EARTH SCIENCE

-​ a multidisciplinary science BIRTH OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

-​ its purpose is to study the Earth & the
universe around it Nebular Hypothesis
-​ a theory about how the solar system
Geology formed
-​ study of the planet (structure, crust, -​ first suggested by Immanuel Kant
composition) (1724–1804)
-​ Explanation: The idea is that a big cloud
Meteorology of gas and dust (called a nebula) started
-​ study of the atmosphere, weather, to come together because of gravity.
climate Over time, this cloud collapsed and spun
faster, eventually forming the Sun and
Astronomy planets.
-​ study of the Earth’s motion & objects in
space Nebula - cloud of gas (mainly hydrogen & helium)
and dust (silicates, ice, etc.).
Oceanography
-​ study of the oceans Uneven density - some parts of the nebula are
denser than others.
IMPORTANCE OF EARTH SCIENCE (&
studying it) Gravity pulls particles together - the nebula
-​ better predict potential disasters & help contracts (gets smaller).
save lives/property
-​ work of scientists helps us understand Effects of Contraction:
our place in the universe 1.​ Faster spinning - just like a spinning ice
-​ help people gain access earth’s skater pulling their arms in.
resources/ scientists strive to help 2.​ Flattening into a disk - the cloud takes
people use resources wisely the shape of a disk with a dense center.

FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM FORMATION OF THE SUN

Inner Planets (mercury, venus, earth, mars)
-​ planets closest to the sun 1.​ Nebula Contracts & Flattens
-​ smaller & mostly solid (heavy/rocky ○​ a nebula (cloud of gas and dust)
materials) starts to shrink due to gravity.
○​ as it shrinks, it spins faster and
Asteroid Belt forms a flat disk with a dense
-​ located between mars & jupiter center.
-​ separates inner & outer planets ○​ the center becomes very hot and
bright—this is the early stage of
Outer Planets (jupiter, saturn, uranus, neptune) the Sun.
-​ planets farthest from the sun 2.​ Proto-Star & Plasma Formation
-​ larger & formed mainly of gases ○​ the hot center is called a
proto-star (young star that hasn’t
TYPE OF PLANETS started burning fuel yet).
○​ the temperature inside is so high
Primary that atoms lose their electrons,
●​ Terrestrial (mercury, venus, earth, mars) forming plasma (a super-hot gas).
●​ Gas Giants (jupiter, saturn, hot jupiter) 3.​ Nuclear Fushion Begins
●​ Ice Giants (uranus, neptune) ○​ when the temperature reaches 12
●​ Dwarf (pluto, haumea, makemake, eris, million °C, hydrogen nuclei
ceres, quaoar, sedna) (protons) collide and fuse
●​ Hypothetical (chthonian: kepler-52b, together.
kepler-52c, kepler-57b; planet x)
 ○​ this nuclear fusion process
releases huge amounts of energy, EARTH’S INTERNAL STRUCTURE
creating the Sun’s heat and light.
○​ this marks the official birth of the The Lithosphere
Sun as a fully formed star. -​ composed of part of crust & upper part
of the mantle (the top 100km)
Key Notes -​ composed of hard, brittle rock
●​ Gravity pulls gas and dust together to -​ not continuous
form the Sun. -​ broken into segments (called plates)
●​ Spinning motion creates a disk shape -​ a boundary where 2 plates meet
with a dense center. & move relative to each other
●​ Plasma forms due to extreme heat. -​ where plate tectonics occur
●​ Nuclear fusion (hydrogen atoms fusing) (mountain building, triggering
is what makes the Sun shine. earthquakes, volcanic activity)
●​ Fusion starts when the core reaches 12
million °C. The Asthenosphere
●​ This same process creates energy for all -​ part of mantle/underneath lithosphere
stars in the universe. -​ made of molten rock & metal (it flows)
-​ part of mantle that moves & causes
FORMATION OF THE PLANETS tectonic plates of the crust to move
1.​ Dust and Gas in Space
○​ a proto-star (early-stage star) is The Mantle
surrounded by a disk of dust and -​ largest layer (2,900km thick)
gas. -​ includes: lithosphere, asthenosphere
○​ small dust particles collide, -​ relatively flexible (flows like viscous
sticking together to form larger liquid)
clumps. -​ very hot (1600°F) at the top & towards
2.​ Planetesimals Form the center
○​ as clumps grow, their gravity
pulls in more dust and small The Core
rocks. -​ ball of very hot metals
○​ when they become larger than 1 -​ divided into: inner, outer
km, they are called planetesimals. The Outer Core
○​ planetesimals collide and merge, -​ liquid metal iron & nickel with 10%
eventually forming planets. sulfur &/or oxygen
3.​ Inner vs. Outer Planets -​ very hot (4000-9000°F)
○​ solar wind & heat push away -​ 2,250km thick
lighter gases from the inner solar
system. The Inner Core
○​ inner planets (rocky planets) form -​ solid metal due to extreme heat &
mostly from heat-resistant pressure
materials (silicates, iron, nickel). -​ composed of: iron & nickel
○​ outer planets (gas giants & ice -​ responsible for the magnetic field the
giants) form from gas and ice, as earth generates
they are far from the Sun’s heat. -​ 800km thick & is 9000°F

