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UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE AS LEVEL

CHEMISTRY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
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1. Atomic Structure
1.1. Subatomic Particle
Relative
Subatomic Particle Relative Mass/ a.m.u
Charge
Protons (P) +1 1
Neutrons (n) 0 1
- -1 1/1840
Electrons (e )

1.2. Protons, Neutrons and Electrons Protons: positively charged ∴ deflected to -ve pole
Neutrons: no charge ∴ not deflected
Mass concentrated within the centre, nucleus
Electrons: negatively charged ∴ deflected to +ve pole
An atom is electrically neutral; P+ = e-
e- lighter than P+ ∴ deflected at greater angle
Atomic number or proton number (Z) = no. of protons
Atomic mass or nucleon no. (A) = no. of P + N
1.4. Electronic Configuration
Electrons are arranged in energy levels called shells
Each shell is described by a principle quantum no. (P.Q)
As the P.Q. increases, the energy of the shell increases
Inside the shell, there are subshells: s, p, d and f
Orbital: region in space where there is a maximum
probability of finding an electron

Isoelectronic Ions: ions having the same no. of e-s

Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the
same proton number but different numbers of neutrons
Isotopes have similar chemical properties since
they have the same number of protons and electrons
(so chemical interactions are similar)
Each orbital can hold 2e-s in opposite directions
Isotopes have different physical properties since
When e-s are placed in a set of orbital of equal energy,
they have different numbers of neutrons, causing
they occupy them singly, and then pairing takes place
them to have different masses and, therefore,
different physical interactions. e-s placed in the opposite direction: both -ve charge & if
placed in the same direction, they’d repel. In the
opposite direction, they create a spin to reduce repulsion
1.3. Behaviour of a Beam of Subatomic
Completely filled or half-filled (i.e. one e- in each orbital)
Particles are more stable (reduced repulsion)

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Examples of this Method are Shown Below:

Energy difference between 4s & 3d very small ∴ an e-

In certain cases (e.g., period 3 elements), an electron from 4s can be promoted to half-fill or full-fill 3d orbital
would prefer the 4s orbital over 3d while filling up. For to make the atom more stable
example, 2 electrons in Titanium would be filled into the When filling, fill 4s before 3d and when removing, also
4s orbital before 2 electrons are filled in the 3d orbital.
remove first from 4s
This is because the 4s orbital is a more stable (lower)
energy level than the 3d orbital.
However, while losing electrons, the electrons from the 1.6. Orbitals
4s orbital would be lost first, and then those from the 3d
s orbitals are spherical, with the nucleus at the centre
orbital would be lost. This is because the 4s orbital is
p orbitals are dumbell-shaped
outer than the 3d orbital.

1.5. Subshells
s p d f
Orbitals 1 3 5 7
- 2 6 10 14
Max e s

Aufbau’s Principle: method of showing how atomic

orbitals are filled in a definite order to give the lowest
energy arrangement possible

A free radical is a species with one or more unpaired

electrons.

Note: ions and free radicals are different.

1.7. Ionisation Energies (I.E)

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1st I.E: the energy needed to remove 1 mole of e-s from Shielding Effect
1 mole of a gaseous atom to form 1 mole of unipositive Inner shells of e-s repel outermost e-s, thus shielding
ions them from the +ve nucleus. The more e- shells, the
Each Successive I.E is higher than the previous one greater is the shielding effect
because as e-s are removed, protons > e-s ∴ the Greater effect lower I.E because lesser attractive
attraction between protons and remaining electrons force between nucleus & outer e-s
increases Atomic Radius
Successive I.Es have a large jump in their value when e-s Distance from the centre of the nucleus to the
removed from the lower energy shell outermost orbit
Deduce group no. by checking when 1st big jump occurs As the number of electron shells increases, the
atomic radius increases
As the number of electrons in the outermost shell
increases, the atomic radius decreases as the
electrostatic attraction between the nucleus and
outer electrons increases
Greater radius lower I.E; a distance of outermost e- to
the nucleus is large ∴ less energy needed to remove
e-
Stable Configuration
High I.E needed to remove e-s from completely or
half-filled orbitals

1.9. General 1st Ionisation Energy

1.8. Factors Affecting Ionisation Energy
Trends
Nuclear Charge
Down a group (decreases):
+ve charge due to protons in the nucleus
New shells added
Greater nuclear charge means greater ionization
energy Attraction of nucleus to valence e-s decreases
Shielding effect increases
Across a period (increases):
Shell number remains the same
Proton number increases
Effective nuclear charge increases
Atomic radius decreases

1.10. Trend in 1st I.E across 3rd Period

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Groups 1 to 3 5 to 7
Ion Positive Negative

No. of shells
n−1 n
Across the period:

Proton no. and effective nuclear charge increases

Ionic radius decreases

Negative ions are always larger than positive ions in the

same period as they have one more shell
Ionic radius increases down the group since the number
of electron shells increases.
I.E of Al lower than Mg: e- removed in Al is from higher As the negative charge on anion increases, the ionic
energy 3p orbital which is further away from nucleus radius increases since the number of electrons gained
increases such that the number of electrons exceeds the
than 3s e- being removed from Mg. Nuclear attraction is
number of protons.
less for 3p than 3s ∴ I.E of Al is lower than Mg
As the positive charge on the cation increases, the
I.E of S lower than P: e- being removed in P is in a half number of electrons lost increases, so the electrostatic
filled, more stable 3p orbital whereas in S, the pairing of attraction between the nucleus and outer electrons
electrons in 3p results in increased repulsion ∴ less increases.
energy need to remove an e-

2. Atoms, Molecules and

1.11. Ionic Radius
Stoichiometry
Ionic Radius: describes the size of an ion

2.1. Relative Mass

Atomic mass (Ar): weighted average mass of an atom
Molecular mass (Mr): mass of a molecule
Formula mass: mass of one formula unit of a compound
Isotopic mass: mass of a particular isotope of an
element
Compared with 12C where one atom of 12C has mass of
exactly 12 units
Unified atomic mass unit: u = 1.66 x 10-27kg

2.2. The Mole

Positive Ion: smaller radius than original neutral atom
because shell no. decreases, the screening effect Mole: amount of substance that has the same number
decreases, but the attraction of the nucleus increases. of particles (atoms, ions, molecules or electrons) as there
Negative Ion: larger ionic radius than neutral atom are atoms in exactly 12g of the carbon-12 isotope.
because e-s added while nuclear charge remains same Avogadro’s constant: number of atoms, ions, molecules
or electrons in a mole = 6.02 × 1023

2.3. Mass Spectra

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Abundance of isotopes can be represented on a mass

spectra diagram 2.5. Calculations Involving Mole
Peak Height Concept
Relative Abundance = Total Height​× 100%
M ass × Relative Abundance Mass
Ar = ∑ 100 M oles =
​ ​

Molar Mass
​

V olume of a Gas = M oles × 24

The formula applies to gases at r.t.p.
3 3
Unit of volume is dm and 1000cm = 1dm3
Moles
Concentration =
Volume
​

Concentration unit = mol dm−3

Anhydrous: a compound in which all water molecules
are removed
Hydrated: a compound which has a number of water
molecules associated with its crystalline structure
2.4. Empirical and Molecular Formulae Water of Crystallisation: these water molecules in a
hydrated compound are called water of crystallisation
Empirical Formula: gives the simplest ratio of different
atoms present in a molecule
Molecular Formula: gives actual numbers of each type
3. Chemical Bonding
of atom in a molecule
Molecular formula can be calculated using the Mr of a 3.1. Electronegativity and Bonding
compound and its empirical formula
Electronegativity: the power of an atom to attract
M olecular F ormula = (Empirical Formula)n
electrons to itself
​

Molecular Mass The electronegativity depends on:

Where n = The radius of atom (atomic size) inversely ∝
Mass of Empirical Formula
​

electronegativity
Atomic M ass × N o. of M oles Nuclear attraction directly ∝ electronegativity
% Composition = ×
Molar Mass of Compound
​

Electronegativity increases across a period because of

atomic radius ↓ and nuclear attraction ↑, so polarity ↑
Electronegativity decreases down a group because of
atomic radius ↑ and nuclear attraction ↓, so polarity ↓
Dipole Moment: slight charges on atoms in a covalent
bond due to differences in electronegativity
The difference between the electronegativity of two
atoms in a compound determines the overall dipole
moment and overall polarity of the compound.
A large difference in electronegativity will make the bond
more polar (more ionic in nature), but a small difference
in electronegativity will make the bond less polar (more
covalent in nature)

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3.4. Metallic Bonding

Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between metal
cations and delocalized mobile electrons
Structure: lattice of +ve ions surrounded by ­mobile e-s
Strength of metallic bond increases with:
Increasing positive charge on the ions in the lattice
Decreasing size of metal ions in the lattice
Increasing number of mobile e-s per atom

3.2. Ionic (Electrovalent) Bonding

An ionic bond is the electrostatic attraction between
oppositely charged ions.
Structure: giant ionic lattice, crystalline solids

3.5. Covalent Bonding

Covalent Bond: the bond formed by the sharing of pairs
of electrons between the nuclei of two atoms.
Bonding Electrons: e-s involved in bond formation
Have high melting and boiling points Non-bonding electrons or lone pair: pair of valence e-s
that are not involved in bond formation
Covalent compounds are made of molecules which are
held together by weak intermolecular forces
Elements in period 3 can expand their octet, including
the compounds sulfur dioxide, SO2, phosphorus
pentachloride, PCl5, and sulfur hexafluoride, SF6.
They have low melting and boiling points.

