Precalculus Review

Updated August 6, 2024

1
In this document, we do a quick review of some notions from precalculus you may have forgotten. Before
we begin, we fix some notation that is standard throughout.

• The notation R is shorthand for the set of all real numbers.

• If S is a set and x is an element of S, then we write x ∈ S. The symbol “∈” is read “is an element of”
or “is in.”

• Let a, b ∈ R (a and b are real numbers) with a < b. The closed interval [a, b] is the set {x ∈ R : a ≤ x ≤ b};
that is, it is the set of all real numbers x such that x is between a and b exclusive. Similarly, we have
the half open, half closed intervals:

(a, b] = {x ∈ R : a < x ≤ b} ;

[a, b) = {x ∈ R : a ≤ x < b} ;

and the open intervals:

(a, b) = {x ∈ R : a < x < b} .

Note. This chapter is not meant to be a comprehensive guide on precalculus; it is meant to be a review
only. If you are completely unfamiliar with some of these concepts, you should refer yourself to a precalculus
text to properly learn the material. This is not meant to be a surrogate for a precalculus class.

1 What is a Function?
In this section, we look at what a function is and define some terminology.

Definition 1.1: Domain and Codomain

Let D be a subset of the real numbers R. A function f is a rule that assigns to each real number x
in D another real number denoted by f (x), or y, in R. We write f : D → R and this is read “f is a
function from D to R.” The set D is called the domain of f and R is called the codomain of f .

It is useful to think of a function as a machine that takes numbers as input and outputs real numbers. You
have seen many examples of functions before.

Example 1.1

f1 (x) = x2 , f2 (x) = cos(x), f3 (x) = ln(x), and so on, are all functions of x. The domains of f1 and
f2 are both R. The domain of f3 is the set of all positive real numbers. This is because ln(x) is not
defined when x is a non-positive number. ♠

2
 Example 1.2

Consider the function A(r) = πr2 where r ≥ 0. The domain of this function is the set of all non-
negative real numbers. The function calculates the area of a circle of radius r. We could let the domain
be any subset of real numbers we want, but if we included negative numbers, then the interpretation
of the function as the area of a circle makes no sense (can’t have a negative radius). ♠

Example 1.3

Einstein’s famous equation E(m) = mc2 is a function of m. The equation relates the energy in an
object is related to its mass m multiplied by the square of the speed of light c2 . This is a function of
the variable m. The domain of this function, again, would be all non-negative real numbers because
objects can not have negative mass. ♠

A useful way to determine information about functions is to look at their graphs. Recall that R2 is the
standard Cartesian plane; it is the set of all ordered pairs (x, y) such that x and y are real numbers.

Definition 1.2: Graphs of Functions

If f : D → R is a function, the graph of f (x) is the set of all ordered pairs (x, f (x)) where x ∈ D.
In set notation, the graph of f is given by

graph of f = {(x, f (x)) : x ∈ D} .

Example 1.4

Consider the function f (x) = x2 . The graph of f (x) is the set of all ordered pairs of the form (x, x2 ),
where x ∈ R. If we graph this in the Cartesian plane, we get a parabola:

3
 10

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

The graphs of cos(x) and ln(x) are given below:

−2π −3π/2 −π −π/2 π/2 π 3π/2 2π

−1

4
 3

1 2 e 5 10

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

Consider f (x) = x2 . This function has domain R. However, since squares of real numbers are always posi-
tive, we see that f (x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ R. Therefore, the set of all values of f (x) is not equal to the codomain
of f , which is R. The set of all values of a function is given a special name.

Definition 1.3: Range

Let f : D → R be a function. The range of the function is the set of all values f (x) as x varies over
all numbers in the domain D. In set notation,

range of f = {f (x) : x ∈ D} .

Note

The range of a function can be inferred from the graph. The set of y-values hit by the graph of the
function is the range of the function.

Example 1.5

Determine the range of the function f (x) = cos(x).

5
 Solution

The function f (x) = cos(x) oscillates between 1 and -1. Therefore, the range of cos(x) is the interval
[−1, 1]. ♠

The domain of a function is the set of all real numbers on which it is defined. Let’s do an example of finding
domains of different types of functions.

Example 1.6

Determine the domains and ranges of the following functions:

√
i) g1 (x) = 5 − x
1
ii) g2 (x) =
x2 + 2x + 1

Solution

i) The square root function is not defined for negative numbers. Therefore, everything under the
square root needs to be positive for g1 (x) to be defined. That is, 5 − x ≥ 0 so that 5 ≥ x.
Therefore, the domain of g1 is the set of all real numbers x with x ≤ 5. As a set, we write

{x ∈ R : 5 ≥ x} = (−∞, 5].
√ √
To determine the range, notice that the graph of 5 − x is the graph of x reflected over the
√
y-axis and shifted 5 units to the right. Moreover, since x has range equal to the positive real
√
numbers, this implies that 5 − x does as well.
√
Another way to see this is to reason as follows: certainly the values of g1 (x) = 5 − x are always
non-negative. Let r ≥ 0 be any non-negative real number. And consider the equation,
√
g2 (x) = 5 − x = r.

This can be solved for x by squaring both sides and rearranging:

√
5 − x = r =⇒ r2 = 5 − x =⇒ x = 5 − r2 .
√
Since this equation can be solved for any non-negative real number r, it follows that 5 − x takes
all non-negative real values as x runs over its entire domain. Therefore, the range of g1 is equal
to all non-negative real numbers.

ii) The function g2 (x) is undefined at all x-values where the denominator is zero. Factoring the

6
 denominator yields x2 + 2x + 1 = (x + 1)2 . Therefore,
1 1
g2 (x) = = .
x2 + 2x + 1 (x + 1)2

The denominator of g2 is zero if and only if x = −1. Therefore, the domain of g2 is the set of all
real numbers not equal to −1. As a set, we write

{x ∈ R : x ̸= −1} = (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞) = R \ {−1} .

We use a similar method as in part i) to determine the range. The graph of (x + 1)2 is a parabola
that has vertex at (−1, 0). Thus, the range of (x − 1)2 is all the non-negative real numbers. Since
division of non-negative numbers by non-negative numbers results in a non-negative number, it
follows that g2 (x) has range equal to all non-negative real numbers. ♠

There is an easy way to test whether or not an equation defines a function. This is called the vertical line test.