Key Points to Remember HOW WERE EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE AND

●​ Planets form from dust and gas sticking OCEANS CREATED?
together.
●​ Gravity helps in building bigger objects. 1. First Atmosphere
●​ Inner planets are rocky because heat ●​ Earth’s first atmosphere was made of
removes light gases. leftover gases from the nebula (the cloud
●​ Outer planets are gas/ice giants of dust and gas that formed the solar
because they retain light elements. system).
 ●​ However, the solar wind (a strong -​ a timeline of Earth's history, showing
stream of charged particles from the changes in life forms and geologic
Sun) blew these gases away. events.
2. Second Atmosphere (Outgassing) -​ how it works:
●​ Earth’s second atmosphere formed -​ divides Earth's history into large
through outgassing—gases trapped time blocks.
inside the planet were released through -​ starts 4.6 billion years ago (when
volcanic activity. Earth formed).
●​ During density stratification, Earth's -​ continues to the present day.
materials separated by density, and the -​ shows when major changes
lightest gases (like water vapor, carbon happened, like the first life on
dioxide, and nitrogen) rose to the Earth.
surface.
3. Formation of the Oceans Divisions of Geological Time
●​ The water vapor released during -​ geologic time scale is divided into eons,
outgassing cooled and condensed, eras, periods, and epochs.
forming clouds. -​ they are based on changes or events
●​ Over time, this led to millions of years of recorded in rocks and fossils.
rainfall, which filled basins and created -​ EON
the first oceans. -​ largest unit of time
●​ Some scientists also believe that comets -​ extremely long, indefinite period
(which contain ice) crashed into Earth of time
and added more water to the oceans. -​ Earth’s 4.6-billion-year history is divided
into Precambrian time and three eras:
HOW OLD IS EARTH? Paleozoic, Mesozoic, & Cenozoic.
●​ Scientists determine Earth's age by -​ Each era is subdivided into a number of
studying rocks. periods. For example, the Paleozoic Era
●​ Rocks contain tiny amounts of is divided into six periods. The Cambrian
radioactive materials (e.g., uranium, Period is important because it is the first
thorium, potassium). period after Precambrian Time.
●​ Radioactive materials naturally break -​ The periods of the Cenozoic, the most
down into other elements over time recent era, are further divided into
(radioactive decay). epochs.
●​ Each radioactive material has a half-life -​ Present day Earth is in the Cenozoic era
(the time it takes for half of it to decay). and the Quaternary period in the
●​ Older rocks have more decay products Holocene epoch.
and less of the original radioactive
material.
●​ Scientists measure the amounts of
radioactive material and decay products
to calculate a rock’s age.
●​ Using this method, Earth's age is
estimated to be 4.54 billion years.

THE GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

-​ a record of life forms and geological
events in earth’s history
 CENOZOIC ERA (65 MILLION YEARS AGO TO
PRESENT DAY)
-​ The first humans appeared in the later
part of the Cenozoic era, which
continues today. The diversity of life
forms increased. New mammals and
birds appeared while other became
extinct. Flowering plants became most
common.

PRECAMBRIAN TIME (4.6 BILLION YEARS

AGO)
-​ this period is MOST of Earth’s history.
-​ For nearly 4 billion years, during most of
Precambrian time, no plants or animals
existed. Multicellular organisms develop
late in the Precambrian.

PALEOZOIC ERA (544 MILLION YEARS AGO)

-​ LIFE EXPLODES! At the beginning of the
Paleozoic era, all life lived in the oceans.
-​ Early invertebrates developed and later
reptiles became dominant on land. Early
plant included simple mosses, ferns, and
cone-bearing plants.

MESOZOIC ERA (245 TO 65 MILLION YEARS

AGO)
-​ Age of the Reptile/Dinosaurs Dinosaurs
lived along with the first mammals,
birds, and flowering plants. Reptiles
were dominant.