3.6. Coordinate (Dative Covalent)

Bonding
Coordination Number: number of oppositely charged
ions that surround a particular ion in an ionic solid
E.g: NaCl, MgCl2

3.3. Dot and Cross Diagrams

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A coordinate bond is a covalent bond where both

electrons in the bond come from the same atom
Conditions:
An atom should have a lone pair of electrons
An atom should be in need of a pair of electrons
Donor: the atom that supplies the pair of electrons
Acceptor: the atom that accepts the pair of electrons P – P (Sigma Σ)

Coordinate bond is represented by an “→” drawn from

the atom donating to towards the atom accepting
+
Formation of Ammonium ion NH4 : ​

P – P (Pi π )

Sigma bond has greater overlap ∴ σ > π

Formation of AlCl3 dimer (Al2 Cl6 ):
​ ​ ​
Pi bond cannot exist without a Sigma bond.

Note: Elements in Period 3 can expand their octet by making

use of the energetically accessible but lower lying d-subshell
for bonding. This means that some elements of period 3 can
bond with more than 4 electrons at once. (e.g: Sulfur,
Phosphorus etc)

Above 750oC, exists as vapor & covalent molecule AlCl3

3.8. Shapes of Molecules
As vapor cools, exists as dimer Al2Cl6
Bond angle as AlCl3 = 120o The shape and bond angles of molecules depend on:
The number of pairs of electrons around the central
Bond angle as Al2Cl6 = 109.5o
atom
Whether these pairs are lone pairs or bonded pairs
3.7. Orbital Overlap Valence shell electrons are arranged in pairs to minimize
repulsion between themselves
For a covalent bond to form, atomic orbitals containing Order of Repulsion Strength (VSEPR Theory):
unpaired valence electrons must overlap each other
S – S (Sigma Σ)

2 pairs of e’s
2 bonded, 0 lone pair
Linear
180O
E.g. CO2
S – P (Sigma Σ)

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2 bonded, 2 lone pair

3 pairs of e’s Angular
3 bonded, 0 lone pair
104.5O
Trigonal planar
E.g. H2O
120O
E.g. BF3

5 pairs of e’s
4 pairs of e’s 5 bonded, 0 lone pair
4 bonded, 0 lone pair Trigonal Bipyramid
Tetrahedral 90O and 120O
109.5O E.g. PF5
E.g. CH4

3 bonded, 1 lone pair

Pyramidal 6 pairs of e’s
O 6 bonded, 0 lone pair
107
E.g. NH3 Octahedral
90O
E.g. SF6

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3.9. Hybridisation
Definition
sp3 Hybridisation
Mix atomic orbitals like s and p to form new hybrid
orbitals like sp2 , sp3 , and sp. When 1 s orbital combines with 3 p orbital.
The resultant orbital has different energy levels, shapes, They form tetrahedral molecules with 109.25o angles,
and properties. e.g. SiCl4 , and all hydrocarbons containing 4 bonds like
C2 H4 ( C − C ).
​ ​

sp Hybridisation Has three times the property of p orbital properties than

s orbital.
When 1 s orbital combines with 1 p orbital.
They form linear molecules with 180o angles, e.g. CO2 ​

and all hydrocarbons containing 2 bonds like C2 H2

​ ​

(Carbon-Carbon triple bond).

Has an equal amount of s and p orbital properties.

3.10. Bonds
sp2 Hybridisation
When 1 s orbital combines with 2 p orbital.
They form trigonal planar molecules with 120o angles,
e.g. BH3 and all hydrocarbons containing 3 bonds like
​

C2 H4 ( C = C ).
​ ​

Has twice the property of p orbital properties than s

orbital.

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Bond Energy: the energy needed to break one mole of a The bond formed between:
given bond in one mole of gaseous molecules Identical Atoms: the electronegativity of both atoms
Bond Length: distance between the centres of two is the same so a pair of electrons shared equally
nuclei of two adjacent atoms Symmetrical Polyatomic Molecules: dipoles of
Double bonds are shorter than single bonds because bond expert equal & opposite effects, hence cancel
double bonds have a greater negative charge density charge
between the two atomic nuclei hence greater attraction Non-polar molecules have no overall charge
The bond length depends on the radii of the two bonded
atoms; the larger the radius, longer the bond length 3.13. Intermolecular Forces
The strength of the bond depends on the length of the
bond Intermolecular Forces: weak forces present between
two covalent molecules

Induced Dipole (Van Der Waals’ Forces)

3.11. Hydrogen Bonding Very weak forces present between non-polar molecules
Due to constant motion of e-s, at an instant, a non-polar
The strongest type of intermolecular force in covalent molecule develops poles due to distortion of electron
bonds density giving rise to instantaneous dipole, which can
For hydrogen bonding to occur, we need: induce a dipole in the adjacent molecules
A molecule having a H atom bonded to F, O or N Van der Waals forces increase with:
Molecule having F, O or N atom with lone pair of e-s increasing the number of contact points between
molecules; point where molecules come close
together
increasing number of electrons (+ protons) in
molecule

Note: Important properties of water (high melting/boiling

points, high surface tension) are due to the strong hydrogen
bonds present between water molecules. Permanent Dipole-Dipole Forces

Weak forces present between polar molecules

3.12. Polar and Non-Polar Molecules are always attracted to charged rods, whether
+ve or –ve because molecules have +ve and –ve charges
Polar Covalent Bonds

Bonds with slight ionic character 3.14. Summary

The bond formed with atoms of different
electronegativity
Bonding e-s attracted more towards atom with greater
electronegativity ∴ unequal sharing of electrons ∴
molecule develops slight charges = Polar Molecule
Polar molecules have dipoles, electric charges of equal
magnitude and opposite sign
The greater the difference in electronegativity of the two
bonded atoms, the greater is the ionic character

Non-Polar Covalent Bonds

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Quantity Unit Conversion

Pressure Pascal 1KPa = 1000Pa
4. States of Matter Volume m3 1m3 = 1000dm3 = 1x106cm3
Temperature K O
C + 273
4.1. Basic Assumptions of Kinetic
Theory Standard Conditions: 101KPa and 298 K

Mols of One Gas

Mole Fraction = Total Mols of Gases
Ideal Gas: a gas whose volume varies in proportion to
​

Partial Pressure of a Gas = M ole F raction ×

temperature and inverse to pressure.
Noble gases such as helium and neon approach ideal T otal P ressure
behaviour because of their low intermolecular forces.
4.3. Liquid State
Ideal Gas Laws:
Particles touching but may have gaps
Gas molecules move rapidly and randomly
The distance between gas molecules is greater than the Have EK slide past each other in random motion
​

Enthalpy of Fusion: heat energy required to change 1

diameter of molecules ∴ volume is negligible
mole of solid into a liquid at its melting point
No forces of attraction/repulsion between molecules
Heating a Solid (melting):
All collisions between particles are elastic EK conserved
Energy transferred makes solid particles vibrate
​

Temperature of gas related to average EK of molecules

faster
​

Conditions at which gases behave ideally:

Forces of attraction weaken & solid changes to liquid
High temperature Enthalpy of Vaporisation: heat energy required to
Low pressure
change 1 mole of liquid into a gas at its boiling point
Heating a Liquid (vaporisation):
Limitations of Ideal Gas Laws:
Energy transferred makes liquid particles move faster
Real gases do not obey kinetic theory in two ways: Forces of attraction weaken
There is not zero attraction between molecules The highest energy particles escape first
We cannot ignore the volume of molecules Liquid starts to evaporate – temp. Below b.p.
themselves Forces weaken further – particles move faster &
Spread
Deviations visible at low temp. and high pressure Liquid boils – temp. At b.p.
The evaporation of a liquid in a closed container
Molecules are close to each other
The volume of molecules is not negligible relative to the
container
VDW forces present, pulling molecules to each other
Pressure is lower than expected from ideal gas
The effective volume is less than expected from the ideal
gas

