panama, and the Galapagos during the El
Nino event of 1984. Population and development pressures have contributed significantly to
loss of coral reefs and other coastal habitats, such as salt marshes, mangrove forests, and
seagrass beds, and the fisheries that depend on these. Reefs are smothered by erosion from
deforestation and dredging of rivers and bays. They also are blown up by fishers using
dynamite, poisoned by collectors working for the aquarium trade, and inadvertently damaged
by recreationists (boaters and scuba divers). An estimated 80 percent of Philippine reefs, for
example, have been damaged by sedimentation, explosives, and pollution.

Recently, scientists have become alarmed by increased occurrences of "coral bleaching."

Coral reefs in many places in the world are turning white and sometimes dying. Coral gets its
beautiful colors from algae that lives symbiotically with it. Through photosynthesis, the algae
produce oxygen and sugars for the coral polyps to eat. The coral, in turn, produces carbon
dioxide and nitrogen which enhances algae growth. If coral polyps are stressed by
environmental changes, they lose their algae coating and turn white. Cyanide and other
toxins are used to stun reef fish so they can be captured alive to be sent to fish markets in
Hong Kong and as aquarium specimens for buyers in the United States. The accumulation of
poisons is killing the reefs (see also Spotlight on Threatened Marine Life). In the past, the
corals themselves were mostly sold as dried specimens for jewelry and decorations.
Improvements in the ability to keep corals alive, however, has spurred a worldwide demand
for live corals for aquariums. Reef recreation, such as glass-bottom boat tours, snorkeling,
and scuba diving, is increasingly popular. Damage from anchors and accidental boat
groundings is a severe problem in some popular spots. Divers stand on reefs or inadvertently
hit them with fins or dangling equipment, breaking off pieces of the fragile coral. Healthy
coral reefs are among the most biologically diverse and economically valuable ecosystems on
earth, providing valuable and vital ecosystem services. Coral ecosystems are a source of food
for millions; protect coastlines from storms and erosion; provide habitat, spawning and
nursery grounds for economically important fish species; provide jobs and income to local
economies from fishing, recreation, and tourism; are a source of new medicines, and are
hotspots of marine biodiversity.

Biodiversity : Coral reefs are essential spawning, nursery, breeding, and feeding grounds for
numerous organisms. In terms of biodiversity, the variety of species living on a coral reef is
greater than in any other shallow-water marine ecosystems and is one of the most diverse on
the planet, yet coral reefs cover less than one tenth of one percent of the ocean floor. Coral
reefs support more than 800 hard coral species and more than 4,000 species of fish.
Coastal Protection: Healthy coral reefs have rough surfaces and complex structures that
dissipate much of the force of incoming waves; this buffers shorelines from currents, waves,
and storms, helping to prevent loss of life, property damage, and erosion. Coastlines
protected by reefs are more stable, in terms of erosion, and are also a source of sand in
natural beach replenishment.
Fisheries : The fish that grow and live on coral reefs are a significant food source for over a
billion people worldwide—many of whom live far from the reefs that feed them.
Approximately half of all federally managed fisheries in the United States depend on coral
reefs and related habitats for a portion of their life cycles. The NOAA National Marine
Fisheries Service estimates the annual commercial value of US fisheries from coral reefs to
be over $100 million. Reef-based recreational fisheries generate over $100 million annually
in the US. Globally, one estimate shows fisheries benefits account for $5.7 billion of the total
$29.8 billion global net benefit provided by coral reefs. Sustainable coral reef fisheries in
Southeast Asia alone are valued at $2.4 billion per year. These numbers do not take into
account the value of deep-sea corals, which are themselves home for many commercially
valuable species and thus additional fisheries value.
Medicine : Many species found in coral ecosystems produce chemical compounds for
defense or attack, particularly the slow-moving or stationary species like nudibranchs and
sponges. Searching for potential new pharmaceuticals, termed bioprospecting, has been
common in terrestrial environments for decades. However, bioprospecting is relatively new
in the marine environment and is nowhere close to realizing its full potential. Creatures found
in coral ecosystems are important sources of new medicines being developed to induce and
ease labor; treat cancer, arthritis, asthma, ulcers, human bacterial infections, heart disease,
viruses, and other diseases; as well as sources of nutritional supplements, enzymes, and
cosmetics. The medicines and other potentially useful compounds identified to date have led
to coral ecosystems being referred to as the medicine cabinets of the 21st century by some,
and the list of approved and potential new drugs is ever growing.

Tourism and Recreation : Every year, millions of scuba divers and snorkelers visit coral
reefs to enjoy their abundant sea life. Even more tourists visit the beaches protected by these
reefs. Local economies receive billions of dollars from these visitors to reef regions through
diving tours, recreational fishing trips, hotels, restaurants, and other businesses based near
reef ecosystems. One estimate places the total global value of coral-reef based recreation and
tourism at $9.6 billion of the total global net benefit of coral reefs. Coral ecosystems are a
source of food for millions; protect coastlines from storms and erosion; provide habitat,
spawning and nursery grounds for economically important fish species; provide jobs and
income to local economies from fishing, recreation, and tourism; are a source of new
medicines. When corals lose their color because of stress in their environment, it is called
'coral bleaching.' Often, the coral cannot recover and dies. Warming oceans are the main
cause of coral bleaching. Healthy coral reefs support commercial and subsistence fisheries as
well as jobs and businesses through tourism and recreation. Approximately half of all
federally managed fisheries depend on coral reefs and related habitats for a portion of their
life cycles. The National Marine Fisheries Service estimates the commercial value of U.S.
fisheries from coral reefs is over $100 million. Local economies also receive billions of
dollars from visitors to reefs through diving tours, recreational fishing trips, hotels,
restaurants, and other businesses based near reef ecosystems. Despite their great economic
and recreational value, coral reefs are severely threatened by pollution, disease, and habitat
destruction. Once coral reefs are damaged, they are less able to support the many creatures
that inhabit them. When a coral reef supports fewer fish, plants, and animals, it also loses
value as a tourist destination.