Theorem 1.1: Vertical Line Test

An algebraic equation y = f (x) defines a function if any vertical line intersects the graph of the
equation - the set of all ordered pairs (x, f (x)) - at most once.

In high school, you would have been shown this test. Probably you would have put your pencil on the paper
and moved it horizontally along the x-axis. If the pencil hit the graph of the equation in two different places,
then the equation does not define a function.

Example 1.7

A circle of radius r is not a function because any vertical line x = a, with −r < a < r, intersects the
graph of the circle twice. However, the top and bottom half of a circle taken individually are graphs
of functions. We can see why this is true as follows: the equation for a circle of radius r centred at
the origin is x2 + y 2 = r2 . Solving for y yields,
p
y 2 = r2 − x2 =⇒ ± r2 − x2 .
√
The top half of the circle is the positive square root function f1 (x) = r2 − x2 . The bottom half is
√
f2 (x) = − r2 − x2 . Both of these individually are functions of x.

2 Elementary Functions
There are a number of special types of functions we’ll be looking at in this course. These are called elemen-
tary functions.

7
2.1 Polynomial Functions
Definition 2.1: Polynomial Functions

A polynomial function is an expression of the form,

P (x) = an xn + an−1 xn−1 + . . . + a1 x + a0 ,

where n ≥ 0 is an integer and the ai ’s are real numbers. The number n is called the degree of the
polynomial.

Polynomial functions are some of the best functions because they are extremely well behaved. Polynomial
functions are defined for all x-values, so the domain of a polynomial function is generally R (sometimes it
is restricted). The range of a polynomial function depends on the nature of the equation. For example,
f (x) = x2 has range equal to {y ≥ 0}, whereas f (x) = 5 − x4 has range equal to {y ≤ 5}.

A degree 1 polynomial function is a linear function and its graph is a line. Usually we write these as
f (x) = mx + b where m is the slope of the line and b is the y-intercept.

A degree 2 polynomial function is a quadratic function and its graph is a parabola. The graph of the
quadratic function f (x) = x2 is shown below.
9

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

A degree 3 polynomial function is called a cubic function. There are two general shapes of graphs of cubic
functions. The first type looks like the following smooth curve.

8
 9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6
−7
−8
−9

The second type of shape a cubic function can have is that of a smooth curve with two “humps.”

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

−1

−2

9
The shape of cubic graph is dependent on the nature of the roots of the polynomial function.

In general, a degree n polynomial function has n − 1 of these “humps,” but there could be less depending
on the nature of the roots of the equation.

10
2.2 Rational Functions
Definition 2.2: Rational Functions

A rational function is the ratio of two polynomials. That is, if P (x) and Q(x) are two polynomial
functions with Q(x) ̸= 0, then a rational function f (x) has the form,

P (x)
f (x) =
Q(x)

Rational functions are a little bit more complicated than polynomial functions. A rational function is defined
at all x-values where the denominator of the function is non-zero.

Example 2.1

Write down the domains of the following rational functions.

1
i) f1 (x) =
x
x−2
ii) f2 (x) =
x2 − 1
1
iii) f3 (x) =
x2 +x+1
x2 − x − 6
iv) f4 (x) =
x2 + x − 12

Solution

1
i) The denominator of f1 (x) = is x. This is zero exactly when x = 0. Therefore, the domain of
x
f1 (x) is {x ̸= 0} .

ii) Factoring the denominator of f2 (x) yields,

x−2 x−2
f2 (x) = = .
x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)

The denominator is zero exactly when x = ±1. Therefore, the domain of f2 (x) is {x ̸= ±1}.

iii) The polynomial x2 + x + 1 has no real roots. In fact, using the quadratic formula, we see that the
roots of x2 + x + 1 are, √ √
−1 ± 1 − 4 −1 ± −3
x= = ,
2 2
which are complex numbers. This means that there are no real x-value for which the denominator
of f3 (x) is zero. Thus, the domain of f3 (x) is R.

11
 iv) Factoring the numerator and denominator of f4 (x) yields,

x2 − x − 6 (x − 3)(x + 2)
f4 (x) = = .
x2 + x − 12 (x + 4)(x − 3)

Even though it looks like the two factors of x − 3 cancel, this function is still not defined at x = 3.
In fact, the graph of f4 (x) has a hole when x = 3. Therefore, the domain of f4 (x) is {x ̸= 3, −4}.
♠

The graphs of rational functions are a probably a little less familiar than those of polynomials. That said,
1 1 1
you should be familiar with the graphs of and 2 and their variants. For example, the graph of is,
x x x
4

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

−1

−2

−3

−4

1
And the graph of f (x) = + 3 is,
x−2

12
 7

−1 1 2 3 4 5

−1

1
The graph of is the following,
x2
16

15

14

13

12

11

10

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3

13
Rational functions don’t always look like the ones above; their graphs depend on the nature of the roots of
the numerator and denominator. it is not always clear how to graph these. Consider, for example, the graph
x−1
of 2 :
x − x − 12
6

−8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

We’ll see a method for graphing functions like this using calculus later on in this document!

14
2.3 Root & Algebraic Functions
Definition 2.3: Root Functions
√
A root function has the form f (x) = n x = x1/n where n is an integer. More generally, a root function
√
can have the form f (x) = xm/n = n xm where m and n are both integers.

√
If n is a positive even integer, then the function n x is defined only when x is a non-negative, so the domain of
√ √
n
x is {x ≥ 0}. If n is positive and odd, then n x is defined everywhere, so its domain is R. More generally,
to find the domain of an even root function, you need to determine all x values for which the expression
under the root is non-negative. Odd root functions, on the other hand, are always defined everywhere.

Example 2.2

Determine the domnains of the following root functions.

