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Geology
Origin and Evolution of Earth
Origin and Evolution of Earth

Big Bang Theory: Origin of the Universe

The Big Bang Theory is the most widely accepted explanation for the origin of the universe. It says that
the universe began approximately 13.8 billion years ago as an extremely hot, dense singularity and has
been expanding ever since. This theory explains the evolution of the universe from a single point to its
current state of galaxies, stars, and planets.

Key Concepts of the Big Bang Theory

1. Singularity:
The universe started as a point of infinite density and temperature, known as a singularity.
At this point, all matter, energy, space, and time were compressed.
2. Expansion:
About 13.8 billion years ago, this singularity began to expand rapidly, marking the "Big
Bang."
The term "Big Bang" refers to this initial expansion, not an explosion, as often misunderstood.
3. Cooling and Matter Formation:
As the universe expanded, it cooled down, allowing energy to convert into subatomic
particles like protons, neutrons, and electrons.
These particles eventually combined to form hydrogen and helium atoms, the building
blocks of stars.
4. Formation of Structures:
Over time, gravitational forces caused these atoms to clump together, forming galaxies,
stars, and planets.

Timeline of Events

Time After the

Event
Big Bang
0 seconds Singularity existed; time and space begin.

10⁻³⁵ seconds Inflation Era: The universe expanded exponentially.

10⁻⁶ seconds Fundamental particles like quarks and gluons form.

1 Seconds Formation of protons and neutrons (quark confinement).

3 Minutes Nucleosynthesis: Hydrogen and helium nuclei form.

380,000 years Recombination: Electrons combine with nuclei to form neutral,atoms, making the
universe transparent to light.
1 billion years Formation of the first stars and galaxies.

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Evidence Supporting the Big Bang Theory

1.Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMB):

Discovered in 1965 by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson.
This faint glow of microwave radiation is a remnant of the Big Bang, representing the afterglow of
the universe when it became transparent ~380,000 years after the Big Bang.
2. Redshift of Galaxies:
Edwin Hubble observed in 1929 that galaxies are moving away from us, with their light stretched to
longer (red) wavelengths.
This supports the idea of an expanding universe.
3. Abundance of Light Elements:
The proportions of hydrogen (~75%) and helium (~25%) in the universe match predictions of the
Big Bang nucleosynthesis

Note: Expansion of the Universe:

The universe's expansion implies it was smaller, denser, and hotter in the past.
The universe can be thought of as a balloon inflating, with galaxies as dots on the surface moving
away from each other.

Common Misconceptions
1.Was the Big Bang an Explosion?
No, it was an expansion of space itself, not a conventional explosion in
space.
2. Where Did the Big Bang Happen?
It occurred everywhere in space, as space itself was expanding

MCQ Pointers:
1. Timeline- 13.8 billion years ago
2. Started from “Singularity”
3. Big Bang is not an EXPLOSION.
4. Evidence supporting BBT?
-Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMB)
-Redshift of Galaxies
-Abundance of Light Elements

Nebular Hypothesis
The Nebular Hypothesis is the most widely accepted scientific explanation for the origin of the Solar
System. It proposes that the Sun, planets, moons, and other Solar System bodies formed from a
rotating cloud of gas and dust, or nebula, about 4.6 billion years ago.
Initially proposed by Immanuel Kant (1755) and Pierre-Simon Laplace (1796).
Refined in the 20th century by scientists like Carl Weizsäcker and Otto Schmidt.

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Core Concept:
The gravitational collapse of the nebula resulted in a spinning protoplanetary disk, with the Sun
forming at its centre and planets forming from the surrounding material.The gravitational collapse of
the nebula resulted in a spinning protoplanetary disk, with the Sun forming at its centre and planets
forming from the surrounding material.

Stages in the Formation of the Solar System

1. Nebula Collapse
Trigger:
External forces like a nearby supernova explosion may have caused disturbances, leading the
nebula to collapse under its own gravity.
Effects:
The collapsing nebula spun faster (due to the conservation of angular momentum), flattening into
a disk shape.
The temperature at the center increased, forming the protostar (early Sun).