4.2. General Gas Equations

P V = nRT
M ass × RT
Mr =
PV
​ ​

P 1 V1 P 2 V2
=
​ ​ ​ ​

​ ​

T1 ​ T2 ​

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Constant evaporation from the surface Conductivity

Particles continue to break away from the surface but
are trapped in space above the liquid. Solids (metals) are generally the best conductors of
As gaseous particles collide, some of them hit the surface electricity, while gases are the worst.
of the liquid again and become trapped there. Solids (metals) are generally better conductors of heat
An equilibrium is set up in which the number of particles than liquids, while liquids are better thermal conductors
leaving the surface is balanced by the number rejoining than gases. This is because of the proximity of molecules
it. in solids, allowing heat to be transferred rapidly through
Liquid water molecules ⇌ Vapor water molecules vibrations of neighbouring molecules.
A fixed number of gaseous particles will be in the space
above the liquid in this equilibrium.
4.7. Solid State
Vapour Pressure: pressure exerted by a vapour in
equilibrium with a liquid. Ionic lattice
Vapour pressure increases as:

4.4. Crystallisation
Anhydrous

Salt containing no water molecules.

Hydrous
Metallic lattice
Salt containing water molecules.

Water of Crystallisation

The number of water molecules present in the Hydrous salt.

For example, CuSO4 ⋅ 5(H2 O) has 5 water of crystalisation.
​ ​

Simple molecular
4.5. Recycling
Finite resource: resource which doesn't get replaced at
the same rate that it is used up.
Examples of finite resources: copper, aluminium, glass
Advantage of Recycling: ○ Saves energy ○ Reduces
environmental issues ○ Conserves ore supplies ○ Less
wastage ○ Cheaper than extracting

4.6. States of Matter and Properties

Macromolecular Lattice:
Solubility

For solids, generally, solubility increases with increasing

temperature as the increase in temperature facilitates
the overcoming of intermolecular bonds, making it easier
for the solid to dissolve.
For gases, generally, solubility decreases with increasing
temperature as the pressure of the gas increases
(pressure only affects the solubility of gases)

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Diamond: Silicon(IV) Oxide:

High m.p./b.p. - each carbon forms four covalent Each Si is bonded to 4 oxygen atoms, but each
bonds oxygen is bonded to 2 Si atoms
Hard-tetrahedral structure Sand is largely SiO2
Doesn’t conduct heat or electricity – no free e- Similar properties to diamond
Used for cutting as is the strongest known substance
and has sharp edges

Hydrogen-Bonded Lattice:

In ice form, water molecules slow down and come closer

Graphite:
together
Three strong (sp2) covalent bonds Due to polarity, molecules form hydrogen bonds
Fourth e- in p orbital ∴ forms a pi bond, forming a between lone pairs of oxygen & δ + charge of hydrogens
cloud of delocalised electrons above and below the Each water molecule has 2 H-bonds
planes They arrange themselves into an open crystalline,
Layers kept together by weak Van der Waal’s forces hexagonal structure
High m.p./b.p. - strong covalent bonds throughout Due to large spaces, ice is less dense than water
Soft – forces between layers are weak
Conducts electricity - has delocalized electrons

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Effect of Hydrogen Bonding on Physical Properties:

Relatively high m.p./b.p.: many strong H-bonds
High viscosity: hydrogen bonding reduces the ability
of water molecules to slide over each other
High surface tension: hydrogen bonds in water
exert a downward force on the surface of the liquid
Ice is less dense than water: larger spaces between
molecules in a hexagonal structure

Simple Molecular Lattice:

Iodine:
Dark grey crystalline solid; vaporizes into purple gas
m.p./b.p. are slightly higher than room temp Nanotubes
Slightly soluble in water; dissolves in organic solvents C atoms in hexagonal rings only
Diatomic molecules formed due to covalent bonds Cylindrical
between individual atoms The structure is rod-like due to continuing rings
Molecules have weak Van der Waals forces of Conducts heat and electricity
attraction between them Very strong and tough
Insoluble in water
High m.p./b.p.

Fullerenes:
Buckminsterfullerenes(C60)
C atoms in pentagonal and hexagonal rings
Spherical 5. Chemical Energetics
C60 molecules held together by Van der Waals
forces
Can conduct heat and electricity
5.1. Energy Change in Reactions
Very strong and tough
Exothermic Reactions Endothermic Reactions
Insoluble in water
Energy given out Energy taken in
Low m.p./b.p.
Surrounding warmer Surrounding cooler
Bond making Bond breaking
ΔH positive
ΔH negative
EReactants > EProducts
EReactants < EProducts

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Energy Change is measured in 1mol dm−3

1. Reaction ΔH
1. Enthalpy changes when 1 mole of element or
5.2. Reaction Pathway Diagrams compound is completely reacted under
standard conditions in their standard states.
Exothermic Reactions 2. Combustion ΔHC ​

1. Enthalpy changes when 1 mole of element or

5.3. compound is completely combusted under
standard conditions in their standard states.
3. Formation ΔHF ​

1. Enthalpy changes when 1 mole of a

compound is formed from its elements under
standard conditions in their standard state.
4. Neutralization ΔHn ​

1. Enthalpy change when 1 mole of H + and

OH − combine to form 1 mole of H2 O under ​

standard conditions in their standard states

5.5. Bond Energy

Energy needed to break a specific covalent bond
Endothermic Reactions Also how much energy is released when a bond forms

5.6. Calculating Enthalpy Changes

Q = −mcΔT
Q
ΔH =
no. of moles
​

When substance dissolved in water use c & m of water

ΔT is a change in temp.: add –ve or +ve to show rise/fall

5.7. Hess’s Law

The total enthalpy change in a chemical reaction is
5.4. Enthalpy Change Definitions independent of the route by which the chemical reaction
takes place as long as the initial and final conditions are
Standard Conditions (this syllabus assumes that these the same.
are 298K and 101 kPa) shown by ⦵ Reason to Use Hess’s Law:
Standard conditions hard to maintain (e.g. Exo/endo)
Standard Enthalpy Change of: Elements don’t always react directly

5.8. Calculation of Enthalpy Change, ΔH

Reaction from Formation

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Formation from Combustion

5.9. Worked Examples - Hess Law

Hydration from Anhydrous Salt

Reaction from Bond Energies

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Source: Alt Academy

Reaction where both oxidation and reduction occur
This can be shown with changes in oxidation numbers of
6. Electrochemistry elements from the product side to the reactant side.
E.g. Ca2 S i + 6H2 O → 2Ca(OH)2 + SiO2 + 4H2
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Ca = +4 → +2 ⟹ gain of negative charge ∴ a

6.1. Calculating Oxidation Numbers
reduction
Ionic Molecules: group number = valence electrons Si = −4 → + 4 ⟹ loss of negative charge ∴
Covalent Molecules: oxidation
Rules: Disproportionation Reaction: When the same species
Atoms in a diatomic molecule; oxidation number undergo oxidation and reduction in a reaction.
=0
Oxygen in a compound; oxidation number = -2

Oxygen as peroxide; oxidation number = -1

1st group elements & hydrogen; oxidation number = +1
H with highly reactive metal; oxidation number = -1 Oxidising Agent: A substance which helps to oxidise
another species by accepting electrons from it and itself
Following these rules, all other atoms in a covalent bond
gets reduced in the process
must balance out the charge
Reducing Agent: A substance which helps to reduce
another species by donating electrons to it and itself gets
6.2. Redox Processes oxidised in the process

6.3. Balancing Equations

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Equation: HI + HN O3 → I2 + N2 O3 + H2 O
7.4. Brønsted–Lowry Theory of Acids
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Half ionic: 2I − − 2e− → I2 N +5 + 2e− → N +3

and Bases
​

For every 2 iodines, there will be 1 nitrogen

Thus first put in correct ratio for iodine and nitrogen
then balance hydrogens and oxygens Brønsted-Lowry Theory:
Balanced: 4HI + 2HN O3 → 2I2 + N2 O3 + 3H 2 O ​ ​ ​ ​ ​
An acid is a proton (H+) donor
A bases is a proton (H+) acceptor