√
i) f1 (x) = −x
√
ii) f2 (x) = 4 3x − 7
√
iii) f3 (x) = 7 1 − x3
√
iv) f4 (x) = x2 − 1
√
v) f5 (x) = 5 + 4x − x2

Solution
√
i) For f1 (x) = −x, we need −x ≥ 0 =⇒ x ≤ 0. Therefore, the domain of f1 (x) is {x ≤ 0} =
(−∞, 0].

ii) f2 (x) is an even root function, we we must have,

7
3x − 7 ≥ 0 =⇒ 3x ≥ 7 =⇒ x ≥
3
Therefore, the domain of f2 (x) is {x ≥ 7/3} = [7/3, ∞).

iii) This is an odd root function so its domain is R.

iv) For this one, we need to determine where x2 − 1 ≥ 0. Solving this inequality yields,

x2 − 1 ≥ 0 =⇒ x2 ≥ 1.

Taking the square root of both sides yields,

x2 ≥ 1 =⇒ x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1.

15
 √
Therefore, the domain of f4 (x) = x2 − 1 is {x ≤ −1} ∪ x ≥ 1 = (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, ∞).

As an alternate way to see where x2 − 1 is positive, note that the graph of x2 − 1 is an upwards
opening parabola with roots at x = ±1. This means that the graph x2 − 1 necessarily must lie
below the x-axis between −1 and 1 and is above the x-axis otherwise.

v) Factoring the inside of the root yields,

5 + 4x − x2 ≥ 0 =⇒ (x + 1)(5 − x) ≥ 0.

We can determine where this inequality holds by using test points. The roots of the quadratic
are at x = −1 and x = 5. We then test values in the interval (−∞, −1), (−1, 5) and (5, ∞) to see
where the function is negative.

If x = −2, then we have,

(−2 + 1)(5 − (−2)) = −7 < 0,

which means that 5 + 4x − x2 < 0 on (−∞, −1).

If x = 0, then
(0 + 1)(5 − 0) = 5 > 0

which means that 5 + 4x − x2 > 0 on (−1, 5).

If x = 6,t hen
∗(6 + 1)(6 − 5) = −7 < 0,

which means that 5 + 4x − x2 < 0 on (5, ∞).

√
Therefore, 5 + 4x − x2 ≥ 0 on [−1, 5]. Thus, the domain of f5 (x) = 5 + 4x − x2 is [−1, 5].

Alternatively, the graph of 5 + 4x − x2 is a downward opening parabola. This means it must be

positive between the two roots and negative otherwise. ♠

Note
√
Remember that 0 = 0. This is completely reasonable. It is a common mistake for students to think
√
that 0 is undefined.

√ √
The root functions we’ll see the most of are the square root function x and the cube root function 3
x.
√
The graph of f (x) = x is the following:

16
 3

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

√
and the graph of 3
x is,
2

−9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

−1

−2

√ √
If the value of n increases, the steepness of the graph changes. Consider, for example, graphs of x and 4
x:

17
 3

√
x

√
4
x

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

2.3.1 Algebraic Functions

Definition 2.4: Algebraic Functions

An algebraic function is a function of x obtained by using the operations of addition, subtraction,

multiplication, division, and taking nth roots.

Algebraic functions generalize polynomial, rational, and root functions by smashing all of them together.
The domain of an algebraic function is the set of all x-values where it is defined. This means, all expressions
in even roots must be non-negative, and the denominators must be non-zero.

Example 2.3
√
x+1−1
Determine the domain of the algebraic function f (x) = .
x2 − 3x + 2

Solution

The denominator of f (x) is x2 − 3x + 2 which factors as,

x2 − 3x + 2 = (x − 1)(x − 2).

Thus, as long as x ̸= 1, 2, the denominator of f (x) is non-zero. Moreover, the square root will be defined
as long as x + 1 ≥ 0 =⇒ x ≥ −1. Therefore, the domain of f (x) is,

{x ∈ R : x ≥ −1, and x ̸= 1, 2} .

18
 Example 2.4
√
Calculate the domain of the algebraic function f (x) = x2 − 16 + (x + 1)1/3 .

Solution

The cube root function (x + 1)1/3 is defined for all x-values, so the domain of f (x) is completely
√
determined by the domain of x2 − 16. This means, we need x2 − 16 ≥ 0 =⇒ x2 ≥ 16 =⇒ x ≤ −4
or x ≥ 4. Therefore, the domain of f (x) is,

{x ∈ R : x ≤ −4 or x ≥ 4} = (∞, −4] ∪ [4, ∞).

19
2.4 Trigonometric Functions
Definition 2.5: Trigonometric Functions

The sine function sin(x) and cosine function cos(x) are the two fundamental trigonometric func-
tions. The other trigonometric functions are
sin(x)
• The tangent function, tan(x) = ;
cos(x)
1
• The cosecant function, csc(x) = ;
sin(x)
1
• The secant function, sec(x) = ;
cos(x)
cos(x)
• The cotangent function, cot(x) = .
sin(x)

The secant, cosecant, and cotangent functions are called the reciprocal trigonometric functions.

You need to memorize the following values of sin(x) and cos(x).

x 0 π/6 π/4 π/3 π/2 π 3π/2 2π

√ √
cos(x) 1 3/2 1/ 2 1/2 0 -1 0 1
√ √
sin(x) 0 1/2 1/ 2 3/2 1 0 -1 0

You can derive these values via the two special triangles,

π/6 π/4
√
2 √ 2
3 1

π/3 π/4
1 1

You should also know the following identities involving trigonometric functions. You can derive all of the
ones you ever did in high school from the first three, but knowing the others off of the top of your head is a
good idea.

20
 Important Trigonometric Identities

• sin2 (x) + cos2 (x) = 1 (Pythagorean identity);

• sin(x ± y) = sin(x) cos(y) ± sin(y) cos(x);

• cos(x ± y) = cos(x) cos(y) ∓ sin(x) sin(y);

• sin(2x) = 2 sin(x) cos(x); (sine double angle identity)

• cos(2x) = 2 cos2 (x) − 1 = 1 − 2 sin2 (x) = cos2 (x) − sin2 (x) (cosine double angle identities)

Both sine and cosine are 2π-periodic. This means, that sin(x + 2π) = sin(x) and cos(x + 2π) = cos(x) for
all x ∈ R. This implies that we only need to know what sin(x) and cos(x) look like on the interval [0, 2π] in
order to know what they look like on all of R. To get the graph on all of R, we copy and paste their shape
on the interval [0, 2π] infinitely in both the positive and negative x-directions. Thus, the graph of sin(x) is,

