UNIT ONE

EUROPEAN INVASION AND THE PROCESS OF COLONIZATION OF AFRICA

The scramble and partition.
 European countries which took part in scramble and partition include:
 Britain
 Germany
 France
 Italy
 Belgium
 Portugal
 By 1914 almost all Africans were occupied by European countries.
 Liberia and Ethiopia was not occupied.
The scramble and partition of Africa.
Scramble.
 It refers to a condition in which people struggle in hurry or haste to obtain or get
something.
 In the African situation, it meant the rush for and struggle by European powers to acquire
various parts of Africa during the 19th century.
Partition
 It refers to the sharing of something
 Partitions of Africa refer dividing up of regions in Africa among European powers.
 In the 19th century, European powers divided African among themselves following Berlin
conference of November 1884 to February 1885.
Methods used by Europeans to acquire colonies in Africa.
 Treaty sign
 Treachery
 Divide and rule
 Military conquest.
1) Signing of treaties;
They were two categories i.e.
 Treaties between Africans and Europeans.
 Treaties between European powers themselves.
i.Treaty signing with African leaders.
 Treaties signed after 1885 were protectorate treaty between African rulers and
representatives of European government and private organization.
Examples of such treaties.
 Kabaka mwanga of Buganda with representatives of Imperial British East African
Company.
 King Lobengula of Matebeland and British South African Company.
ii.Treaties signed amongst European powers.
 These were known as Partition Agreements.

For example
  The Anglo-Germany Agreements of 1886
 Heligoland of 1890 between the British and the Germans over the sharing of East
Africa.
 The Anglo Italian treaty signed in 1891 between the Italians and the British over
possession of Eritrea and the Somali coast.
 The treaty between the British and Portugal and France in 1890 on the sharing of
Madagascar (France) Mozambique and Angola (Portugal).
2).Military conquest/ Use of force.
 Europeans employed outright war against those societies that resisted their invasion.
Examples.
 The French war against the Mandinka of Samori Toure (1870-1899)
 The British used military force in the Nandi resistance from 1895-1905,
 The Chimurenga wars involving the Shona/Ndebele against the British, forced
acquisition of Egypt and Sudan
 The Germans fought the Maji Maji wars from 1905- 1907.
 The Italians were defeated during their Ethiopian campaign, by Menelik II in the
battle of Adowa in 1896.
 The Portuguese forcefully established their rule over Angola, Guinea Bissau and
Mozambique.
3) Treachery
 Some Europeans occupied some parts of Africa by luring African chiefs by giving them
present like cloths, beads, tools, weapons and even intoxicating drinks.
Examples.
 King of Buganda and Lozi were cheated through gifts and ended losing their
independence.
4).Divide and rule.
 Europeans also used divide and rule tactics
 They instigated war between different societies by playing off one society against
another.
 After such communities had fought and were weakened the Europeans stepped in and
occupied their land.
5).Use of company rule.
 The British and the Germans used chartered companies to acquire and rule their colonies.
For example
 British South African Company of Cecil Rhodes
 Imperial British East African Company of Sir William Mackinnon
 The German East Africa Company of Carl Peters.
 Royal Niger Company of George Goldie operating in West Africa.
FACTORS THAT LED TO THE SCRAMBLE FOR COLONIES IN AFRICA.
Factors that led to scramble of Africa are categorized into the following:
 Political factors
 Economic factors
 Social factors
 Strategic reasons.
Political reasons
i.Unification of Germany.
 By 1870, Britain and France were the most powerful nations in Europe.
 After Franco-Prussia war of 1870-1871, Germany become most powerful country in
Europe following her unification under Kaiser William and Otto Von Bismark.
 French lost two colonies of Alsace and Lorraine due to the war and as a result they
sought colonies in Africa to compensate for her colonies.
ii.Nationalism
 In the late 19th century spirit of national pride emerged among European nations.
 European Nation felt that it was prestigious for a country to acquired colonies.
 Citizens encouraged their governments to acquire colonies in Africa for national pride.
Example.
 French assembly ratified de-brazza treaty with chief makoko because of pressure from
the public.
iii.Militarism.
 By the end of 19th century, they were fewer wars in Europe. This frustrates military
officers as they were fewer opportunities for promotion.
 Military officers favored colonial wars because they provide opportunities for promotion.
Economic reasons.
i.Trade.
 European traders in Africa asked protection from their mother countries wherever they
faced competition from Africa merchants. The desire to control led to scramble and
partition of Africa.
ii.Mineral wealth.
 There was speculation that Africa had huge valuable mineral like gold and diamond. This
speculation fueled the scramble for colonies in Africa.
ii.Investment of surplus capital.
 Industrial revolution in Europe created wealthy merchants with surplus capital
 They believed that they could make more profits in Africa due to less competition.
iii.Search for raw materials.
 Industrial revolution created many industries hence need raw material. Therefore
European looked Africa as a source of their industrial raw material such as rubber,
cotton, cocoa and tobacco.

