Module -II

SENSORS
Sensors and Transducers
 A collection of Sensors

GPS
Linear Encoder Gas
Camera

Gyroscope
Lever Switch

Sonar Ranging

Accelerometer
Piezo Bend Laser Rangefinder
PIR

Rotary
Encoder
Resistive Bend
Pressure
Pyroelectric
Detector
UV Detector
Pendulum Resistive
Metal Detector Tilt

IR Modulator
Receiver
Magnetometer Microphone

Radiation Magnetic Reed Switch

Infrared Ranging CDS Cell Compass
Definitions: Transducer and sensors
• Transducer
– a device that converts a primary form of energy into a
corresponding signal with a different energy form
Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal,
electromagnetic, optical, chemical, etc.
• Sensor (e.g., thermometer)
- is a device that detects a change in a physical
stimulus and turns it into a signal which can be
measured or recorded
– acquires information from the “real world”

real intelligent
world sensor Mechatronic
system
 Sensor Systems
Typically sensor system
– convert desired parameter into electrically measurable
signal
• General Sensor system
– Sensor/ transducer: sense “real world” parameter and
converted into a suitable signal
– Signal conditioning: converts the sensed signal into an
analog or digital electrical value
A/D usable
real Signal conditioning values
transducer signal
world
sensor

input microcontroller
signal signal processing
sensed data communication
(measured)

network
display
 Performance and terminology
The desirable features of sensors are:
1. Range / span
2. Errors and accuracy
3. Nonliearity
4. Hysteresis
5. Dead band and Saturation
6. Output impedance
7. Repeatability
8. Reliability
9. Sensitvity
10. Resolution
11. Frequency Response
12. Response time
13. calibration
 Range and Span
• Range: lowest and highest values of the
stimulus
• Span: the arithmetic difference between the
highest and lowest values of the input that
being sensed.
• Input full scale (IFS) = span
• Output full scale (OFS): difference between
the upper and lower ranges of the output of
the sensor.
• Dynamic range: ratio between the upper and
lower limits and is usually expressed in db
 Range and Span (Example)

• Example: a sensors is designed for: −30

°C to +80 °C to output 2.5V to 1.2V
• Range: −30°C and +80 °C
• Span: 80− (−30)=110 °C
• Input full scale = 110 °C
• Output full scale = 2.5V-1.2V=1.3V
• Dynamic range=20log(140/30)=13.38db
 Errors and Accuracy
• Errors: is the difference between the result of the
measurement and the true value of the quantity being
measured
error= measured value –true value
• As a percentage of full scale (span for
example) error is calculated as;
e = ∆t/(tmax-tmin)*100 where tmax and tmin are the
maximum and minimum values the device is
designed to operate at.
 Errors and Accuracy Example:
• Accuracy: is the extent to which the
measured value might be wrong and
normally expressed in percentage
• Example: A thermistor is used to measure
temperature between –30 and +80 °C and
produce an output voltage between 2.8V and
1.5V. Because of errors, the accuracy in
sensing is ±0.5°C. so the measured value
may be high than or lower than by 0.5 °C
• a. In terms of the input as ±0.5°C
• b. Percentage of input: error = 0.5/(80+30)*100 = 0.454%
• c. In terms of output. From the transfer function:
error= ±0.059V. ?
 Hysteresis
• Hysteresis is the deviation of
the sensor’s output at any
given point when approached
from two different directions
• Caused by electrical or
mechanical systems
– Magnetization
– Thermal properties
– Loose linkages
• If temperature is measured, at a rated
temperature of 50°C, the output might be 4.95V
when temperature increases but 5.05V when
temperature decreases.
• This is an error of ±0.5% (for an output full scale
of 10V in this idealized example).
 Nonlinearity
• Nonlinearity is defined as the
maximum deviation from the ideal
linear transfer function.
• Nonlinearity must be deduced
from the actual transfer function
or from the calibration curve
• A few methods to do so:
• a. by use of the range of the
sensor
– Pass a straight line between
the range points (line 1)
• b. use a linear best fit (least
squares) through the points of the
curve (line 2)
• c. use the tangent to the curve at some point on the curve
Take a point in the middle of the range of interest
-Draw the tangent and extend to the range of the curve (line 3)
 Deadband
• Deadband: the lack of response or
insensitivity of a device over a specific range
of the input.
• In this range which may be small, the output
remains constant.
• A device should not operate in this range
unless this insensitivity is acceptable.