− 7π −3π − 5π −2π − 3π −π2π2 π 3π 2π 5π 3π 7π

2 2 2 2 2 2

−1

and the graph of cos(x) is,

21
 1

− 7π −3π − 5π −2π − 3π π − π2 π π 3π 2π 5π 3π 7π
2 2 2 2 2 2 2

−1

For tan(x), it is a fact that cos(x) is 0 at odd integer multiples of π/2 (try to prove this). Therefore, the
graph of tan(x) is not defined at the x-values . . . , −5π/2, −3π/2, −π/2, π/2, 3π/2, 5π/2 . . ., and looks like

22
 8

−3π − 5π −2π − 3π π − π2 π π 3π 2π 5π 3π
2 2 2 2 2
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

−7

−8

Note that tan(x) is only π-periodic as opposed to 2π-periodic. That is, tan(x + π) = tan(x) for all x in the
domain of tan(x). The graphs of the other trig functions are as follows,

23
 8

−3π − 5π −2π − 3π π − π2 π π 3π 2π 5π 3π
2 2 2 2 2
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

−7

−8

−3π − 5π −2π − 3π π − π2 π π 3π 2π 5π 3π
2 2 2 2 2
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

−7

−8

24
 8

−3π − 5π −2π − 3π π − π2 π π 3π 2π 5π 3π
2 2 2 2 2
−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

−7

−8

Note, for cot(x) and csc(x), the dashed vertical lines are at x = . . . − 2π, −π, 0, π, 2π, . . .

The domain for both sin(x) and cos(x) is R. The range for both is [−1, 1]. For tan(x), the domain is,
 
(2k − 1)π
x ∈ R : x ̸= , k is an integer
2

and the range of tan(x) is all of R. The domain for sec(x) is the same as the domain of tan(x). The range
of sec(x) is (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞). Finally, the domains of both csc(x) and cot(x) is,

{x ∈ R : x ̸= nπ, n is an integer} .

The range of csc(x) is (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞), and the range of cot(x) is R.

25
2.5 Exponential Functions
Definition 2.6: Exponential Functions

An exponential function is one of the form f (x) = ax where a > 0, a ̸= 1 is some constant called
the base of the exponential function.

You need to memorize the following laws of exponents.

Properties of Exponents

• a0 = 1;
√
• a1/n = n
a for all integers n;
1
• a−1 = ;
a
• ax+y = ax · ay ;
ax
• ax−y = ax · a−y = ;
ay
• (ax )y = axy ;
 x
1 1
• a =
−x
= x;
a a
• (ab)x = ax bx .

We restrict exponential functions to have positive bases so we don’t run into issues with taking even roots
of negatives. Also, we specify that a ̸= 1 because the function f (x) = 1x = 1 is a constant function.

An exponential function f (x) = ax has domain equal to R always and its range is {y > 0}. More generally,
f (x) = ax−b + c has domain R and range {y > c}.

Exponential functions all have the same general “exponential curve” shape. Consider, for example, f (x) = 2x .

26
 8

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4

If a > 1, then the larger the value of a, the steeper the exponential curve becomes. Consider the following
graphs of exponential functions for various values of a.
8

6 5x
2x
5
3x

3 (3/2)x

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4

Note that all of these functions pass through the point (0, 1). This is the first exponent rule above.

If 0 < a < 1, then exponential curve flips over the y-axis. You can use the exponent laws to show why this

x
is true. Consider, for example, f (x) = 12 .

27
 8

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3

Of particular interest is the function f (x) = ex where e ≈ 2.71828 is Euler’s number. This will be one of
our favourite functions when we start doing calculus.

One can solve exponential equations fairly quickly if you can easily get a common base. If this can be done,
you can equate exponents.

Example 2.5

Solve the following equations for x.

2
−2 1 −x


i) 53x−1 = 257+x ii) 9 · 3x = 3

Solution

i) The aim is to use exponent rules to get to a common base. Then, equate exponents.

53x−1 = 257+x

=⇒ 53x−1 = (52 )7+x

=⇒ 53x−1 = 52(7+x)

=⇒ 3x − 1 = 14 + 2x

=⇒ x = 15

28
ii)
2
−2 1 −x


9 · 3x = 3

2
−2
=⇒ 32 · 3x = (3−1 )−x

2
−2+2
=⇒ 3x = 3x

2
=⇒ 3x = 3x

=⇒ x2 = x

=⇒ x2 − x = 0

=⇒ x(x − 1) = 0

=⇒ x = 0, 1
♠

29
2.6 Logarithmic Functions
Definition 2.7: Logarithmic Functions

A base a logarithmic function has the form f (x) = loga (x) where a > 0 is a real number.

loga (x) is the inverse function to ax . We’ll see more precisely what this means in the section on inverse
functions. For now, all you need to know is that this means that the following two important relations are
always true:
loga (ax ) = x for all x ∈ R and aloga (x) = x for all x > 0.
Moreover, this implies that the domain of loga (x) is {x > 0} = (0, ∞) and the range is R.

By convention, we denote the base 10 logarithm by log instead of log10 . Similarly, the base e logarithm is
denoted by ln. ln is called the natural logarithm and is usually pronounced “lawn” or “ell ehn.”

You need to memorize the following properties of logarithms for this course.

Properties of Logarithms

• aloga (x) = x for all x > 0;

• loga (ax ) = x for all x ∈ R;

• loga (1) = 0 and loga (a) = 1 for all a > 0

• loga (xy) = loga (x) + loga (y) for all x, y > 0;

• loga (xk ) = k loga (x) for all x > 0, k ∈ R;

• loga (x/y) = loga (x) − loga (y) for all x, y > 0;

ln(x)
• loga (x) = for all x, a > 0 (Change of Base Law)
ln(a)

The following example shows how to use these properties to simplify logarithmic expressions.