iv.Search for markets.

  As Europeans countries become industrialized, there were a lot of competition for
markets for industrial goods.
 European countries looked for colonies in Africa in order to get new market for their
goods.
Social reasons.
i.The rise racialism
 European views their culture as superior. They looked themselves as superior race.
 They looked Africa as Dark Continent, therefore considered it as their duty to civilize
Africans.
ii.Settlement of surplus population.
 During the 19th century, the population of Europe increased rapidly, therefore need to
settle surplus population
 They saw Africa as an area, where they could settle surplus population.
iii.Abolition of slave trade.
 Humanitarian group emerged in Europe and campaigned against slavery and slave trade.
They advocate for equality.
 The activities of humanitarian group made Europeans to colonize Africans to stop slave
trade.
iv.Missionary activities
 Missionary activities led to the scramble and partition of Africa, when the missionary
faced attacks and hostility from African communities and slave traders, they asked
protection from their mother countries.
Strategic reasons.
i.The Egypt question.
 Egypt was important to the European powers because of Suez Canal. Suez Canal linked
Europe with the Far East. It shortened route to India.
 British fear that if rival took over control of Egypt then her ships might be blocked from
passing through canal
 France who had provided technical knowledge during the construction had some interest.
ii.The source of the Nile
 River Nile was important to the livelihood of Egypt. Control of it source was important.
 Desire to control source of river Nile made British occupy Uganda.
iii.The Congo River.
 Africa had few navigable rivers one of them being Congo River, therefore it was of
strategic importance.
 Belgians, French and Portuguese clashed over the control of the Congo River.
 They claimed territories in the Congo basin which led to scramble and partition
iv.North African coast.
 The coast of North Africa was important in the control of the Mediterranean.
 It attracted interest from France and Italy who wanted to take control of Tunisia.

