\

~ Cl\<. 1 bftC>lt">>-r · ~
Ii . -~ o.~ 7) *f(\!. - ~~~~~~~;;~
~~ ~ i& J; ~
. . / . rd ,'Q. f'\ c..t,rn
• \n ba.cc\,.n'o. Q""'
• t\j Q_~a.a. -~ ~ i , ~ '~i~ +
~ \~\.t{TT c.p~ U
• C.ric.oD ➔ &frl' "I Pl 17 · .
, ~ j\~'a_ ~ r,r-o-rn_,'d s ett1:C -h,E•~IDI~-
' . c.J,n,•r °' club~ ~ - G AND ~HANGE OF GAs,
~ ~w"z ."
I U...:IJ.lo":I.

, • C eij . .
17. 1 Respiratory -e.~-~-lll!lllll. earlier, oxygen (0 2 ) is utilised by the organisllls t
Organs own simple.molecules like glucose, amino actds, fa
w'15~~-r;: e energy to perform various activities. Carfioii di~
0
1 7.2 Mechanism or -(CO ) which is harmful is · also release d during th e above catabolli ttd
u
2
Breathing reactions. It is, therefore, evident that 0 2 has to be continuously PI'OVldet
f~f~O'('fr,17.3 ~change of to the cells aRd CO2 produced by the cells have to be· released out. Thii
~ Gases pro~ ~ of e ·
~ 5 17.4 . Transport of
cells is calle
~~~~~;;;;~~~~~~~~~~~~;;;;:;~
'IJ, Gases hands on y u
0
_& ~ know that it is ue o rea • ow . e resplratoiy
17.5 Regulation of organs and the mechanism of breathing cribed in the follOWing
Respiration sections of this chapter.
'
~x,,V-U.n.J'I
1 ,,_.i.:,,.,._ ;,
~
d ~ k\:Jl"'r<l
Ccl,
17.6 Disorders of · , t-l.20 1 (?f'Q , ij '
Re::.piralory 17.1 REsPIRAT0RY ORGANS .
System

l"ll
~,.;;.~~;,;;;;,.=_.,1'F,._., M~f Mech~! brea
~~::Q:W.O.IU! ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ' l a 1wu;als

invertebrates · o,
with CO2
~ - · of~~
e body" Special vasculfHseo
) are ·used by most Elihe
cularised bags called l1JDII
e terrestrial forms for the ex~
gases. ong verte rates · iiereas afflphi ·
birds and l r~~e::tll[1 w " _re,."'""'"
--- ' ;..>
r
 n.,~
O:~ cHAN , 'I N..
v3'/l~ ~ ~
an Respiratory Sys
J{uJll

.' .___.id]
ed _· ~tlFP.!!!!!!::i ~t )I

. . ..
secon ary an
'-i. ~~~;~
: ::::-- '
0 <., .
Rr-enc h, ,·t,tgs
~
d.).i.c§!
.nd v~ rise d bag-like struc u
letwork of bronchi, b ronchioles and alve D.lllLPI-ISS~
$
\.M 1J{ cQor

Mf,'
7.1). We have two lungs which are cover
vith ple~ d between then;!:. It r .
[be outer p leural membrane is in ~~;;....;:= = oracic

' ~.-
~ - --=~--=-- - -Trachea

embranes

Figur/ 1
L
Diagrammatic v\ew of
human respiratory system \sectional v\ew of
the left lung is also show,:i)
 ~~
~
e
' 270 1 - - -.----.,..-- - - - - --~ -~- --- --.. :._ __

361) 01 ,QJJ Cf)

- - - - - :~:it
c,..b.; Q a) u wher eas the lnne r pleural membrane
I LL11. e.

f-lyb~t'O temp e re. Exch

' 1 • ----:::: betw een blood and atmo sphe ric air~
of actu
, 1 {:!-. ~h o~ e _ ~i~ J~- 711
s are situa ted intli e~ ~racrc chamber
1
I Q · ·--- -~- -~Jiiiffr, The thoracic cham ber if
r ( . :. i l Fi c~lunyi, ventrally by the sternum, lateraU
0
~
AMlffi\'r ~l t~ ~* .-z r1 :ffl'WMfi~ Tii ii-- Pn !l~ ~i i
<
. ~~~-
b
~~
or

~~ CN- ~ t-..0;9
e ana!Qnii~
1
{'l l :
t;;:µ tJ e:
o~ ·--->v
I\..,

~~ . by which atmosphenc
2 nc . veo ar arr is released out. ab
~ Diffusion o[ gase s (02 and CO) across alveolarm~mbran