Example 2.6

Simplify the following expressions,

i) 32 log3 (5)

ii) ln(e1/2 )
 
1
iii) ln x
e
iv) 2 log2 (9) − log2 (3)
√
v) 2 ln( x) + 3 ln(x1/3 )

30
 vi) log2 (5) + log2 (x2 − 1) − log2 (x − 1)

Solution

i)
2
32 log3 (5) = 3log3 (5 )
= 25

ii)
1
ln(e1/2 ) = loge (e1/2 ) =
2
iii)  
1
ln = ln(e−x ) = −x
ex

iv)

2 log2 (9) − log2 (3)

= log2 (92 ) − log2 (3)

= log2 (81) − log2 (3)

 
81
= log2
3

= log2 (27)

=3 log2 (3)

v)
√
2 ln( x) + 3 ln(x1/3 )

√
 
= ln ( x)2 + ln (x1/3 )3

= ln(x) + ln(x)

=2 ln(x)

31
 vi)

log2 (5) + log2 (x2 − 1) − log2 (x − 1)

= log2 (5(x2 − 1)) − log2 (x − 1)

5(x2 − 1)
 
= log2
x−1

 
5(x − 1)(x + 1)
= log2
x−1

= log2 (5(x + 1))

Logarithms are useful for solving exponential equations where a common base is not easily obtained. You
also need to be able to solve equations involving logs.

Example 2.7

Solve the following equations for x.

i) ln(3x − 1) + ln(2) = ln(x) ii) log2 (x − 1) − log2 (x − 2) = log2 (3)

iii) 25x−1 = 32x iv) log3 (x2 ) = 2 log3 (4) − 4 log3 (5)
v) log(x − 1) + log(x) = log(2)

Solution

i)

ln(3x − 1) + ln(2) = ln(x)

=⇒ ln(2(3x − 1)) = ln(x)

=⇒ eln(2(3x−1)) = eln(x)

=⇒ 6x − 2 = x

=⇒ 5x = 2

32
 2
=⇒ x =
5

ii)

log2 (x − 1) − log2 (x − 2) = log2 (3)

 
x−1
=⇒ log2 = log2 (3)
x−2

x−1
=⇒ 2log2 ( x−2 ) = 2log2 (3)

x−1
=⇒ =3
x−2

=⇒ x − 1 = 3(x − 2)

=⇒ x − 1 = 3x − 6

5
=⇒ x =
2

iii)

25x−1 = 32x

=⇒ log2 (25x−1 ) = log2 (32x )

=⇒ 5x − 1 = 2x log2 (3)

=⇒ 5x − 2x log2 (3) = 1

=⇒ x(5 − 2 log2 (3)) = 1

1
=⇒ x =
5 − 2 log2 (3)

33
 iv)

log3 (x2 ) = 2 log3 (4) − 4 log3 (5)

=⇒ log3 (x2 ) = log3 (42 ) − log3 (54 )

 
16
=⇒ log3 (x2 ) = log3
54

= 3log3 ( 54 )
2 16
=⇒ 3log3 (x )

16
=⇒ x2 =
54

4
=⇒ x = ± .
25

v)

log(x − 1) + log(x) = log(2)

=⇒ log(x(x − 1)) = log(2)

2
−x)
=⇒ 10log(x = 10log(2)

=⇒ x2 − x = 2

=⇒ x2 − x − 2 = 0

=⇒ (x − 2)(x + 1) = 0

The roots of this quadratic are x = 2 and x = −1. However, x = −1 is not permitted because
log(−1) is not defined. Therefore, the only solution is x = 2. ♠

Graphs of logarithmic functions all have the same general shape. Consider the graph of log2 (x).

34
 4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

−1

−2

−3

−4

As a increases in size the logarithmic curve becomes flatter. As an example, consider the graphs of
log2 (x), log5 (x), log3/2 (x):

log3/2 (x)
5

log2 (x)
3

2
log5 (x)
1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

−1

−2

−3

−4

Note that all of these graphs pass through the point (0, 1). This is a consequence of the third logarithm
property.

35
2.7 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Definition 2.8: Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The inverse sine function, denoted arcsin(x) or sin−1 (x), is the function that satisfies the relation,

arcsin(sin(x)) = x and sin(arcsin(x)) = x for all x ∈ [−π/2, π/2].

Similarly, the inverse cosine function, denoted arccos(x) or cos−1 (x), is the unique function that
satisfies,
arccos(cos(x)) = cos(arccos(x)) = x for all x ∈ [0, π],

and the inverse tangent function, denoted arctan(x) or tan−1 (x), is the unique function that
satisfies,
arctan(tan(x)) = tan(arctan(x)) = x for all x ∈ [−π/2, π/2].

The inverse trigonometric functions provide inverses for sin(x), cos(x), and tan(x) on restricted domains.
You can read why this is necessary in the section on inverse functions if you like. All you need to know,
though is the following:

• arcsin(x) has domain [−1, 1] and range [−π/2, π/2]

• arccos(x) has domain [−1, 1] and range [0, π]

• arctan(x) has domain R and range [−π/2, π/2]

The graphs of these functions are shown below. We start with arcsin(x):
π
2

−1 1

−π
2

Next is arccos(x):

36
 π

−1 1

And here is arctan(x):

π
2

−10 −9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

−π
2

The inverse trigonometric functions are used to solve trigonometric equations like sin(x) = 12 . You have to
be careful to stay in within the range of the inverse trigonometric function, though. This means you need
to be a little bit careful when using these functions.

Example 2.8

Solve for x in the following equations,

√
i) tan(x) = 3,
1
ii) sin(x) = − ,
2

37
Solution
√ √ √
i) Apply arctan to both sides of tan(x) = 3 yields x = arctan( 3). Using the 1- 3-2 triangle, we
√ √
see that tan(π/3) = 3. Since π/3 is in the interval (−π/2, π/2), it follows that x = arctan( 3) =
π
.
3
1 1
ii) sin(x) = − implies that x = arcsin(−1/2). Now, sin(−π/6) = − . You can derive this from the
√ 2 2
1- 3-2 special triangle drawn in the fourth quadrant. As −π/6 lies in the interval [−π/2, π/2],
π
which is the range of arcsin(x), it follows that x = arcsin(−1/2) = − . ♠
6

Example 2.9

Calculate the following values:

i) arcsin sin 7π



6

ii) arccos cos 13π

4

Solution

i) Note that arcsin sin 7π ̸= 7π

6 6 because this lies outside the range of arcsin(x). To calculate
this value, start by calculating sin( 7π 7π 1
6 ). One can show sin( 6 ) = − 2 , so we need to calculate
arcsin(−1/2). To do this, write,
θ = arcsin(−1/2).