v.West Africa.
  After losing Egypt to the British, French turned to West Africa
 They established protectorate over Porto novo and planned to acquire more territories in
the Egypt.
 French activities worried the British and the Germans who joined the race for colonies.
 Germans occupied Togo, Cameroon, South West Africa and Tanganyika.
The process of partition.
 In attempt to prevent a major war in Europe, the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck
convened a conference in Berlin, the German capital in 1884.
 The conferences took place between 1884-1885.
 It was attended by major Europeans powers which include:
 Britain
 Germany
 France, Belgium
 Portugal
 Italy.
The terms of Berlin conferences.
 Any European power claiming any region in Africa was to inform other European
powers interested.
 The European powers were to declare their sphere of influence or areas they wish to
occupy. This led drawing of boundaries.
 A European power claiming any part of Africa must be followed by effective occupation.
 All Europeans powers acquiring territories in Africa were to abolish slave trade.
 Congo River and the Niger River basins were to be left free and open for navigation by
all European powers.
 Europeans powers recognized the demands of king Leopold II over the Congo Free State.
 Any European power claiming a certain part of the African coast, the land in the interior
next to the coast became hers.
 The Berlin conference laid the foundation of the process of partition as it ended the
otherwise disorganized and haphazard scramble for territories in Africa.
European possession Africa.
Britain
In East Africa
 Kenya
 Uganda
Central Africa
 Nyasaland
 Northern Rhodesia
 Southern Rhodesia
Southern Africa
 Bechuanaland
 Swaziland
 Basutoland
 Union of South Africa
North Africa
 Egypt
 Sudan
West Africa
 Gold coast
 Nigeria
 Gambia
 Sieraleone
France
Central Africa
 French Congo
 Chad
 French central Africa
West Africa
 Senegal
 Ivory Coast.
 Dahomey
 Upper Volta
 Guinea
 Mali
 Mauritania
 Niger.
North Africa
 Tunisia
 Algeria
 Morocco
 North-eastern Africa
 French Somaliland
 Eritrea
Germany
East Africa
 Tanganyika
 Central Africa
 Rwanda
 Burundi
West Africa
 Togo
 South West Africa
 Cameroon.

Belgium
 Belgium Congo
Portugal
 Angola
 Mozambique
 Portuguese Guinea
Spain
 Spanish Guinea
 Spanish Morocco
Italy
 Libya
 Italian Somaliland.
Impact of partition of Africa.
Political impact
 It led to introduction of new system of administration e.g. direct rule, indirect rule and
assimilation.
 Africans lost their independences as colonial rule was established.
 It led drawing of presence day boundaries as Europeans established their sphere of
influence.
 Some Africans resisted the coming of the Europeans.
 Africans were drawn into international politics e.g. they participate in world wars.
 It led to rise of African nationalism. Colonialism led to the development of African
political awareness hence they start fighting for independence.
 Boundary creation split apart many African communities. For example, the Somali are
found both in Kenya and in Somalia, the Maasai in Kenya and Tanzania and the Ewe in
Ghana and Togo
 Local African chiefs lost their authority to European colonilist.e.g.nabongo mumia of
wanga, kabaka mwanga and samori toure of mandinka.
 Africans was given to chartered companies which administered them on behalf of the
colonizing masters.
Economic impact.
 Africans provided and supplied industrial raw materials and markets for European
industries.
 African labours were exploited for European economic gains.
 There was construction of roads, railway and other forms of infrastructure, which helped
to open up the interior.
 Led to alienation of African land to create room for European settlement.
 African economic activities were disrupted e.g. among nomadic pastoralists their animals
were taken and area of grazing limited.
 It led to introduction of wage labour in Africa.
Social impact.
 It led to establishment of European settlements in Africa.
 It led to spread of Christianity.