~ ----:7 •d.uQ__ .:h) ~ Tran spor t of gase s by the blood.
~~ of---~ef\~3/
e.
' °iffusion of 0 2 and CO between blood and tissue
2 s.
nQ.f\fQ... e.f\olJ · ·· ·~ satio n of 0 2 b the cell tabolic reactions and resultant
...,.......,,..,.....-1'\Je..~ , relea se of C r~llular respiratio as dealt in the Chapter I~.
in
~o c:lU.e__ _,f=b 17.2 MECHANISM OF BREATHING
.& -~ - , · ,-~f1ul clt~c .
1 ~ ~ 6-L 4-l~J ~ea thi ng involve ' rtwo stage_ ,: inspiration during which atmospheric
~ Vair is draw n in and exp
1
Co, ' ' °" -1
~~ on by which the alveolar air is releasedoul
The mov emen t of air into and out of the lung s is carrie
cl.i k~ d out by creating a
ttt"tr · essu re grad ien betw een the lung s and the atmospher
e. ~~
"-cl occu r. - e press µre with in the lungs intra- u
res~ l~
less than the atmos pher ic press nftW .e. , iliere i
=- a ve ess tak
the lung s with respect ta atmospheric pressure. iratlOD es
· herie
place when the intra -pulm onar y press ure is hig ___;h r than the atroosp
and
press ure. The dia~ - - - ~ cl~;-7~ ~~~~li.se
fil~lgt
set_!o2!_f.!!rri~u~sc~Ies~-~e~afts
, _ -· n, Inn.
· . -~rco lp il't'1l etre~ iil! of su gra 7
 CfV,N GK OF GAS ES
o»m-~
an incr eas · - lum eof
-
eausiflg in e dors o-ve ntr s. Air ente ring lung s
J:t.!1.,ll11
sie =-- ~de e
narn ber - - r l
in
tl1;.:--wo __11 wcr~el ::a~s:::e o ume
:....::=:::::-:= -..:;--~;y ;:~~
ve r~ r incr ease in pulm ona~ry
11l~ 0 · sirn~t~a:::....~ -;::- ;~r,: ;:~n=
tl 5 es a 1ncr ease in pu ona;"'" ry vo nr;rn
ume
~Jtlft!e• /\fl = 1ntra
- -pul mon ary pres sure to less Ribs and
~~ tne .. ster num
d ~ : ~s pher ic pres sure whi ch
fore ~~ raise d
~ ~ rn outs ide to mov e into the Volu me
...._.....,,...-- thor axof
~ a.if fro lung s,
iliY~- iratl on {Fig ure l 7 .2a) . Rela ~
xati oll, of incre ased
1.e.. iJlSPt-.ra<>mTI and the inte r-co stal
diaP~ F,•·· mus cles Rib cage
tl'~ tJiet liapf uag m and ster num to"th
5 eir
reWJ"Tlal posi tion s and redu ce the
pof!ll thor acic
volUllle and ther eby the puhn onar y:
_volu me.
'fhls leads to an in~ eas!;._~ intra -puh
non ary
~re~
ressu re to sJigh tlyYabov e the atmo
caus ing the e1qfi llsio n of air from tfie-
C3
sphe ric
(a)
Jungs , i.e .. expi ratio n {Fig ure 17 .2b)
:We fiav e
(fie
iim ~bi?n~h. to= ~~=e f8.1:$w
S 2 ~trer nftl\ 7
iol
the
adtlltiorra l mus cl~& In the'a bdo men ~fn ~
tfie
1 1 Air expe lled from lung s
.
avera ge. a fieal lliy hum4fu2 orea ffies
~ 2-1,
time s/mi nute . The volu me of ·air invo Ribs and
lve in
6rea thin stern um _
stlm ated by

r~~s -
usin g retu rned to ~
s in clini cal origi nal ',. Volu me of
posi tion .,__,::,,;,.._ thor ax
decr ease d
17 .2 . 1 Res pira tory Vol um. es and
Cap a~lt les 'l....a..uQ___.o\- R\J •
(Q)0 fl'\.....: .
Tida l Volu m.e ( : Volu me of air ins ired or
expi r
n . It is
appr
a n can
insp _ Oto 8~ lb)
rnLo f air er min ute . (_~-fi:)JD ~?, o......_i) Figu re 17.2 Mech anism of
brea thing show \ng :
y Res erv e Volu 111e llRV ):
olum e of air, a pers on c ~
ins irati on. This aver ~