Applying sin to both sides, we need to find a value of θ ∈ [−π/2, π/2] that satisfies,
1
sin(θ) = − .
2
We just found this int he previous example: θ = − π6 . Thus,
  
7π π
arcsin sin =− .
6 6

ii) The procedure for this is the same as in part i). First, cos 13π = − √12 . Therefore, we need to


4
find some value θ ∈ [0, π] that satisfies,
 
1 1
θ = arccos − √ ⇐⇒ cos(θ) = − √ .
2 2
√
Write the 1-1- 2 triangle in quadrant 2 shows that θ = 3π 4 . Therefore,
  
13π 3π
arccos cos = .
4 4

38
 ♠

39
 Even and odd functions.

Even and odd functions are not special types of functions, but rather evenness or oddness is a property a
given function can have.

Definition 2.9: Even & Odd Functions

• A function f : D → R is called even if f (−x) = f (x) for all x ∈ D.

• A function f : D → R is called odd if f (−x) = −f (x) for all x ∈ D.

Example 2.10

The function f (x) = x2 is even. This is because,

f (−x) = (−x)2 = (−1)2 x2 = x2 = f (x).

Similarly, g(x) = x3 is odd because,

g(−x) = (−x)3 = (−1)3 (x)3 = −x3 = −g(x).

In general, the function xk is even if k is an even integer and is odd if k is an odd integer. ♠

Example 2.11

sin(x) is odd and cos(x) is even. You can show this by calculating the expressions,

sin(−x) = sin(0 − x) and cos(−x) = cos(0 − x)

using the sum to product trigonometric identities. With this in tow, you can show quite easily that
tan(x) is odd. Indeed,

sin(−x) − sin(x) sin(x)

tan(−x) = = =− = − tan(x).
cos(−x) cos(x) cos(x)

See if you can extend this to show evenness and oddness of the reciprocal trigonometric functions.
♠

Functions can be even or odd, but they can’t be both, and they can be neither. Every function is not
√
guaranteed to be one of even or odd. For example, f (x) = ex is neither even nor odd. f (x) = x is also
neither even nor odd.

The following are some properties of even and odd functions that mimic properties of even and odd integers.

40
 Properties of Even & Odd Functions

1. Both the sum and product of two even functions is even.

2. Both the sum and product of two odd functions is even.

3. The product of an odd and an even function is odd.

Try to prove these yourself!

41
3 Transformations
In this section, we review transformations and function compositions. Transformations and compositions are
ways we can create new functions from old ones. Understanding these operations will make learning calculus
all the easier.

There are three main types of transformations we look at: translations, reflections, and stretches/contractions.
We study how these transformations affect the graph of a function. Let’s start with translations.

Translations of Functions
Let f : D → R be a function and let c > 0. Then,

• The graph of the function f (x) + c is the graph of f shifted c units in the positive y-direction
(upwards).

• The graph of the function f (x) − c is the graph of f shifted c units in the negative y-direction
(downwards).

• The graph of the function f (x + c) is the graph of f shifted c units in the negative x-direction
(left).

• The graph of the function f (x − c) is the graph of f shifted c units in the positive x-direction
(right).

Example 3.1

The function f (x) = x2 is the usual parabola. We can shift this around the Cartesian plane by doing
transformations as we did above. The translation g(x) = x2 + 1 is the same parabola shifted one unit
upwards. h(x) = (x − 3)2 − 2 is the parabola shifted three units to the right and two units down.
These are graphed below.
10

5 g(x)
4 f (x) h(x)
3

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
−1

−2

42
Be careful when determining translations. For example, ex−2 is a horizontally shifted exponential function
√ √
and similarly x + 5 is a horizontally shifted square root function. Contrast this with ex − 2 or x + 5
which are vertically translated

The next type of transformations we look at are stretches/contractions.

Stretches & Contractions of Functions

Let f : D → R be a function and let c > 1 be a constant. Then,

• cf (x) is the graph of f (x) stretched by a factor of c vertically.

• (1/c)f (x) is the graph of f (x) contracted vertically by a factor of c.

• f (cx) is the graph of f (x) contracted horizontally by a factor of c.

• f (x/c) is the graph of f (x) stretched horizontally by a factor of c.

Note

Stretches of functions are also called dilations.

Example 3.2

Consider sin(x). Multiplying this by 3 stretches the graph of sin(x) vertically by a factor of 3:
3

2 3 sin(x)

sin(x)
1

−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6

−1

−2

−3

The sin(2x) is the graph of sin(x) contracted by a factor of 2:

43
 sin(x) sin(2x)
1

−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6

−1

The final types of transformations we look at are reflections.

Reflections of Functions
Let f : D → R be a function. Then,

• −f (x) is the graph of f (x) reflected over the x-axis.

• f (−x) is the graph of f (x) reflected over the y-axis.

Example 3.3
√
Consider the reflections of the square root function f (x) = x = x1/2 ,

44
 3

2
√ √
−x x

−6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6

−1

√
− x
−2

−3

The transformation types can be combined. The major thing to remember is that reflecting and stretch-
ing/compressing comes first, translation comes second.

Example 3.4


2
Consider the function f (x) = 5 − (3x − 1)2 = 5 − 3 x − 13 . This is a quadratic function, so its
graph is a parabola. The parabola can be obtained by reflecting x2 over the x-axis, compressing x2
horiontally by a factor of 13 , shifting to the right 31 units, and shifting up 5 units. See the graphs
below:

45
 10

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3
−1
f (x)
−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

−7

−8

−9

−10

Alternatively, you could write f (x) = 5 − 9(x − 1/3)2 and interpret it as x2 reflected over the x-axis,
stretched vertically by a factor of 9, and translated 1/3 units to the right and 5 units up.

46
4 Function Composition and Inverse Functions
A composition of two function f and g results when one function is substituted into the other.

Definition 4.1: Composition of Functions

Let f and g be two functions and suppose that the range of g(x) is contained in the domain of
f (x). The composition of f and g, denoted f (g(x)) or (f ◦ g)(x), is the function that results by
substituting x = g(x) into f (x).