 It led to undermining of African culture as African adopted western civilization.
 It led to the spread of western education and more Africans were able to read and write.
  It led to the spread of western education and more Africans were able to read and write.
 It led to the introduction of western medicine and diseases which had no treatment like
malaria, leprosy and small pox were overcome.
 It led to development of urban centers. Some towns grew as centers of administration e.g.
Nairobi and Machakos. Others grew as railway terminus e.g. Kisumu.
 Many Africans lost their lives through resistance.
 It led to emergence of racial segregation as a result of the European superiority complex.
The whites got better health, education and other social services.
African reactions to European colonization.
 African reaction to European colonization varied from one region and to the other.
 Africans reacted in two ways:
 Resistances.
 Collaboration.
Resistances.
 This was the used of military force to prevent colonization
Examples of communities who resisted were:
 Southern Tanganyika communities.
 The mandinka.
 The Ndebele.
The Maji Maji rebellion.
 The Maji Maji Uprising in Tanganyika was the most significant African challenge to
German colonial rule in Tanganyika.
 The Uprising started in 1905 and end in 1907
 Tanzania had been acquired largely by Dr. Karl Peters, who signed treaties with the
Chiefs of
 Usagara, Ungula, Uzigua and Ukami, in 1885.
The Rebellion involved:
 Zaramo
 Matumbi
 Bena, Ngindo
 Pogoro, Bunga
 Ngoni
 Luguru
 Wamwera
 Ndendeule
 The revolt got its name maji maji because before the uprising there rose a medicine man
called kinjikitile ngwale who introduced and distributed some magic water(maji) to the
people, claiming that it would make African fighters immune to the German bullets
 It was believed the dead ancestors would protect the people
 Ngwale belonged to the kolelo religious cult and his title was bokero.
 His home area was ngarambe.
The causes of the Maji Maji rebellion.
i.The forced cotton-growing programme.
  Germany colonial officials introduced a cotton-growing programme to make the people
produced raw material for German industries.
 The people were to plant cotton on communal plots and share profits with marketing
organization.
 Programme fail because area chosen was not suitable.
 When revolt broke people started uprooting cotton shoots because it was regarded as
symbol of German colonialism.
ii.Taxation.
 German East Africa Company levied heavy taxes on Africans.The taxes were collected
with a lot of force and those who fail to pay were humiliated by public flogging.
 This created bitterness among the Africans.
iii.Forced labour.
 Africans were expected to provide labour on settlers’ farms and public projects.
 While working they were being mistreated by akidas.
 This created resentment among the Africans.
iv.Employment of akidas and jumbes.
 The Germans employed chiefs (akidas) and headmen (jumbes) from among the Arabs
and Waswahili at the Coast.
 The Africans dislked the rule by akidas and jumbes who were foreigners.
v.Harsh German rule.
 Africans dislike harsh and ruthless rule by Germans.
 They were mistreated and torture and sometimes whipped for things they did not merit.
vi.Role of religion.
 Africans were inspired by the prophecy of kinjikitile ngwale.
 He called Africans to unite and fight with courage against the Germany because they
would be immune to bullets.
vii.Land alienation.
 Africans land was taken away and pushed to live in unproductive reserves.
viii.Desire for revenge by the ngoni.
 Ngoni wanted to revenge the 1898 massacre by the Germans.
 In the incident Germans tricked ngoni leaders into entering a fort where many were shot
dead.
ix.Desire to regain independence.
 Africans wanted to regain their lost independence.
x.Disrespect of African culture.
 The Germans had no respect for African culture and customs for instances they burnt
down sacred huts of traditional priests. They considered them to be centers of witchcraft.