7. Equilibria Amphoteric: substances that can act like bases or acids

Strong acid: an acid that dissociates completely in
solution (e.g., HCl)
7.1. Introduction Weak acid: an acid that dissociates partially in solution
(e.g., ethanoic acid)
Reversible reaction: a reaction in which products can Strong base: a base that dissociates completely in
be changed back to reactants by reversing the conditions solution (e.g., NaOH)
Dynamic Equilibrium: the state of a reversible reaction Weak base: a base that dissociates partially in solution
carried out in a closed container where the rates of (e.g., ammonia)
forward and backward reactions are equal and constant Strong acids/bases react more vigorously than weak
acids/bases.
Strong acids have lower pH values than weak acids.
7.2. Le Chatelier’s Principle
Strong bases have higher pH values than weak bases.
When a chemical system in dynamic equilibrium is When an acid reacts with a base, salt & water are
formed. The pH changes in this neutralisation reaction
disturbed (conditions changed) it tends to respond in
can be graphed as shown in the image below: \n
such a way so as to oppose the change and a new
equilibrium is set up

7.3. Equilibrium Constants

Equilibrium constant expressed in terms of
concentration
[Product]mols
KC =​

[Reactant]mols
​

Only liquids and gases

Equilibrium constant expressed in terms of partial
pressure 8. Reaction Kinetics
p(P roduct)mols
KP =​

p(Reactant)mols
​

Only gases 8.1. Introduction

Large value of KC /KP ​ ​ ⇒ equi. towards products side

Smaller value of KC /KP ​ ​ ⇒ equi. towards reactants

side
KC /KP changes only with changes in temperature
​ ​

The amount of reactants that disappear will always

appear in the products in the same ratio as present in a
balanced equation

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Rate of a Reaction: change in concentration of Number of collisions and chance of success will increase
reactants or products per unit of time
Activation Energy: minimum energy colliding particles 8.6. Effect of Catalyst
must possess for a successful collision to take place
Catalysis: acceleration of a chemical reaction by a Catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of reaction
catalyst but remains chemically unchanged at the end
It does not alter the chemical composition of substances
8.2. Effect of Concentration Changes and only lowers the activation energy
It provides a new route or mechanism to follow for
Increasing conc. of reactants increases rate of reactants that requires less energy
reaction: more particles per unit volume, collision rate
between reacting particles increases, ∴ rate of successful
collision increases, resulting in increased rate of reaction.

8.3. Effect of Pressure Changes

Increasing the pressure of the system increases the
rate of reaction: more particles per unit volume,
collision rate between reacting particles increases, and
rate of successful collision increases, resulting in an
increased rate of reaction.
Curve unchanged; only activation energy changes
Homogeneous catalysts: reactant and catalyst are in
8.4. Maxwell-Boltzmann Theory the same physical state
Heterogeneous catalysts: reactant and catalyst are in
Explains effect of temp. & catalyst on rate of reaction different physical states
Based on distribution of energy among reacting Enzymes: a protein molecule that is a biological catalyst.
molecules under different conditions Most are specific to a substrate & function as lock-key

9. The Periodic Table:

Chemical Periodicity
9.1. Introduction

8.5. Effect of Temperature

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Group 1 2 3 4 Reaction Oxid. Nature

Element Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Na2O(s) Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) +1 S. Alkaline
Character Metal Metalloid MgO(s) MgO(s) + H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq) +2 W. Alkaline
Structure Giant metallic lattice Macromolecular
Al2O3(s)
Metallic bond between cations Covalent bonds NO REACTION
Bonding SiO2(s)
and delocalized e- between atoms
P2O3(s) P2O3(s) + 3H2O(l) 2H3PO3(aq) +3
S. Acidic
P2O5(s) P2O5(s) + 3H2O(l) 2H3PO4(aq) +5
SO2(g) SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq) +4
Diagram S. Acidic
SO3(g) SO3(g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) +6

9.5. Acid-Base Reactions

9.2. Reaction of Elements with Oxygen Aluminum oxide is amphoteric ∴ reacts with the acid
and base
Formulae Reaction Structure Oxid. Nature
Burns yellow Al2O3 + H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)3 + H2O | Al2O3 + NaOH →NaAlO2
Na Na2O(s) +1 Basic
flame + H 2O
Burns Bright Giant ionic
Mg MgO(s) +2 Basic
White Flame lattice Silicon dioxide is acidic: SiO2 + NaOH (hot & conc.)
Burns Bright Na2SiO3
Al Al2O3(s) +3 Amphoteric
White Flame Sulphur dioxide and trioxide are strongly acidic
Giant
Si SiO2(s) Coating +4 W. acidic
covalent With Produces
P2O3(s) Burns yellow +3 SO2(g) NaOH NaHSO3(aq)
P S. Acidic
P2O5(s) flame Simple +5 SO2(g) Excess NaOH Na2SO3(aq) + H2O
SO2(g) Burns blue molecular +4 SO3(g) NaHSO4(aq)
NaOH
S S. acidic
SO3(g) flame +6
SO3(g) Excess NaOH Na2SO4(aq) + H2O

P2 O5 empirical formula of P4 O10

9.6. Reactions of Elements with
​ ​ ​ ​

9.3. Reaction of Na & Mg with Water Chlorine

Na & 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) Very fast, floats, forms Formula Structure Oxid. Nature
Water 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) ball & dissolves Na NaCl­(s) +1 Neutral
Giant ionic
Mg & Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) Mg MgCl2(s) +2 Neutral
Very slow
Water Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g) Al AlCl3(s) +3 Acidic
Mg & Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) + Si SiCl4(l) +4 S. Acidic
Very fast
Steam H2(g) PCl3(l) Simple molecular +3
P S. Acidic
PCl5(l) +5
9.4. Reaction of Oxides with Water
9.7. Reactions of Chloride with Water

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Sodium chloride simply dissolves in water. Water is polar

∴ positive Na+ attracted to OH- while Cl- attracted to H+
MgCl2 slightly acidic because Mg ion has smaller radius &
higher charge ∴ attraction to water is so strong that H2O
loses a proton and solution becomes slightly acidic

Ionic radius decreases across a period however, since

non-metals gain electrons, they have one more shell
9.8. Atomic Radius than metals therefore they always have a larger radius
than metal ions

9.10. Melting Point

P+ in nucleus increases so nuclear charge increases

There are more e-, but increase in shielding is negligible
because each extra e- enters same principal energy level
∴ force of attraction between nucleus & e- increases ... Na Al m.p. increases because delocalized e- per atom
So atomic radius decreases. increases making metallic bond stronger
Si has highest m.p. due to giant covalent structure
9.9. Ionic Radius The larger the molecule size, the stronger the Van Der
Waals forces ∴ S8 > P4 > Cl2 > Ar

9.11. Electrical Conductivity

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Na < Mg < Al because no. of delocalized electrons which Generally, increases as no. of protons increases
can carry charge increases Decrease Mg → Al: more distant and less effective
Silicon is a semi-conductor nuclear charge on 3p orbital
Non-metals – covalent ∴ no charge Decrease P → S: in S, one electron paired ∴ causing
repulsion and easier to lose an electron
9.12. Electronegativity
10. Group 2
10.1. Introduction

Increases across period because the bonded e- are in the

same energy level but are attracted more strongly as no. m.p./b.p. decreases down group: atoms/ions get larger,
of protons increases the distance between nuclei & e-s increases ∴ bonds
weaker
9.13. First Ionisation Energy m.p./b.p. higher in gp. 2 than 1: 2e-s per atom donated
into delocalized system ∴ metallic bonding stronger
density increases down group: mass of atoms
increases faster than their size (volume) as atomic no.
increases

10.2. Reaction of Group 2 Metals with

Oxygen

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Calcium oxide (lime): basic oxide used to neutralize

acidic soil and used as a drying agent for drying
ammonia
All group 2 metals tarnish in air, forming oxide coatings Calcium carbonate (limestone): used as building
Burn vigorously in oxygen-forming white solids material (cement, concrete) etc., for extraction of iron,
glass industry, neutralize soil or chemical waste
10.3. Reactions with Water
11. Group 17
Metals: M(s)+ H2 O(l) → M (OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Metal Oxides: MO(s) + H2 O(l) → M(OH)2(aq)

11.1. Trends in Colour and Volatility
​ ​ ​ ​

Solubility of MO (Metal Group 2 Oxide) and M(OH)2(Metal

Group 2 Hydroxides) increases down group Fluorine Yellow
Alkalinity of solution increases down the group Yellow- Gas
Chlorine The
Solubility of MSO4 decreases down group Green
m.p. & b.p. Volatility colour
M(CO3) don’t react with water Orange-
Bromine Liquid increases decreases gets
Brown
down the down the darker
Grey, group ↓ group ↓ down the
10.4. Reaction with Acids Iodine Black,
Solid group ↓
Violet
M(s) + Acid(aq) → Salt + Hydrogen
​ ​

Astatine Black

MO(s) + Acid(aq) → Salt + Water

11.2. Oxidising Ability
​ ​

M(OH)x(s) + Acid(aq) → Salt + Water

​ ​

Halogens have high electron affinity (they gain electrons

MCO3(s) + Acid(aq) → Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxi
​ ​
easily) hence, they are good oxidising agents
Oxidising ability decreases down the group because
10.5. Thermal Decomposition of Group electron affinity decreases as atomic size increases.