2. Protoplanetary Disk Formation

A disk of gas and dust surrounded the protostar. •
Temperature variations in the disk led to the differentiation of materials:
-Near the center (hot region): Metals and silicates condensed to form rocky planets.
-Farther out (cool region): Ices and gases condensed, leading to the formation of gas and ice
giants

3. Formation of the Sun

When the temperature and pressure in the core of the protostar became sufficient, nuclear fusion
of hydrogen into helium began.
The Sun ignited, becoming the central energy source of the Solar System.

4. Formation of Planets
1.Accretion of Planetesimals:
Small dust particles collided and stuck together to form larger bodies called planetesimals.
Over time, these planetesimals grew through continued collisions and gravitational attraction.
2. Differentiation of Planets:
Inner Solar System: High temperatures allowed only metals and silicates to condense, forming
terrestrial planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars).
Outer Solar System: Cooler temperatures allowed gases and ices to dominate, forming gas
giants (Jupiter, Saturn) and ice giants (Uranus, Neptune).
Clearing of the Disk
• The young Sun’s intense solar wind blew away remaining gas and dust, halting
further planetary growth.
• This created the stable planetary system we see today.

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Evidence Supporting the Nebular Hypothesis

1. Protoplanetary Disks
Observations of young stars surrounded by rotating disks of gas and dust directly support the
idea of planetary formation from nebulae

2. Uniform Motion of Planets

All planets orbit the Sun in the same direction and within a flat plane (ecliptic plane), consistent
with their origin in a rotating disk.

3. Composition of Planets
Inner planets are rocky because only metals and silicates could condense in the hot inner regions.
Outer planets are gaseous/icy due to cooler temperatures farther from the Sun

4. Presence of Small Bodies

The Asteroid Belt (between Mars and Jupiter) contains rocky remnants from the protoplanetary
disk.
The Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud contain icy bodies and comets, which are remnants from the
outer regions of the Solar System.

Formation and Evolution of Earth

1. Earth Formed from Planetesimals through Accretion (~4.6 Billion Years Ago)
What Happened?
Earth formed from the accretion of planetesimals in the protoplanetary disk surrounding the
young Sun.
Planetesimals, small rocky and metallic bodies, collided and stuck together due to gravitational
attraction, growing into a proto-Earth.
This process was marked by intense collisions, releasing heat that kept early Earth in a molten
state.
Key Processes:
-Differentiation:
The molten state allowed heavier elements like iron and nickel to sink to the core, while lighter
silicates rose to form the mantle and crust.
Formation of Magnetic Field:
The movement of liquid iron in the core generated Earth’s magnetic field, which protects the
planet from solar wind
Evidence:
-Radiometric Dating:
Rocks and meteorites indicate Earth’s age at ~4.6 billion years.+
Similar processes are observed in other planetary systems (e.g., HL Tauri protoplanetary disk).

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2. Formation of the Moon through a Giant Impact (~4.5 Billion Years Ago)

What Happened?
A Mars-sized body, called Theia, collided with the early Earth.
The impact ejected a massive amount of debris into space, which coalesced under gravity to form
the Moon.
Key Evidence:
-Isotopic Similarity:
Moon rocks brought back by the Apollo missions show a composition nearly identical to Earth’s
mantle.
-Angular Momentum:
The collision explains the Earth-Moon system’s high angular momentum. •
Impact on Earth:
The impact tilted Earth’s axis, leading to seasons.
It also increased Earth’s rotational speed and stabilised its orbit over time.

3. Formation of Oceans as Earth Cooled (~4 Billion Years Ago)

What Happened?
After Earth’s formation, intense volcanic activity released gases like water vapor, carbon dioxide,
and methane into the atmosphere (degassing).
As the planet cooled, water vapor condensed into liquid form, creating the first oceans.
Sources of Water:
-Volcanic Outgassing:
Water vapour released by volcanic eruptions was the primary source of Earth’s early water.
-Cometary Impacts:
Bombardment by water-rich comets and asteroids during the Late Heavy Bombardment (~4 billion
years ago) contributed additional water.
Significance of Oceans:
Oceans acted as a carbon sink, dissolving CO₂ and stabilising the climate.
They provided the medium for the first chemical reactions that led to life.
Evidence:
Ancient zircon crystals indicate the presence of liquid water on Earth as arly as 4.4 billion years
ago.