xi.Sexual abuse.
 German officials sexually abused African women for instances they raped ngindo
women. According to Ngido customs this offence was punishable by death.
Course of the Maji Maji rebellion.
  Uprising was led by the kinjekitile ngwale a Kolelo priest who lived at Ngarambe.
 He organized people as from 1904 by giving them magic water which they sprinkled on
their bodies. This was the mixture of water and millet.
 He also trained them in fighting tactics.
 People travelling to his home to get magic water. They believed magic water would turn
bullet into water.
 Use of magic play a very important role which include:
 They gave them courage to face the Germans.
 It also helped to unify them.
 Through his ideas,kinjekitile ngwale mobolized the Zaramo, Matumbi, Ngindo, Ngoni,
Luguru, Ndendeule, Pogoro, Mpunga and Bena to rebel against the Germans between
July 1905 and August 1907.
 Resistances broke out among the matumbi when they refused to pick cotton in their
region.Pogoro followed suit when they uprooted cotton from akidas farms at nandete and
attacked government posts and officials. Resistances then spread to other areas.
 Kinjekitile ideas spread widely through a whispering campaign called njwiywia by the
matumbi.Njwiywia was a secrete communication compaign from one person to the other,
had it that a medicinemen had risen from Ngarambe, who could weaken the power of the
whitemen.
 As the war progress some government administrators joined the war on the side of rebel.
 The fighters combined guerilla tactics with open battles.
 German administrators were overwhelmed and decide to hire Zulu, Somali and Sudanese
mercenaries to help it defeat the rebels.
 In 1905 German forces together with mercenaries attacked the africans.They used
scorched-earth policy. Many Africans were killed.
 Africans later employ guerilla warfare; however they were defeated in 1907.
 They surrendered as some fled to Mozambique.
Reasons why Africans was defeated by the Germans.
i.Lack organizations.
 Africans were not well organized in their resistances. Each community fights on its own
as result some tribes surrendered leaving others to continue.
ii.Failure of the magic water.
 Magic water failed to protect the Africans from German bullets. This resulted in the
death of many Africans from the battle.
iii.Disunity among the Africans.
 Africans were not united to fight the common enemy e.g.Hehe and Nyamwezi did not
join the rebellion.