2 Metals
11.3. Reactions of Halide Ions
MCO3(s) MO(s) +CO2(g)
X2(g) + H2(g) 2HX(g)
​ ​ ​

2M(NO3 )2(s) 2MO(s) +4NO2(g) + O2(g)

​ ​ ​ ​ ​
Product Reaction Description
HF Reacts explosively in all conditions
NO2: thick brown, acidic and soluble gas HCl Reacts explosively in sunlight
Thermal stability increases down the group ∴ HBr Reacts slowly on heating
decomposition becomes more difficult. HI Forms an equilibrium mixture on heating

10.6. Uses of Group 2 Metals The thermal stability of halogen hydrides decreases
down the group because:
Calcium compounds: The size of halogen atom increases
Nuclear attraction decreases
The H – X bond becomes longer and weaker
Thus, less energy is needed to break the bond
Bond energies decrease down the group

11.4. (Sub) Halide ions and aq. Silver

Ions

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Ag+(aq) + X-(aq) AgX(s)

This happens as the chlorate is formed by
Halide With Silver With dilute aq. With conc. aq. disproportionation of hypochlorite and hypochlorous
Ion Nitrate ammonia ammonia
acid
Cl‑ White ppt. ppt. dissolves
Br - Cream ppt. X ppt. dissolves ClO− + 2HClO → ClO3− + 2HCl ​

I- Yellow ppt. X X
Higher temperatures promote the formation of
hypochlorous acid through the hydrolysis of hypochlorite
AgX(s) + 2NH3(aq) → [Ag(NH3)2]+(aq) + X- and, therefore, speed up the reaction

The complex ion formed is called Diamine Silver(I) ion

11.7. Important Uses of Halogens and
[H3 N :⟶ Ag ←: N H3 ]+
​ ​

Halogen Compounds
11.5. (Sub) Halide Ions and Aqueous Fluorine:
To make chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs)
Sulfuric Acid As fluoride in toothpaste
To make polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) – non-
Metal Halide + Conc. H2SO4(aq) Hydrogen Halide
sticking coating in pots and pans
Conc. H2SO4(aq) is an oxidising agent (except for chloride Bromine and Iodine: manufacture of photographic films
Chlorine:
and fluorides as it is not strong enough)
In bleaches
This reaction is used for the preparation of hydrogen
To make PVC and chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs)
halides
As solvents
Chlorine NaCl(s) + H2SO4(aq) HCl(g) + NaHSO4(aq) Use of chlorine in water purification:
The oxidising power of chlorine is used in the
NaBr(s) + H2SO4(aq) HBr(g) + NaHSO4(aq)
Bromine treatment of water to kill bacteria
HBr(g) + H2SO4(aq) Br2(g) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)
NaI(s) + H2SO4(aq) HI(g) + NaHSO4(aq) Cl2(aq) + H2O(l)→ HCl(aq) + HClO(aq)
HI(g) + H2SO4(aq) I2(g) + SO2(g) + H2O(l) HClO(aq)→ HCl(aq) + O
Iodine
HI(g) + H2SO4(aq) I2(g) + H2S(g) + H2O(l)
This disproportionation reaction produces reactive
6HI(g) + H2SO4(aq) 3I2(g) + S(s) + 4H2O(l) oxygen atoms which kill bacteria

11.6. The Reactions of Chlorine with 12. Nitrogen and Sulfur

Aqueous Sodium Hydroxide
Disproportionation: a reaction in which the same
12.1. Lack of Reactivity of Nitrogen
substance is oxidized and reduced simultaneously,
Nitrogen molecule has three strong covalent bonds.
producing two different products
The bond is very strong and requires high energy to split
When chlorine reacts with a solution of cold aqueous
the two nitrogen atoms of a molecule.
sodium hydroxide, the disproportionation goes to lower
It reacts only under extreme temperature or pressure or
oxidation states
in the presence of a catalyst.
Cl2 + 2N aOH → N aCl + N aClO + H2 O
​ ​

12.2. Ammonium
With a hot solution, the oxidation state of chlorine goes
up to +V

3Cl2 + 6N aOH → N aClO3 + 5N aCl + 3H2 O

​ ​ ​

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Lone pair of e-s of nitrogen forms a coordinate bond with

the H+ ion
Formation: NH3(g) + H+ NH4+
Shape: tetrahedral
Bond angle: 109.5o
Bond length: equal lengths
12.5. Pollution
Acid Rain: SO3 + H2O→ H2SO4
2NO2 + H2O → HNO3 + HNO2 or 4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 →
4HNO3

Damages trees & plants, kills fish and other river life,
buildings, statues and metal structures

Combustion Pollutants:

Nitrogen oxide (NO): formed by reaction of N2 and O2

in the engine, forms acid rain and respiratory problems
Atmospheric oxides of nitrogen (NO & NO2) can react
Displacement of ammonia from its salts:
warm with unburned hydrocarbons to form peroxyacetyl
Any Ammonium Salt + Any Base ​

nitrate (PAN) which is a component of photochemical

Ammonia Gas + salt + water smog
Carbon monoxide (CO): source: incomplete combustion
12.3. Uses of Ammonia & its of hydrocarbon fuel, toxic effect on haemoglobin

Compounds
12.6. Food Preservation
Used in the production of nitric acid
Used in the production of inorganic fertilizers SO2 is used by itself or as a sulphite to preserve food
Used in the production of nylon
SO2 + H2O → H2SO3(aq)
Used in the production of explosives

SO2 & sulphites inhibit growth of bacteria, yeasts, etc. &

12.4. Oxides of Nitrogen are reducing agents, so reduce rate of oxidation of food.
Used to prevent spoilage of dried fruit, dehydrated
N2(g) + O2(g)→ 2NO(g) or ½N2(g) + O2(g)→ NO2(g) vegetables and fruit juices.

Naturally: during lightning, EA provided for N2 to react

Man-made: in car engine, high temp. and pressure 13. An Introduction to AS
Catalytic convertors: exhaust gases passed through
catalytic convertors containing a catalyst (platinum/ Level Organic Chemistry
palladium/nickel) helping to reduce oxides to nitrogen.
Catalytic role in oxidation of sulphur dioxide:
13.1. Introduction

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Organic Chemistry: study of hydrocarbons and their

derivatives
13.4. Types of Formulae
Carbon can form a variety of compounds because:
Displayed formula (Hexane)
Carbon is tetravalent
Carbon-carbon bonds can be single, double or triple
Atoms can be arranged in chains, branches and rings
Homologous series: a series of compounds of similar
structures In which:
contain the same functional group
all share the same general formula
the formula of homologue differs from neighbour by
Structural formula (Hexane)
CH2
CH3-CH2CH2CH2CH2-CH3 or CH3(CH2)4CH3
similar chemical properties
Skeletal formula (Hexane)
gradual change in physical properties as Mr increases
Functional group: an atom or group of atoms in an
organic molecule that determines the characteristic
reactions of a homologous series.
Alkyl group: a reactive group which is alkane minus 1 H

13.2. Hybridisation
Molecular formula (Hexane)
Hybridisation: mixing up of different atomic orbitals C6H14
resulting in new orbitals of equal energy.
Carbon’s Electron Configuration: 13.5. IUPAC Nomenclature
Select the longest chain as the main chain
Other carbon chains as substituent alkyl groups
Give the lowest number C in the main chain to a
substituent
If different alkyl groups are present on identical
sp3 sp2 sp
positions, give simpler alkyl smaller number
All orbitals mix 2s, 2px, 2py mix 2s and 2px mix Two or more alkyl groups present, order alphabetically
3 sp2 orbitals 2 sp orbitals If the same substituent is repeated use the di, tri, or tetra
4 sp3 orbitals
1 pure p orbital 2 pure p orbitals prefix
Ratio of characteristics s : p If the ring of carbon is present, use the prefix “cyclo”
1:3 Write the position of the double bond in alkene, e.g. but-
1:2 1-ene
1:1

13.6. Breaking of Covalent Bonds

Homolytic Fission:

Two atoms sharing e- pair of similar electronegativity

When bond breaks, each atom takes one e- from pair of
13.3. Classes of Compound electrons forming free radicals
Free radicals: electrically neutral atoms or groups of
atoms with unpaired electrons are very reactive
Free radical reaction catalysed by heat or light