4. First Life Forms Appeared in Oceans (~3.8 Billion Years Ago)

What Happened?
The first life forms were simple, single-celled organisms called prokaryotes, which appeared in
Earth’s oceans.
Key Hypotheses:
-Hydrothermal Vent Hypothesis:
Life may have originated near deep-sea hydrothermal vents, where hot water and minerals
provided energy for chemical reactions.

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-Primordial Soup Hypothesis:
Shallow pools of water rich in organic molecules, energised by sunlight or lightning, could have
been the cradle of life.
Significance:
These early organisms relied on anaerobic metabolism (did not use oxygen).
Their existence laid the foundation for more complex life forms.
Evidence:
Fossilised stromatolites (layered microbial mats) found in rocks dating back 3.5 billion years.

5. Great Oxidation Event (~2.5 Billion Years Ago)

What Happened?
Cyanobacteria, also called blue-green algae(evolved from early prokaryotes-anaerobic ones),
began producing oxygen through photosynthesis.
Initially, oxygen reacted with iron in the oceans, forming banded iron formations (BIFs).
Once iron was saturated, oxygen began accumulating in the atmosphere.
Impact:
Formation of the ozone layer, which shielded life from harmful UV radiation.
Oxygen toxicity led to the extinction of many anaerobic organisms.
Enabled the evolution of aerobic respiration, which is more energyefficient.

6. Life Moved Onto Land (~500 Million Years Ago)

What Happened?
Plants and animals began colonising land.

What caused the colonisation?

• Formation of the ozone layer protected life from harmful UV radiation.

• Development of vascular systems in plants allowed them to transport water and
nutrients.
• Land colonisation created new ecosystems and food webs.
• It marked the beginning of terrestrial life, leading to the evolution of amphibians, reptiles, and
eventually mammals.

7. Appearance of Modern Humans (~200,000 Years Ago)

Modern humans, or Homo sapiens, evolved in Africa around 200,000 years ago.
They are characterised by bipedal locomotion, large brains, and complex social behaviours.

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Summary from NCERT:
1. Origin of Universe
Timeline: The universe began 13.7 billion years ago .
2. Big Bang Theory:
The universe started as a "tiny ball" (singularity) with infinite temperature
and density .
The "tiny ball" exploded expanded violently, leading to rapid expansion .
Expansion continues to this day.
3. Evidence Supporting Big Bang Theory:
Edwin Hubble's Observation: Galaxies are moving apart, confirming the universe is expanding .
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMB): The afterglow of the Big Bang .

Formation of Stars
Nebula: Large clouds of hydrogen gas condensed due to gravity, they
ultimately formed stars.
Stars formed around 5-6 billion years ago .

Formation of Planets
1. Stages in Planet Formation:
Localised lumps of gas in nebula condensed into a core.
Planetesimals: Small bodies formed through cohesion of matter.
Accretion of planetesimals created planets .

4. Evolution of Earth
1. Initial State:
Earth was barren, rocky, and hot with a thin atmosphere of hydrogen and
helium .
2. Layered Structure Formation:
Differentiation: Heavier elements like iron sank to the core, and lighter materials formed the crust
.

5. Evolution of Atmosphere and Oceans

1. Primordial Atmosphere:
Early atmosphere composed of hydrogen and helium was stripped away by solar winds .
2. Degassing:
Gases like water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane, and ammonia were released from Earth's
interior through volcanic eruptions .
3. Ocean Formation:
Water vapour condensed into rain, forming oceans ~4 billion years ago .

6. Origin of Life
1. Timeline: Life originated ~3.8 billion years ago .
2. Process:
Early life forms were unicellular organisms, evolving through chemical reactions(Anaerobic)
Fossilised structures resembling blue-green algae .

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