la) \nspt ratlo n lbl exptr atlon
\
rnL 300 0 \ \OC:)c ) - \ \t) o)
- R eser ve Volu 111e lER V):
olur ne of air, a pe:::.r.:;.:s;.:o..n"---
c-1~ ==:
iratl
",i~ § ~:" '--= on. This aver a
~ 110 0
 ---::;;:-:;-~~~~!!!!!!!11~~~ -:---
......,. i(j J,tuu;~ ~ % "1 .. &:]i,ti~ n<l"'~ill,·-
'"1'r-\~f\2i
1
~ - t i~ ~t-~ ~
r
~OK
J ~ .=.: .J.o t'"-~' ' ;z c...-~--~-!'~-
d1 Q --:;:i.v, ,rot\lf~- ___ _...
~
~AW.1~0.W.lll IRV): Volume of!:!;!ffJi
1(()()- ~~
. 11I1s averages~ - _.t ,• descri _aboVe. one ,ea
~ f-.=!!!!:~~~ few resptratoI}' vo~ e~ can ve used in c~
derive various pulmonal)' cap ~es, ~
diagnosis. n can inS
{ ~ 't)O )'T\ \_, \ E- Impfratory Capacity (IC): Tot.al volume J.OSpiratOIY resen,, :'oi
a no n. 'Ibis includes tidal
vol -=-- --r,. fair a rson can expire aftei
[ \!S"'ccr ,bcJYlf\ij- Expiratory Capac ty (EC): Tot.al vol~:01UII1e and ex:pirai:.OIY resenre
1bis 1ndudes tid
~--4<~=\rco] : ......,._..... . .---_.. .......... ~ ~ ~ ~ remainm
~ ~~m,l-1k- b em
l ~ ~-OOJ ::_~~~§.~~~ ~ ~~ ~;'f'fr~ .;:.axiroum
. . ~~~~~~~ breatbeo atea-m the l ~
~~, • nt vo1um eg(aff
. accp
d RV ERV 1V and
::,o v-.,., •. '"'" · du
•s 1D es - , · - - -- -
~~.-~~~
L
I f.lie_c I R.V/ -n.cJ ,~
'+ ,.,
l ~ ,. · 17.3
-e-=-i-ifMt:=::::
ExcfWIG& oF G,isES

7,$rN
·
.;,.~:f,
occur betw~
-
_ · ~2
-1 ~,«.. 1 n mainly based on pressure/concentration
2

sites by simp e (llllus O .

· gradient. as well as the t1£c~ ess of the memb~ e.5
involved in me important tactors tllat"Cron dfect tt?e
----~- .
rat~ fdiffiision.
Pressure contributed by an individual gas in a miXtUre of gases is
called p,!iliial pressure and is represented as pO2 for oxygen and pC0 2 for
carbon di~ de.'Partial pressures of these tw~ases in ffie atmospheric
air and the two sites of diffusion are given in Table 1 7 . 1 anc{ in
Figure 17:3. The data given in the table clearly indicates a concentration
gradient for oxygen from alveoli to blood and blood to tissues. Similarly,
TABLE 17.1 Pardal ·Preaure• (in mm HgJ of Ozygen an_d Carbon dfo.zide at Different
Partl Involv~ in Dfffwdon in Comparison to those fn Atmosphere

Rnpfntory Atmo1pherfc Alveoli Blood Blood Tfuues

a.. Afr te~dYJ~
(Deozygenate~d~ _ J O~r.,tm!IJ•!!
B 104 ~
_.,, 95

~ ~"'==--- 0.3- -==1!..,_~4~~ .Ji r, ~5-

1,--=--~4 L ~ -=
~
~- -- z~s
 Ex pi re d ai r

Pu lm on ar y
ar te ry --
.- Pu lm on ar y
ve in

Sy st em ic ve in s
•
{c arr Jii lg de ox .y ge Sy ste m ic ar te rie s
na te d bl oo d)
. -. ~~g O:'!(Yg
pO2 =4 0m m H
g
e~ted bl oo d)
pC O 2 =
45 m m Hg p02 = 95 m m Hg
pC O2 = 40 m m Hg

r 17.3 D ia gr am m at ic re
th e bo dy tis su es
Bo dy tis su es
pr es en ta tio n of ex
w ith bl oo ~ an d tra
ch an ge of ·g as es at
th e alv eo lu s an d
ns po rt of ox yg en an
d ca rb on di ox id e
a gr ad ien t is pr es en
t fo r C O 2 in th e op
direct io n, i.e . , fr om po si te
ti ss ue s to bl oo d
o al ve ol i. As the so an d
. ~l'k
°'~
u b,_
i li
.·c.,._
y "!'
of.. .
c. 0 ~
2 _5 · ~s hi gh
er ~ th at- of,,,.. 11- ·s
~