Heterolytic Fission:

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Two atoms sharing e- pair are of different

electronegativity
When the bond breaks, one of the bonded atoms takes
both bonding e-s
Results in the formation of +ve and –ve ions
If +ve charged on C, it is called carbocation or carbonium
If –ve charged on C, it is called carbanion

Note: homolytic fission requires less energy than heterolytic

Ethene: Planar Shape, H – C – H bond = 120o

13.7. Types of Reagents

Nucleophilic reagent (nucleophile): donator of pair of e-

Must have lone pair of e-s

Attack centre of +ve charge (positive pole)
Reaction with nucleophile called nucleophilic reactions
Examples: CH-, Cl-, NH3, H2O, CN-

Benzene
Electrophilic reagent (electrophile): acceptor of pair of e-

+ve ions or e- deficient molecules

Attack regions of high e- density
Examples: Br+, CH3+, AlCl3

13.8. Types of Reaction

Addition reaction: single product formed
Electrophilic addition (alkenes)
Nucleophilic addition (carbonyl compounds)
Substitution reaction: two products formed
Nucleophilic substitution (halogenoalkanes)
Free radical substitution (alkanes)
Elimination reaction: more than one product formed,
small molecule removed from reactant (alcohols and
halogenoalkanes)
Hydrolysis reaction: breaking down of molecule by
water, sped up by acid or alkali (esters and alkenes)

13.9. Oxidation and Reduction 13.11. Isomerism

Existence of two or more compounds with the same
Oxidation: addition of oxygen or removal of hydrogen
Reduction: addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen molecular formula but different structural formula

13.10. Shapes of Ethane and Ethene

Ethane: sp3 bonds, all sigma bonds

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Note:

Straight chain alkanes have higher b.p. than branched

Branching makes molecule more spherical reduces
13.14. Functional Isomers
contact points VDW forces decreases
Isomers have different functional groups, belong to
13.12. Chain Isomers different homologous series
Have different physical and chemical properties
Isomers have different carbon chain length
Same chemical properties but slightly different Ratio of C : H Functional Gps. Example
physical 1:3 Alcohol & Ether C2H­6O
Example: 1:2 Aldehyde & Ketone C3 H 6 O
1:2
Carboxylic acid & Ester C3 H 6 O 2
Must have O2

13.15. Geometric (cis/trans) Isomers

Shown only by alkenes
Arises due to restriction of double bond
Only possible when each carbon has 2 different groups
13.13. Position Isomers cis-trans isomers have different b.p.
cis isomers have higher dipole
Isomers differ in position of substituent atoms or group
trans isomer of symmetrical alkene has zero dipole
or the functional group
Same chemical properties but slightly different
physical
Example: But-1-ene

13.16. Optical Isomers

Example: But-2-ene

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Arises from different arrangement of atoms or groups in

3D space resulting in two isomers
14.3. Substitution
Have effect on polarised light
Alkanes react with halogens: Cl2 and Br2
Chiral carbon: a carbon having 4 single bonds and 4
​ ​

different atoms or groups Example: Chlorination of Methane

Isomers non-super-imposable images of each other
Reaction
Have same physical and chemical properties Reagent Condition
Type Mechanism
No. of optical isomers in a molecule containing n chiral
Cl2(g) UV light Substitution Free Radical
carbons = 2n

14. Hydrocarbons
Reactants are Halogens and Alkane.
14.1. Properties Involves 3 steps: initiation, propagation, and termination.
requires the action of UV light or Heat.
Generally unreactive:

All C–C bonds single; alkanes = saturated hydrocarbons

14.4. Initiation
Non-polar ∴ no center of charge to act as either
Breakdown of Chlorine into radicals.
nucleophile or electrophile ∴ cannot attract polar
Uses the action of UV light.
reagents like acids, bases, metals or oxidizing agents Starts the reaction.
Creates radicals.
Physical properties:
Cl2(g) → 2Cl(g)
o ​ ​

The volatility of the alkanes decreases and m.p/b.p

increases as number of carbon atoms increases
14.5. Propagation
Reason: increasing Van der Waals forces
Chlorine radical reacts with the alkyl/alkane.
14.2. Combustion Helps the reaction to propagate (chain reaction).
Maintains balance of radicals.
Used as fuel because they burn in oxygen to given out CH4 + Clo → CH3o + HCl
​ ​

large amounts of energy CH3o + Cl2 → CH3 Cl + Clo

​ ​ ​

Alkanes kinetically stable in presence of O2; combustion

occurs when necessary amount of Ea supplied
14.6. Termination
Reaction occurs only in gas phase
Complete: carbon dioxide + water Chlorine radical and alkyl radical reacts.
Incomplete: carbon monoxide + carbon (soot) + water Stops propagation of reaction.
General Equation of Hydrocarbon Combustion: Reduces the number of radicals.
CxHy + (x + y4 ) O2 → xCO2 + y2 H2 O
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

CH3o + Clo → CH3 Cl

​ ​

2Clo → Cl2 ​

CH3o + CH3o → CH3 C H3

​ ​ ​ ​

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Hint:

CH3o and Clo represents radicals which is neutral atom

​

and an unpaired electron.

14.7. Cracking
Breaking of large less useful alkanes into useful, more
energy value smaller products using heat & catalyst Electrophile forms by heterolytic fission
Products: Electrophile attacks double bond
smaller alkanes and alkenes or Pair of e-s from double bond migrate to electrophile and
smaller alkenes and hydrogen gas π bond breaks
Thermal cracking: high temp. & pressure Carbocation formed which attacks the nucleophile
Catalytic cracking: high temp. & catalyst

14.11. Carbocations
14.8. Hydrocarbons as Fuels
Source of alkanes: crude oil
Steady change in b.p. of alkanes allows crude oil to be
separated by fractional distillation
Catalytic conversion of CO and NOx:
2NO2 + 4CO → N2 + 4CO2
2NO + 2CO → N2 + 2CO2

14.9. Alkenes
Markovnikov’s principle: an electrophile adds to an
Unsaturated hydrocarbons unsymmetrical alkene so that the most stable
Contain at least one C=C double bond carbocation is formed as an intermediate
General formula: CnH2n (like cycloalkanes) Hydrogen binds to carbon that is more stable
Source of alkenes:
Inductive effect of alkyl groups:
Cracking alkanes
Dehydration of alcohols Alkyl groups donate e-­­ to the ring
More reactive than alkanes due to presence of double Producing a positive inductive effect
bond; pi electrons loosely and more susceptible to A larger alkyl group has a weaker inductive effect

attacks by e- deficient groups like electrophiles

Alkenes combust completely carbon dioxide + water 14.12. Addition Reactions
Give energy but not used as fuels; have other uses

14.10. Electrophilic Addition

Mechanism

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Hydrogenation (Alkene + H2 Alkane)

Reagent: H2(g)
Condition:
Catalyst: Nickel
Temp.: 100oC
Press.: 2 atm.
Use: convert liquid oils to saturated solid fats
Halogenation (Alkene + X2 Dihaloalkane)
Reagent: Halogen(aq)
Condition: r.t.p./dark
Halogenation (Alkene + Hydrohalogen
Halogenoalkane)
Reagent: Hydrohalogen(g)
14.14. Polymerisation
Condition: r.t.p.
Hydration (Alkene + H2O(g) Alcohol) Repeated addition of 1000s of alkene molecules
Reagent: steam (monomer) to each other forming a macromolecule
Condition: Polyethene:
Catalyst: H3­PO4 – phosphoric acid LDPE: cling wrap
Temp.: 300oC HDPE: water pipes, wire insulation
Press.: 70atm

14.13. Oxidation of Alkenes

Both oxidation and addition to double bond involved
KMnO4 changes from purple/pink to colourless

With Cold Dilute Acidified KMnO4/H+

Diol is formed

Polychloroethene (PVC):
Water pipes
Insulation of wires

With Hot Concentrated Acidified KMnO4/H+

This leads to the rupture of the double bond

Two compounds are formed
Products formed depend on alkene

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Primary 1o (SN2)

Secondary 2o (SN2 and SN1)

General conditions: high pressure,

high temperature and catalyst
Disadvantages:
Non-biodegradable: does not break down so
increases the amount of volume needed for landfill
sites
Combustion produces harmful gases which
contribute to global warming e.g. SO2, CO­2 and HCl Tertiary 3o (SN1)
from PVCs
Disposal of Polymers:
Recycle existing plastic
Make polymers biodegradable by adding starch units