Dead Zone
 Output impedance
Output impedance: ratio of the rated output voltage
and short circuit current of the port (i.e. current
when the output is shorted)
output impedance is important for interfacing
Example: 500 Ω sensor (output impedance)
connected to a processor
– b. Processor input impedance is infinite
– c. Processor input impedance is 500 Ω
 Repeatability
• Also called reproducibility: failure of the sensor to
represent the same value under identical
conditions when measured at different times.
– usually associated with calibration
– given as percentage of input full scale of the
maximum difference between two readings
taken at different times under identical input
conditions.

max− min.values given

Re peatability = ×100
full range
 Reliability

• Reliability: a statistical measure of

quality of a device which indicates the
ability of the device to perform its stated
function, under normal operating
conditions without failure for a stated
period of time or number of cycles.
• Given in hours, years or in MTBF
• Usually provided by the manufacturer
• Based on accelerated lifetime testing
 Sensitivity
• Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the
change in output for a given change in
input, usually a unit change in input.
Sensitivity represents the slope of the
transfer function.
• Also is used to indicate sensitivity to other
environment that is not measured.
• Example: sensitivity of resistance
measurement to temperature change
d aT + b = 1 → dR = a Ω
dR dT °C
 Resolution
• Resolution: the minimum increment in
stimulus to which the sensor can respond. It
is the magnitude of the input change which
results in the smallest observable output.
• Example: a digital voltmeter with resolution of
0.1V is used to measure the output of a
sensor. The change in input (temperature,
pressure, etc.) that will provide a change of
0.1V on the voltmeter is the resolution of the
sensor/voltmeter system.
• In digital systems generally, resolution may
be specified as 1/ 2N (N is the number of bit.)
 Frequency response
• Frequency response: The ability of the device to
respond to a harmonic (sinusoidal) input
• A plot of magnitude (power, displacement, etc.)
as a function of frequency
• Indicates the range of the stimulus in which the
device is usable (sensors and actuators)
• Provides important design parameters
• Sometimes the phase is also given (the pair of
plots is the Bode diagram of the device)
 Frequency response (cont)

• Important design parameters

– Bandwidth (B-A, in Hz)
– Flat frequency range (D-C in Hz)
– Cutoff frequencies (points A and B in Hz)
– Resonant frequencies
Frequency response (example.)
• Bandwidth: 16.5kHz-70Hz=16.43 kHz
• Flat frequency range: 10kHz-120Hz=9880 Hz
• Cutoff frequencies: 70 Hz and 16.5 kHz
• Resonance: 12 kHz
 Response time
• Response time: indicates the time needed for
the output to reach steady state for a step
change in input.
• Typically the response time will be given as the
time needed to reach 90% of steady state output
upon exposure to a unit step change in input.
• The response time of the device is due to the
inertia of the device (both “mechanical” and
“electrical”).
• Fast response time is usually desirable
• Slow response times tend to average readings
 Response Time

y(t)
p
Mp
1 ±10%
td
0.5

0
t
tr ts
s
 Calibration
• Calibration: the experimental determination of
the transfer function of a sensor or actuator.
• Typically, needed when the transfer function
is not known or,
• When the device must be operated at
tolerances below those specified by the
manufacturer.
• Example, use a thermistor with a 5%
tolerance on a full scale from 0 to 100°C to
measure temperature with accuracy of, say,
±0.5°C.
• The only way this can be done is by first
establishing the transfer function of the
sensor.
 Calibration (cont.)
• Two methods:
• Method1. known transfer function:
– Determine the slope and crossing point (line
function) from two known stimuli (say two
temperatures) if the transfer function is linear
– Measure the output
– Calculate the slope and crossing point in V=aT+b
– If the function is more complex, need more points:
V = aT + bT2 + cT3 + d
– 4 measurements to calculate a,b,c,d
– Must choose points effectively - if linear, use
points close to the range. If not, use equally
spaced points or points around the locations of
highest curvature
Calibration
(con..)

Determine the output equation ?

 Calibration (cont.)

• Method 2:
• b. Unknown transfer function:
– Measure the output Ri at as many input values Ti as is
practical
– Use the entire span
– Calculate a best linear fit (least squares for example)
– If the curve is not linear use a polynomial fit
– May use piecewise linear segments if the number of points is
large.
 Calibration (cont.)

• Calibration is sometimes an operational

requirement (thermocouples, pressure
sensors)
• Calibration data is usually supplied by the
manufacturer
• Calibration procedures must be included with
the design documents
• Errors due to calibration must be evaluated
and specified