~~~-::!::!=:c:::!:a:!:t...::c 0 .- e
diffusion m em br an e an di ffu s~,~- -
p er un it d fffer en
_ow th
ce in
J
na rt i~r es s ur e is m
uc h higbef "co"rii Ba se m en t
~ ~ t..o f 0 . T he
di ff us io n m em br an
p~d su bs ta nc e
1
made up oU hree .m e ~is
aj or ls1,y er s (F ig ur
namely. th e th in sq e 17 .4 )
~ o't § t _e pi th~
alveoli, the en do th el of
iu m pf al ve ol ar ca pi
and th e ba se_!Ile lla rie s
nt su bs ta nc e in
• Ho w be ~: ee :[l
.· al th ic kn es s 'I ca pi lla ry blo od
a.-.)_~ . / cell
e Fi ~ 7 .4 A D ia gr am of a
vo ur a e al ve ol us . w ith
se ct io n of an
Sion of O fr om alve
ofco fr < 2
~
ol i t o tis su es
m ti ss ue s to al ve ol
and th aL ca pi lla ry . ·
a pu lm on ar y
i.
\
\
 r::~ ~ . . . of tra nspo~ for 0 2 and C
L .:.Jl =c •(1, Blood 1s the rned1
tra nsp ort ed b s the blood. The rem