15. Halogen Compounds

15.1. Types of Halogenoalkanes
15.2. Strength of C – Hal Bond
Polar Nature Bond Energy Reactivity
Fluoro
Chloro
Decrease Decrease Increases
Bromo
Iodo
Electronegativity Bond length increases, bond
decreases energy decreases, lower EA so
down group more reactive

15.3. Nucleophilic Substitution

Mechanism

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The C-X bond is a polar bond and has partial charges due Hydrolysis (R – X + OH- R – OH + X-)
to the high electronegativity of halogen. Reagent: strong alkali; NaOH(aq) or KOH(aq)
The δ+ carbocation is easily susceptible to attack by a Condition: heat/reflux
nucleophile Fluoroalkanes are not hydrolysed because the C – F
bond is too strong
SN1 Mechanism:
Ease of hydrolysis increases: Primary < Secondary <
Tertiary
Tertiary halogenoalkanes can be hydrolysed without
alkali
Note: if any Cl- or Br- ions present in NaOH(aq), these
ions will interfere with reaction
Nitrile (cyanide) (R – X + CN- RCN + X-)
Unimolecular – only one molecule involved in 1st step Reagent: KCN or NaCN in ethanol
Secondary and Tertiary halogenoalkanes Condition:
Solvent: Ethanol
SN2 Mechanism: Heat/Reflux
Reaction forms a C – C bond; therefore number of
Carbon increases; name has one more carbon
Primary Amines (R – X + NH3 RNH2(l) + HX(g))
Reagent: Ammonia (NH3)
Condition: Ammonia in alcohol under pressure in a
sealed container
Bimolecular – two molecules involved in 1st step Note: If excess concentration of ammonia used, HX
Primary and secondary halogenoalkanes reacts with it forming NH4X

15.4. Nucleophilic Substitution 15.5. Reflux

Reaction Many organic reactions proceed slowly
Heating done under reflux to prevent volatile organic
solvents to evaporate
Mechanism similar to simple distillation

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Note: the alternative is using HCFCs (replace Cl with H or

15.6. Elimination Reaction more F atoms) as they break down more easily and do
not release Cl → less effect on the ozone layer
R – X + OH- Alkene + X- + H2O
Mechanism:
16. Hydroxy Compounds
16.1. Types of Alcohols

Primary 1o
Reagent: ethanolic NaOH or KOH
Conditions: temp. 60oC, reflux
OH- acts as a proton acceptor; it accepts the H+ loss from
the halogenoalkanes during elimination
Elimination becomes progressively easier

Primary < Secondary < Tertiary

Note: the carbon atom adjacent to carbon with halide Secondary 2o

must have at least one hydrogen attached to it.

15.7. Uses of Halogenoalkanes

CFCs are inert and can be liquefied easily: Strength of
C – X bond is very high, hence do not decompose easily
and are not flammable.
Uses:
Tertiary 3o
As propellants in aerosol cans
As solvents in dry-cleaning
As refrigerant for freezers and fridges
Fire extinguishers, insecticides and pesticides

15.8. CFCs Effect on Ozone Layer

Destroys the ozone layer
CFCs escape the atmosphere and, because of their Source of Alcohols:
inertness, remain without further reaction until they Hydration of alkenes
reach the stratosphere and ozone layer. Fermentation
In the stratosphere, high energy U.V causes the Cl atom
to split CFC molecule forming Cl⋅, which reacts with
16.2. Properties
ozone
This is a catalytic cycle where one Cl⋅ can react with many Physical Properties:
O3 thus causing destruction of ozone layer:
Colourless liquids at r.t.p
Cl⋅ + O3(g) ⋅OCl(g) + O2(g) b.p. and density increases with increasing C atoms and
⋅OCl(g) + O(g) Cl⋅ + O2(g) also with increasing OH groups
Can react and breakdown another O3 molecule

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Boiling Point:
b.p. decreases→

Because:

b.p. of alcohols > alkenes as they have hydrogen bonds 16.6. Dehydration of Alcohols
Alcohol(l) Alkene + H2O(l)
Solubility of Alcohols in Water:
Condition:
Smaller alcohols mix completely with water since strong Conc. H2SO4 OR
hydrogen bonds occur between alcohol and water H3PO4 at 180oC OR
As hydrocarbon nature increases (i.e. more C-C… bonds),
Al2O3 at 300oC
the non-polar character outweighs the ability of the OH
Type of reaction: Elimination
to form hydrogen bonds and ∴ solubility decreases
Small alcohols (e.g. ethanol) are good solvents for both Mechanism:
polar and non-polar compounds as they have polar and
non-polar components

16.3. Reaction with Sodium

R – OH + Na(l) RO- Na+ + ½ H2(g) Adjacent carbon to carbon with OH must have at least
one hydrogen (tertiary cannot undergo dehydration)
Type of reaction: acid-base
Reagent used: liquid sodium metal
16.7. Halogenation
Reactivity of alcohols decreases with increasing chain
lengths of hydrocarbon
Type of Reaction: Nucleophilic Substitution
Reaction less vigorous than that of Na and water which
shows water is a stronger acid than alcohol

16.4. Reaction with Carboxylic Acids

Reagent Condition Type of Reaction

Heat-reflux
R-COOH Esterification
Conc. H2SO4

Used in food flavourings and perfumes and as solvents

16.5. Hydrolysis of Esters

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R – OH R – X
Tertiary alcohols not oxidised because no hydrogens
Forming
Producing: Reactions Condition attached to carbon with OH group so oxidising agent
Reagent
Conc. HCl
colour does not change.
RCl(l) + Zn +
Heat/Reflu
H2 O
SOCl2
RCl(l) +
SO2(g) +
HCl(g)
Alkyl r.t.p Oxidation of primary alcohols
PCl5 RCl(l)
Chlorides
+
POCl3(aq)
+ HCl(g)
R–
OH+ PCl3 RCl(l)
+
H3PO3(aq) Heat/Reflu Oxidation of secondary alcohols
+ HCl(g)

NaBr + HBr(g) 16.9. Tests for Alcohols

H2SO4(aq) RBr(l) +
HBr Alkyl H2 O Result with:
r.t.p Reagent
P + Br2 – Bromides PBr3(g) Primary Secondary Tertiary
warm RBr(l) + Na metal Bubble of H2 Gas
PBr3 H3PO3(aq)
K2Cr­2O4/H+ Green X
PI3(g) RI(l) +
P + I2 – Alkyl KMnO4/H Colourless X
+ r.t.p
warm PI3 Iodide
H3PO3(aq)

17. Carbonyl Compounds

16.8. Oxidation of Alcohols
Primary alcohols can be oxidised into aldehydes, which
17.1. Introduction
can subsequently undergo further oxidation to yield
Boiling Point:
carboxylic acids.
Secondary alcohols can be oxidised to form ketones
only.
The oxidising agents of alcohols include acidified
potassium dichromate (K2 C r2 O7 ) or acidified
​ ​ ​

potassium permanganate (KM nO4 ). ​

Reagent Observation Solubility:

Acidified K2 C r2 O7 Orange to Green
Smaller carbonyl compounds: completely soluble as
​ ​ ​

Acidified KM nO4 ​ Purple to Colourless they form hydrogen bonds with water molecules; are
good solvents for polar & non-polar solutes
Larger carbonyl compounds: polar nature decreases,
and non-polar nature increases, ability to form hydrogen
bonds decreases

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Type of Reaction: nucleophilic addition (H- ions)

17.2. Production of Carbonyl
Reducing agents:
Compounds NaBH4 – sodium tetrahydrioborate
LiAlH4 – lithium aluminium hydride
Oxidation of Primary Alcohols (Aldehydes) H2/Pt or Ni
Aldehydes ⟹ 1o Alcohols
Reactants: acidified K2 Cr2 O7 /KM nO3 .
R-CHO + 2[H] RCH2OH
​ ​ ​ ​

Distillation to separate Aldehyde from other compounds.

Aldehyde can easily be oxidized into Carboxylic acid, so it Ketones ⟹ 2o Alcohols
needs to be distilled as soon as it forms. R-CO-R + 2[H] R-CH(OH)-R
CH3 C H2 OH + [O] => CH3 C HO + H2 O.
​ ​ ​ ​

17.5. Testing Carbonyl Compounds

Oxidation of Secondary Alcohols (Ketones)
2,4,-dinitrophenylhydrazine:
Reactants: acidified K2 C r2 O7 /KM nO4 .
​ ​ ​ ​

Distillation to separate Ketone from other compounds.