Example 4.1

1
Let f (x) = sin(x) and let g(x) = . Calculate (f ◦ g)(x) and (g ◦ f )(x).
ex

Solution
 
1
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = sin (g(x)) = sin ,
ex
and
1 1
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = = sin(x) .
ef (x) e
♠

If the range of f is a subset of its domain, we can compose functions with themselves.

Example 4.2
√
Let f (x) = x. Then, the range of f (x) is all non-negative integers, which is the same as the domain.
Therefore, (f ◦ f )(x) is defined and is equal to,
√
p q
(f ◦ f )(x) = f (f (x)) = f (x) = x = (x1/2 )1/2 = x1/4 .

Example 4.3

1
Let f (x) be any function. The reciprocal function is the composition of f with the function
f (x)
1
g(x) = . The composition is defined everywhere f (x) ̸= 0. ♠
x

47
4.1 Inverse Functions
Suppose you have a function f : D → R. Consider the following question.

Is there another function g that we can apply to f that “reverses” f ? (By reverse, we mean g(f (x)) = x.)

It seems this is true for a number of functions we’ve seen. We can “reverse” squaring x by taking a square
root. We can “reverse” exponentiating to base a by taking a logarithm. These are examples of inverse
functions. Can inverse functions always be found? The answer is no, not always and in this section, we
provide a criteria for determining when an inverse function exists. Then, we define formally what exactly an
inverse function is.

Definition 4.2: One-to-One

A function f : D → R is called one-to-one (or injective) if whenever f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) for values of
x1 , x2 ∈ D, then x1 = x2 . Put another way, f is one-to-one if it never assumes the same value twice

In terms of functions, one-to-one essentially means that for any two distinct inputs you can plug into the
function, you always get distinct outputs. If two distinct inputs give you the same output, then the function
f (x) is not one-to-one.

Example 4.4

The function f (x) = x3 is one-to-one. Indeed, suppose f (x1 ) = f (x2 ). Then, x31 = x32 . Taking the
cube root of both sides yields x1 = x2 .

Example 4.5

The function f (x) = x2 is not one-to-one because f (1) = 12 = (−1)2 = f (−1). This means the inputs
1 and -1 lead to the same output. Since 1 ̸= −1, this means f (x) = x2 is not a one-to-one function.

Example 4.6

The function f (x) = sin(x) is not one-to-one. We know that sin(x) is 2π-periodic, so that sin(x+2π) =
sin(x) for any x. Clearly, x + 2π ̸= x, therefore, sin(x) is not one-to-one. In fact, none of the
trigonometric functions are one-to-one.

The Vertical Line Test is used to check whether or not a graph is a function. There is an analogue of this
called the Horizontal Line Test.

Theorem 4.1: Horizontal Line Test

A function f (x) is one-to-one if any horizontal line intersects the graph of f (x) at most once.

48
The reason we are interested in this one-to-one property is because one-to-one functions have inverses. This
is due to a theorem we won’t prove in this document. However, with this fact, we can state a formal definition
of an inverse function.

Definition 4.3: Inverse Functions

Let f : D → R be a one-to-one function whose range is E, some subset of real numbers. The inverse
of f , denoted f −1 , is the unique function whose domain is E, whose range is D, and that satisfies
the following relations:
(f −1 ◦ f )(x) = f −1 (f (x)) = x,

for all x ∈ D, and

(f ◦ f −1 )(y) = f (f −1 (y)) = y,

for all y ∈ E.

Note

The notation f −1 (x) is reserved for the inverse of f . f −1 (x) does not refer to the reciprocal function
1 −1 1
. The reciprocal function of f (x) is denoted [f (x)] = f (x) .
f (x)

Example 4.7

The base a logarithm loga (x) is the inverse function for ax . Since ax has domain R and range {y > 0},
this means that loga (x) has domain {x > 0} and range R, and also satisfies the relations,

aloga (x) = x for all x > 0;

loga (ax ) = x for all x ∈ R.

Given a one-to-one function f (x), there is a set strategy for finding its inverse.

Solution Strategy 1: Finding an Inverse

Let f (x) be a one-to-one function. To find the inverse of f (x), do the following.

1. Write y = f (x).

2. Switch x and y so that you now have the equation x = f (y).

3. Solve for y. The new expression you have for y in terms of x is the inverse function f −1 (x).

49
 Example 4.8

Find the inverse of f (x) = 3(x − 1)3 + 1.

Solution

Arguing as we did in Example 4.4, we can see the function is one-to-one because it is a cubic. To find
its inverse, we follow the strategy above:

y = 3(x − 1)3 + 1

=⇒ x = 3(y − 1)3 + 1

x−1
=⇒ = (y − 1)3
3

 1/3
x−1
=⇒ =y−1
3

 1/3
x−1
=⇒ y = +1
3
 1/3
−1 x−1
Thus, the inverse function for f (x) is f (x) = + 1. ♠
3

Example 4.9

3
Find the inverse of f (x) = + 3. Determine its domain and range.
2x − 1

Solution

You can verify for yourself that f (x) passes the horizontal line test, hence is one-to-one. Moreover, the
domain of f (x) is {x ̸= 1/2} and the range is {y ̸= 3}. Therefore, the domain of f −1 (x) is {x ̸= 3} and
the range of f −1 (x) is {y ̸= 1/2}. To find the function, we have,
3
y= +3
2x − 1

3
=⇒ x = +3
2y − 1

50
 3
=⇒ x − 3 =
2y − 1

=⇒ (x − 3)(2y − 1) = 3

3
=⇒ 2y − 1 =
x−3

3 1
=⇒ y = + .
2(x − 3) 2
3 1
Thus, the inverse function for f (x) is f −1 (x) = + . ♠
2(x − 3) 2

Sometimes a function is not one-to-one on its entire domain, so it won’t immediately admit an inverse. That
said, one can usually restrict the domain of the function to a smaller set on which it is one-to-one. Then,
the function admits an inverse on this smaller set. The easiest example of this is idea is showing that the
function f (x) = x2 has an inverse on the positive real numbers, but not on all of R.

Example 4.10

Consider the function f (x) = x2 on the restricted domain [0, ∞). On this domain, f (x) is one-to-one,
√
and has inverse f −1 (x) = x. Notice that if we do not restrict f to this domain, then it has no
inverse because it fails to be one-to-one.