1n lv ough • -llii:::r· Ne
\_-....i,-.,:':Ywher ea~ iilll~ ~ t of
olved s e
Ab ,· .c.........- =,.- 1s c . 0

0
17 .4. 1 Transport of Oxygen ~
ed iro n con ~~!!.' present fn
Haemoglobin is _a red col our
baemogl~bin in ~ ~ ~".:""!~ :&: to fothe
RBCs. ~ can bind witb,_ ha e ·
l'ln
moglo bin . Ea ch

ec ul~ 02
of s::m q; _::J
.a:
~in
/i#t~?ffjf/tf!f~~€~~~~ {f~~~
.
jfj~ij
o_p.J!ftlal p.re
s whic Can.inJ:ei:fere
e ~e the ~th er factor
con centra tion -s~-~~~·,o'", ,:
---1-...L.-- . ~½J;-;~J;~~~~
JTu~".I.l:'Oc~r,i,._fii.._r;_,-;--&..i~L~r~
ot! amrn~ i.e
:-"r~ = ·~ J , ~ II
.bi n~ · ~~
wi fnt hiso
m-,P-SV
ns~e..--
V -- ~ """
(Figure l;.5 Jan~ is · f:
~c ia tio :c ur ve
-------·- --- [)K --•------~ .
,.
ors like
~
0 useful in stu dyi ng the effect of fact din g of o
on bin
><
pC O2 , H• con cen tra tio n, etc. ,
m th hae mo globin. In the~ alveoli, ~
-1 'c"::r,;~----- ,
.
lesser H• concentration
r; , the fac t~ are
ITan of
a;:J@l!l!~ ~f! :~~ the forma
glo bin , wh ere as in the ~ tis s~
oxy hae mo

an ~~~---~•t,
. hi b •
wh ere low p O ~ ,;;,-~~ .. · ;;..._

con cen tra tio n n-

the con dit ion s ar
moglobin. This
of oxy gen fro m the oxyhae
.gets
cle arl y ind ica tes tha t 0 2
11

100 hae mo glo bin in

:!
20 T . 40 0l:>s BO
,_t o ~ ·
...

rP Y'17.8
Partial pres • oxygen (mm Hg)

Oxygen dissociation cuiv,

dfoxfde
17 .4, 2 Transpo.r t ofC ar bo n
(about
in as $ &rb
~ ~ ~ ~ ~~f .!~a!;:e~m~o~g~lob

whereas, when the pCO2 is low

and p02
io e oc
is hig h as in the aJv~li. dissocia
tlon
 . carl Jarn ino- haem o
om the tiss ue
ntra tion

Carb onic
anhy dras e Carb onic
CO2 + H2 0 ~==~====::t.> H2 C03 anhy dras e
>ttco; +H+
t the tiss ue site whe re par tial pre
cS~oUsrn, ~0 2 diff use s ~ to bloosll _~
sJld J-1'·. At the alve ?lar site _where pC0
tiJeOPposite dire ctio n lead mg to the form
2 1s
ssu re of .CO is hig h due to
-~ ~ d pl~
low , the
2
)
reac
a11£1 form s HCO~ '
tion pro cee ds 1n
atio n of CO and H 0. Thu s,
r ,~
-+-
~ ' I , rn ~
> ~ -M
co trapped as bica rbo nate at the tiss ue level 2 2 bf("\4._J. f1 U7 ~
~ 1Lls.r.ele ase9:S~ t as co,_ ( . s orte d to the ~ tn::H)f~ ,
b~ deli vers app rox ima tel
e1 . Eve
c..9 . . _ _;;...,y~ ~ - U/
~-----.:J~~~~~~
1~
2

~~ ~~ ~ 1-U--
17,6 bGU LA' rIO N
~ ~; ~;~===~:======l 'n · Jo~, ~ ~
· ve a ·~ ~= =~ ~~ ~~ =~;;;;.;.::;z::::_ ch'tr-o ,
~e d_ '&y \~ "'
(r\M
tao\~~~~
Vlf \JJ. , ~

er cen tre to mak e nec essa ry

oc · be elim inat ed.
so can reco gnis e
H - ·th e
me onof
n!Bptmtory mtt ¼n nls
1

17,6 ~-~ SPIRATORY SY8 'tEM

'
.~ ~
Asthma is cm~~~~~~~to 'c ai ~ to inflammation
u s - ~ ue
of bro nch i and · oles . ,
t-
....... ysem a1.
du
in whi ch , ~~ . ans a t