Ketones cannot be further oxidized.
CH3 C HOHCH3 + [O] => CH3 COCH3 + H2 O.
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

17.3. Nucleophilic Addition with HCN

Reagent Condition Type of Reaction
HCN HCN w/alkali or HCN w/KCN Nucleophilic Addition

Since HCN was added, the carbon chain increases

The product formed is hydroxynitrile or cyanohydrine It is a nucleophilic addition & condensation/elimination.
Aldehydes are more susceptible to nucleophilic attacks Forms: red/orange ppt.
than ketones The m.p. of the ppt. can be used to identify individual
More minor carbonyl compounds are more reactive aldehydes and ketones
Product has a chiral carbon ∴ exhibits optical isomerism
Tests Given only by Aldehydes:
Mechanism:
Tollen’s Reagent

Solution of Ag(N O3 )2 + N H3 excess

​ ​ ​

Aldehyde + Tollens agent Silver Mirror

Ag + reduced to Ag , and –CHO oxidized to the acid

2Ag + + RCHO2 => Ag + RCOOH − + H +

Note: HCN is a poor nucleophile with few CN- Ions, the Fehling’s Solution
-
reaction is slow. To increase CN conc.:
CuSO4 in ammonia solution
​

Aldehyde + Fehling’s Solution Red ppt.

Make HCN react in the presence of alkali Cu2 + reduced to Cu(I) oxide and –CHO oxidized
​ ​

to acid.
HCN + OH- H2O + CN- 2Cu2 + +RCHO => 2Cu+ > +RCOOH −
​

Addition of KCN and dilute H2SO4 can provide HCN and

more CN- ions

17.4. Reduction of Carbonyl

Compounds

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18. Carboxylic Acids and

Derivatives
18.1. Introduction
Weak acids don’t dissociate completely
Forms hydrogen bonds:
High melting and boiling points
High solubility of smaller carboxylic acids
19. Nitrogen Compounds
Forms hydrogen-bonded dimers when pure vapour,
liquid or solid & when dissolved in non-polar organic 19.1. Introduction
solvents
Types:

Amines (−N H2 ) ​

Amides (−CO − N H2 ) {not included in AS}

​

Nitriles (−CN )

19.2. Formation of Primary Amines

Reactants and Conditions

Primary Halogenoalkanes
18.2. Formation of Carboxylic Acids Ammonia
Heat under Pressure
From alcohols: complete oxidation of primary alcohols Ethanol (Catalyst)
From aldehydes: oxidation of aldehydes
Reaction:
From nitriles: acid/base hydrolysis of a nitrile
CH3 C H2 B r + N H3 => CH3 C H2 N H2 + HBr
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

19.3. Formation of Nitriles

Reactants and Conditions

Halogenoalkanes
KCN
Heat under Reflux
Ethanol (Catalyst)

Reaction:
CH3 C H2 B r + KCN => CH3 C H2 CN + KBr
​ ​ ​ ​

18.3. Formation of Salts 19.4. Formation of Hydroxynitriles

Heterolytic fission of the hydroxyl bond (-OH)
Reactants and Conditions
Salts called carboxylates
Aldehydes or Ketones
HCN
Heat under Reflux
KCN (Catalyst)

Reaction:
CH3 C H2 C HO + HCN => CH3 C H2 C (OH)(CN )H
​ ​ ​ ​

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CH3 CH2 COCH3 + HCN =>

​ ​ ​
‎
‎
CH3 C H2 C (OH)(CN )CH3
​ ​ ​

19.5. Hydrolysis of Nitriles

Reactants and Conditions

Nitriles
Heat Under Reflux
Acid/Base

Acid Hydrolysis
polyethene polytetrafluoroethene
Products:

Salt
Carboxylic Acid

Reaction:
CH3 C H2 CN + HCl => CH3 C H2 C O2 H + N H4 Cl
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Base Hydrolysis

Products:

Base
Salt of Carboxylic Acid

Reaction: Poly Vinyl Chloride (poly-chloroethene)

CH3 C H2 CN + N aOH => CH3 C H2 C O2 N a + N H3
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

LDPE HDPE

20. Polymerisation Soft plastic made with non-

polar polymer
Using Ziegler catalyst

Hard plastic made with non-

Highly branched chains
polar polymer
20.1. Addition Polymerisation
Low melting point Unbranched chains
Monomers are alkenes; the polymer formed is Chains cannot pack closely due
to random branching, leaving High melting point
polyalkene
gaps
Alkene joins to itself, and no molecule is lost
Closely packed chains, fewer
E.g. nA → −A − A − A − A− or ­(−A−)n Low density
gaps
​

The molecular mass of the polymer is multiple

High density
monomers

Physical Properties of Polymers: 20.2. Environmental Impact of

Only C and H present = only VDW forces present Poly(alkenes)
Presence of Cl or F = dipoles = permanent dipole
interaction
Longer chains with fewer side chains have stronger VDW
forces

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Non-biodegradable
They can not be decomposed by the action of
bacteria
Dangerous to Decompose
Produce harmful gases into the air when burned
It takes hundreds of years to turn into decomposable
material
Results in large amounts of landfills or Garbage
Patches at Oceans

21. Organic Synthesis

21.1. Introduction 22. Analytical Techniques
Branch of Organic Chemistry.
Used to construct new chemicals artificially from 22.1. Infra-red Spectroscopy
petroleum or other organic compounds.
For example, make propanoic acid from ethane. This is when a sample being analysed is irradiated with
Involves multiple steps and reactants. electromagnetic waves in the infra-red region of the
It can have more than one route for a specific product. electromagnetic spectrum.
The machine used is a spectrophotometer, and it detects
the intensity of wavelengths of infra-red that pass
21.2. Things to Remember through the sample
The energy absorbed corresponds to changes in the
Reactants and products
vibration of bonds, leading to the bond being stretched,
Reaction Mechanisms
bend and twist
Electrophilic Addition
At a specific frequency, the resonance frequency, the
Nucleophilic Substitution
largest vibrations are obtained
Free Radical Substitution
Each type of vibration will absorb characteristic
Nucleophilic Addition
wavelengths of infra-red radiation
Conditions for reactions like
We can hence identify the presence (or absence) of
Organic Compounds like ethanol
different functional groups from the absorbance pattern
Heat under Reflux
on an infra-red spectrum
Pressure/Closed Container
Catalyst like N aBH4 , acids
​

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Identifies the relative abundances of different isotopes in

a sample.

22.2. Monitoring Air Pollution The 2 left most peaks represent the 2 isotopes of
Chlorine i.e., Cl-35 and Cl-37.
IR spectroscopy identifies particular bonds in a molecule, The right-most 3 peaks represent the Chlorine molecules
and so each pollutant will show a different pattern of with different arrangements with Cl-35 and Cl-37.
absorption – this allows the identification of the pollution The ratio between the Cl-35 and Cl-37 peaks represents
It is also possible to measure the concentration of each the relative abundance of the isotopes.
pollutant with the different amounts of absorption
22.5. Organic Fragment Pattern
22.3. Mass Spectrometry
Introduction

Chemical substances are identified by their mass-to-

charge ratio.
The substance is ionized and given charge.
The charged ions pass through magnetic and electric
fields to calculate the mass-to-charge ratio of each ion
present.

The abundance of the ions is used to identify different

elements and functional groups of a compound.

22.4. Isotopic Abundance of Elements

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Alkyls like CH3 - form Fragment patterns on Mass

​

For 1 Chlorine:
Spectrometer
We can use the Molecular ion peak ( M+ ) as identified
​

here

M+2 is in 3:1 to M+
Here, 72 is the Molecular ion peak.
​ ​

Both have a difference of 2 m/z due to the isotopes of

It is the total mass of the organic molecule.
Chlorine.
Used to identify Carbon atoms present in the Compound
If the conditions are met, there is a Chlorine atom.
using formula.

100 ∗ M+1 For 2 Chlorine:

n (N umber of Carbon atoms) =
​

1.1 ∗ M+
​

M+1 Represents the abundance of peak to the right of

​

molecular ion peak.

It is smaller than the M+ peak and caused by the C-13
​

isotope.
1 in every 100 Carbon is C-13, so it has a ratio of M+ ​

depending on the number of carbon atoms.

Different atoms and functional groups create several
peaks that the table can identify.

22.6. Halogen Identification

There are M+2 and M+4 peaks alongside M+ peak.
​ ​ ​

Uses M+2 peak to identify Chlorine and Bromine atoms

​

They have a difference of 2 m/z.

in the organic compound.
M+4 , M+2 , M+ are in the ratio 9:6:1.
​ ​ ​

If the conditions are met, there are 2 Chlorine atoms.

For Bromine:

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There are M+2 peaks alongside M+ peak.

​ ​

They have a difference of 2 m/z.

M+2 , M+ have almost same height.
​ ​

If the conditions are met, there is a Bromine atom.

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Chemistry

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