√
Working backwards, f (x) = x certainly is a one-to-one function. You might be tempted to think
√
that f −1 (x) = x2 because y = x =⇒ y 2 = x. This is the right line of thought, but you have to
√
be a bit more specific. Since the domain and range of x is [0, ∞), it follows that the domain and
√
range of the inverse must also be [0, ∞). This means that x2 is the inverse function of x, but only
if we restrict its domain to [0, ∞). This means that the entire function f (x) = x2 is not the inverse
√ √
of x, only the right half of it. x and its inverse function are pictured below.

51
 5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

This same logic in Example 4.10 needs to be applied to the trigonometric functions sin(x), cos(x), and tan(x)
to find their inverses because they are not one-to-one. Indeed, sin(x) is not one-to-one on R, but it is one-
to-one on [−π/2, π/2]. Therefore, it admits an inverse on this interval which we denote by arcsin(x), and
similarly for cos(x) and tan(x). This is why the domains and ranges of the inverse trigonometric functions
are what they are.

52
5 Piecewise Defined Functions
A piecewise defined function is one that is defined differently on different intervals of R. The definition on
each interval gives a different “piece” of the function, hence is why they are called piecewise defined functions.
These come up quite frequently in calculus.

Example 5.1

The absolute value function is a piecewise defined function:


x if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x if x < 0

This definition tells us that for all non-negative values of x, the absolute value function f (x) = |x| is
defined as the function x. Similarly, if the value of x is negative, then the function is defined as −x.
This can be seen in the graph below:
5

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−1

Piecewise defined functions look complicated at first. This is because the notation looks unfamiliar. In
actuality, they are not too bad. The biggest hurdle you’ll have to clear when studying piecewise functions is
getting used to the notation. Once you have that down, they will become much easier to work with.

53
 Example 5.2

Graph the piecewise functions, 

1 − x if x < −2
f1 (x) =
2x if x ≥ −2

1 − x if x ≤ −2
f2 (x) =
2x if x > −2
and 
1 − x if x < −2


f3 (x) = 0 if x = −2


2x if x > −2


How are these functions different?

Solution

The easiest way to graph piecewise functions is to proceed in “pieces.” Starting with f1 (x), we see that
f1 (x) is equal to the function 1 − x whenever x < −2. How do we draw this? Let’s start with the graph
of 1 − x:
6

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

The portion of this line where x < −2 is coloured red below.

54
 6

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

Since f1 (x) is equal to 1 − x only when x < −2, the red part is the only part of 1 − x that occurs on
the graph of f1 (x). Therefore, the graph of f1 (x) looks like the following when x < −2.

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

Notice the open dot when x = −2. This means is because f1 (x) ̸= 1 − x when x = −2, it is only equal
to this line when x < −2.

Now, move on to the next “piece” of the function. It is 3x when x ≥ −2. Start as before by drawing
3x:

55
 6

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

The portion of this line where x ≥ −2 is coloured red below.

6

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

f1 (x) is equal to 2x if x ≥ −2, so this red part is the only part of the line that is on the graph of 2x.
Moreover, since the inequality is inclusive, we have a closed dot at the start of the red portion of the
line. Thus, the graph of f1 (x) is the following.

56
 6

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

For f2 (x), the only difference is in the value at x = −2. For this one, f2 (x) = 1 − x if x ≤ −24 and
f2 (x) = 2x if x > −2. This means the locations of the open and closed dots switch positions. Thus,
the graph of f2 (x) is,

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

The value of f3 (x) at x = −2 is equal to 0. Since the point (−2, 0) is not on either of 1 − x or 2x, it
follows that both line segments now have open dots, and there is a closed dot at (−2, 0). Thus, the
graph of f3 (x) is,

57
 6

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

Example 5.3

Graph the piecewise function,


ln(−x) if x < 0
f (x) =
−(x − 1)2 + 3 if x > 0

What is the domain of f (x)?

Solution

As before, graph the pieces of the function individually. Start with ln(−x) on x < 0. Since this function
is only defined when x < 0, the first piece of f (x) looks like:

58
 6

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

For the second piece, start by graphing the parabola −(x − 1)2 + 3:
4

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

The piece of this curve where x > 0 is coloured red below:

59
 4

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

Notice that f (x) has no value when x = 0, so that f (0) = DN E (short for “does not exist”). This
means that the domain of f (x) is {x ̸= 0}. and that there is an open dot at the start of the parabolic
arc, and the graph of f (x) is the following.
4

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5

−1

−2

−3

−4

−5

−6

60
Example 5.4

Consider the following piecewise defined function:




 3 − x if x ≤ 0
 3
x
f (x) = if 0 < x ≤ π


 8
sin(x) if π < x ≤ 2π

i) Graph f (x).

ii) Evaluate f at x = −2, 0, 1/2, π, 3π

2 , 2π.

iii) What is the domain of f (x)?

iv) What is the range of f (x)?

Solution

i) Proceed as we have in the previous pair of examples graphing the function piece by piece. First,
look at 3 − x when x ≤ 0. The graph of 3 − x is below with the red colouring corresponding to
x ≤ 0.

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6

−1

x3
The piece of where 0 < x ≤ π is shaded red below:
8

61
 8

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6

−1

−2

The piece of sin(x) where π < x ≤ 2π is coloured red below:

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

−1

Putting all of these together, the graph of f (x) is

62
 6

π 3 /8

-3 -2 -1 1 2 π 4 3π/2 6 2π

-1

ii) When x = −2, x is in the interval (−∞, 0]. f (x) = 3 − x on the interval (−∞, 0]. Therefore,
f (−2) = 3 − (−2) = 5. Similarly,

1 3


2 1 π3
f (0) = 3 − 0 = 3, f (1/2) = = , f (π) = ≈ 3.86,
8 64 8
   
3π 3π
f = sin = −1, f (2π) = sin(2π) = 0.
2 2

iii) f (x) is defined for all negative real numbers, but is only defined for positive real numbers up to
and including 2π. Therefore, the domain of f (x) is (−∞, 2π].

iv) Since the value of 3 − x gets arbitrarily large as x gets more and more negative, there is no upper
3π
bound for the vales of f (x). However, the smallest value of f (x) is −1 which happens at x = .
2
Therefore, the range of f (x) is [−1, ∞). ♠

63