ASSOCIATED FAUNA OF CORAL REEFS (THE REEF ECOSYSTEM or the REEF

BIODIVERSITY)

Fishes that feed either on small animals living near the corals, seaweed, or on the coral itself.
Fishes that feed on small animals include cleaner fish (these fish feed between the jaws of
larger predatory fish), bullet fish and Balistidae (these eat sea urchins) while seaweed eating
fish include the Pomacentridae (damselfishes). Serranidae cultivate the seaweed by removing
creatures feeding on it (as sea urchins), and they remove inedible seaweeds. Fish that eat
coral include parrotfish and butterflyfish. Fishes that swim near the reef. These include
predatory fish such as pompanos, groupers, Horse mackerels, certain types of shark,
Epinephelus marginatus, barracudas, snappers). They also include herbivorous and plankton-
eating fish. Fish eating seagrass include Horse mackerel, snapper, Pagellus, Conodon. Fish
eating plankton include Caesio, manta ray, chromis, Holocentridae, Pterapogon kauderni etc
Generally, fish that swim in coral reefs are as colorful as the reef itself. Examples are the
beautiful parrotfish, angelfish, damselfish, Pomacanthus paru, Clinidae and butterflyfish. At
night, some change to a less vivid color. Besides colorful fish matching their environment,
other fish (e.g., predatory and herbivorous fish such as Lampanyctodes hectoris,
Holocentridae, Pterapogon kauderni) as well as aquatic animals (Comatulida, Crinoidea,
Ophiuroidea) emerge and become active while others rest. Other fish groups found on coral
reefs include groupers, grunts and wrasses. Over 4,000 species of fish inhabit coral reefs. It
has been suggested that the fish species that inhabit coral reefs are able to coexist in such
high numbers because any free living space is inhabited by the first planktonic fish larvae
that find it in what has been termed "a lottery for living space". Soft coral, cup coral, sponges
and ascidians are of course also found on reefs. They are also home to a large variety of other
organisms, including sponges, Cnidarians (which includes some types of corals and
jellyfish), worms, crustaceans (including shrimp, cleaner shrimp, spiny lobsters and crabs),
molluscs (including cephalopods), echinoderms (including starfish, sea urchins and sea
cucumbers), sea squirts, turtles such as the sea turtle, green turtle and hawksbill turtle and sea
snakes. Aside from humans, mammals are rare on coral reefs, with visiting cetaceans such as
dolphins being the main.

A number of invertebrates, collectively called cryptofauna, inhabit the coral rock substrate
itself, either boring into the limestone surface or living in pre-existing voids and crevices.
Those animals boring into the rock include sponges, bivalve molluscs, and Sipunculans.
Those settling on the reef include many other species, particularly crustaceans & polychaete
worms. Due to their vast biodiversity, many governments world-wide take measures to
protect their coral reefs. In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef is protected by the Great Barrier
Reef Marine Park Authority, and is the subject of many plans and pieces of legislation,
including a Biodiversity Action Plan.

Darwin’s THEORY of the Development of the Major Reef Types :

The basic coral reef classification scheme described above was first proposed by Charles
Darwin, and is still widely used today. Darwin spent most of his coral reef explorations in the
Indo-Pacific region, and viewed the three types of coral reefs he described as simply different
stages in the geological 'evolution" of Pacific oceanic islands. Darwin theorized that fringing
reefs began to grow near the shorelines of new islands as ecological conditions became ideal
for hard coral growth. Then, as the island began to gradually subside into the sea, the coral
was able to keep pace in terms of growth and remained in place at the sea surface, but farther
from shore; it was now a barrier reef. Eventually, the island disappeared below the sea
surface, leaving only the ring of coral encircling the central lagoon; an atoll had formed (see
right). Darwin's general "reef evolution" theory was finally verified for Indo-Pacific reefs in
the early 1950s after analyses of the results of deep core drilling at Bikini and Eniwetok
Atolls. However, it has also now become apparent that each of the three major types of coral
reefs (described above) is often also formed by quite different geomorphic processes as well.
The atoll-like Bahama Banks are a prime example of such alternate forms of reef
development.

PATCH REEFS : The term "patch reef" is commonly used to refer to comparatively small,
isolated outcrops of coral surrounded by sand and/or seagrass. Patch reefs of varying size on
the Great Barrier Reef. Numerous patch reefs form part of the fringing reef system bordering
a tropical island shore. While patch reefs have sometimes been described as a fourth "coral
reef type", such comparisons are clearly not appropriate. Rather, patch reefs are more
properly considered regular micro-scale reef features of all three of the macro-scale reef
types first described by Darwin - fringing reefs, atolls and barrier reefs. In the sense that
Darwin described coral reefs - the same reef classification system widely in use today - patch
reefs are not remotely comparable to the major coral reef types, and should not be confused
with them.