C
 jil'
~ -hrN..
I ~
N .,\_ A olu_bQp '"
. - - 21e l -
'( c~~«-, en~:., ~ ~ / 11.<•'c.l '<- '''""" ''L/ ~ c;_nam s-m -, In ~ i17e~r ~ ~.~ ~
v.,.,., -1 v ~ - Occupational e1p.lr!! !!!J Diaorder1: In.5t rtaJn lndus t 1..
8
•
~ ~ . \.
~ those Involving lndlng or s tone-brcakln4 ' so much dust 1~ Pcc!.ij
that the defense cannot fully cff
PrOd~

- ~ Ir~~ r n ~tuatton. Long expos ure can gJve rise to lnflamm auon l e a : ~
I ~ rolifera tion J fibrou s tissues) and thus causing sertous Ju~;-
~ m wear protect ive m~. cltiia'g
' lt:, (.,"I~ 'i1 (:4 \'."! ~~ • ,:;;_ -----.:!

ot-- urr.
~ ~ , r ~ co.Qla ~ ~q;Ql ti SUMMARY c_~~
~t ()I %1 ~dQ t>vW ·r}\_~ t,'(WM r)
ces
.!.ve,,_ ~~ Cells utilise oxygen for met~bo lism and produc e enet'gy along with substan
isms
~l" :f like carbon dioxide which is harmfu l, Animal s have evolved different mechan
l of carbon dioxtde from
o.llJ)u)JU for the transpo rt of oxygen to the cells and for the re~ova
and
,M4,mr1\A,.Ql 1" _there. we have a well developed respiratoiy_ system compri sing two lungs
associa ted air passag es to perform this ~ction . . . .
~
The first ste in res j.rati9n, .bi:ea b which atmosp heric an:..IB-
tion) . Exchan ge of 0 2 and
b~ Ott" (W iration) an e
e alveolar air is1:. lease2..9ut, (expira
out
~ t1~ co; oetwee n deoxygenat ed"blooa anaalveoli:-ffim.sport of these gases through
and
the body by blood, exchan ~e of 0 2 and CO 2 betwee n the oxygen ated blood
tion) are the other steps
G)@t)}':0l9 tissues and utilisat ion of 0 by the cells (cellula r respira
2

dJ.l
~
ex r{! [
1
fJ. u .ij--
l
involved. . . .
Inspira tion and expirat ion are earned out by creatin g pressu re gradients
betwee n ~e atmosp here and the alveoli ~~ the hel~ of special is_e~ _muscles
can
_
be·
interco stals and diaphra gm. Volume s of arr mvolve d m these activiti es
.
II"\ (\ ~~tim ated with the help of spirom eter and are of clinical signific ance.
J> 6' (f 0 5~ Exchan ge of 0 2 and CO 2 at the alveoli and tissues occur by diffusion. Rate of
'cliffusion is depend ent on the partial pressur e gradien ts of 0 2 (p02) and CO2 (pCQ2
J,
. These factors in
their solubility as well as the thickne ss of the diffusio n surface
as
• our body facilitate .diffusion of 0 2 from the alveoli to the deoxyg enated blood
are favourable for the
----- ...l- -,,,ell as from the oxygenated blood to the tissues . The factors
~/t f
I4
~ 'q sion of CO 2 in the opposite direction, i.e., from tissues to alveoli.
O~gen is transpo rted mainly as o:xyliaemoglobin. In the alveoli where p02 is
.
~ f- 'gher; 0 2 gets bound to haemog lobin which is easily dissoci ated at the tissues
70 per cent of
here p02 is low and pC02 and H+ concen tration are high. Nearly
the help of the emxme
~-4-- -=+-- ""{;ar bon dioxtde is transpo rted as bicarbo nate (HCO;) with
carbonic anhydr ase. 20-25 per cent of carbon dioxide is carried by haemoglobin
to
as carbamino-haemoglobin. In the tissues where pC0 2 is high, gets bound it
blood whereas in the alveoli where pC02 is low and p02 is high. it gets removed
from the blood.
Respiratory rh
region of brain. A p
cnemosensittve area