iv.German reinforcement.
 Germans received reinforcement from Germans and other parts of africa.This strengthen
their army against the Africans.
v.Lack of military skills.
  Africans did not have well trained military army as a result they were easily defeated.
vi.Ruthlessness of the Germans.
 Germans crushed the rebellion ruthlessly e.g. the used of scorch earth policy where
everything was burnt down on the way.
vii.Capture and execution of the leaders.
 Africans who was capture were executed in public. This demoralized African warriors.

Results of Maji Maji rebellion.

 It led to destruction of properties. Houses and crops were burnt down as a result of the
scorched-earth policy which was employed by Germans.
 It led to loss of live. Many Africans lost their lives during the war. Apart from being
killed by germane soldiers, scores died of starvation and diseases.
 It led to displacement of people during the war. Many others move to other areas in
search food.
 The war causes ill-feelings among the people and created tribal differences that continued
throughout the first half of the 20th century.
 The war forced Germans to introduce some reforms for example they stopped taking
Africans for granted, practices like forced labour and forced taxation were stopped and
Africans were involved in local administration.
 It led to widespread famine in tanganyika.this is because of destruction of farms and
granaries.
 Failure of magic water made people to lose confidence in traditional religion. Some
turned to Christianity.
 The uprising served as an inspiration to African nationalist who later fight against
colonial rule.
 It led to depopulation as many Africans died during the war as well as from the famine.
Mandinka (Samori Toure) resistance 1891-1898
 Samori ibn lafiya toure was the founder of the Mandinka Empire.
 He was born in 1830 in sanakoro in the present day Guinea. He belonged to the Dyula
clan, clan of long distance traders.
 When samori was still young, his mother was capture by Sori Birama a local chief.
Samori was enlisted in sori birama army where he served for seven years to secure the
release of his mother.
 While serving as soldier he conceives the idea of creating an empire by uniting the
numerous warring principalities of Mandinka Empire.
 He created in 1860’s by capturing Kamandugu.He made Bisandugu his capital city in
1866.
 He continued to conquer a number of principalities and created a large empire in the
upper Niger.
Causes of Samori’s resistances.
 He wanted to safeguard independence of his empire.
 He wanted to protect the economic resources of his empire which include Bure gold
mine and Kenyaran trading centre.
 He wanted to safeguard his military and economic prosperity in the region.
  Samori was against the French practice of selling arms to his enemies such as King
Tieba of Sikasso.
 Mandinka were Muslims and considered French to be infidels who were to be
expelled from their territory.
 He wanted to preserve mandinka culture which he felt was under attack.
 He wanted to protect his authority which he felt would be undermined by French
occupation.
Course of the war.
 Between 1882 and 1886 the French and samori were busy reorganizing their forces.
 French approached samori for a boundary settlement; this resulted to signing of
bisandungu treaty.
 In the treaty samori gave the French all his territory north of river Niger.
 Having failed to avert war through diplomacy following the trick into signing the
bisandugu treaty of 1886, samori resulted to warfare between 1891 and 1898.
 Samori had a large army of about 35000 men armed with gun but not heavy artillery like
the French had.
 Samori divided his army into three:
 One group rifle engaged the French and retreat.
 Second group organized people, evacuated them and lead them eastward.
 Third group conquered new areas.
 As they move samori army carried out scorch-earth policy whereby they burnt villages,
crops and everything else after taking what they wanted needed. This left French without
food and shelter therefore they had to get food supplies from other areas.
 By 1896 samori had moved his empire about 600 miles to the east. This was his second
empire and the new capital was Dabakala.
 Location of his disadvantage because:
 Kingdom was open to attack by the French Ivory Coast.
 He was cut off from Freetown where he used to buy firearms.
 He was cut from the gold fields of wangare where he used to obtain his gold
 Consequently he had to rely entirely on his military workshops for weapon supply.
 In 1898 samori toure surrender to the French and was deported to Gabon where he died
in 1900.
Reason why the resistances take long.
 Many of Samori’s soldiers believed that they were fighting a jihad (holy war) against the
French, hence they fought with determination.
 The mandinka had a very large standing army of about 35000 men who were well trained
disciplined and equipped with modern weapons.
 Samori had military workshop where he used to manufacture their weapons to
supplement those imported ones.
 The used of guerilla warfare delayed the conquest.
 Use of scorched-earth policy delayed the advance of french troops and weakend them,as
they had no food.
 Diplomacy. When samori was not ready he signed peace treaties to have time to prepare.
 Samori and his people had a lot of resources acquired from agriculture and trade hence
this supported a long resistances.
  Samori was a soldier.He had earlier engaged in wars of expansion and consolidation
before.
 Samori’s soldiers knew the French millitary tactics as many of them had defected from
the French army.
Reasons why Samori was defeated.
 The British refused to support the mandinka against the French.
 Lack of unity among African societies dealt Samori a heavy blow e.g. Seku ahmadu of
Tikolar Empire and Tieba of Sikasso chose rather to assist the French than samori.
 The used of the scorch-earth policy led to the suffering of his own people therefore he
lost their support.
 The abonding of the rich bure gold reserves as retreated meant he had lost an important
source of revenue that was initially used to sustain the army.
 His new kingdom made it difficult for him to purchase fire-arms easily from the coast
due to long distances and presence of Europeans along the way.
 The new empire was difficult to defend as it was open to attacks on all sides.
 His army was less equips compare with French army.
 The non-mandinka communities and non-Muslim did not support Samori. This was due
to mistreatment they got under samori rule.
Effects of Mandinka resistances.
 Loss of lives.Many people were killed in the course of the resistances while others die
due to famine.
 Destruction of properties.Much properties including houses, food stores and livestock
were destroyed in the course of the war especially due to the used of scorch-earth policy.
 Nationalism.Resistances formed the background of mid 20 th century African
independence campaigns against the French in West Africa.
 Loss of independence.Mandinka people lost their independence and become subjects of
the French colonial rule.
 Disruption of economic activity.Mandinka lost control over all their trading activities and
gold mines
 Samori capture. Samori was later captures and deported to Gabon where he died in 1900.
 Displacement of people. Many people were displace from their homes and therefore
become refugees because of the war.
 It led to famine and starvation in mandinka land due to the used of scorched-earth policy
 The war led to misery and suffering among the people.this led to state of despair.
 Disruption of traditional institutions.The traditional institutions of the mandinka were
disrupted and made ineffective discharging their duties.
 It led to the collapse of the kingdoms
 The mandinka lost much of their land to the French e.g. the first empire.
Ndebele resistances
 British occupation of Matebeland and Mashonaland in Southern Rhodesia took place
during reign of Lobengula son of Mzilikazi.
 By 1870s Europeans had started visiting matebeland and asking Lobengula for hunting
and mining rights however Lobengula delayed granting of concessions for some time.
  In 1888, Lobengula signed the Moffat treaty which stated that he was not to sign any
other treaty with other European groups without British permission. This treaty paved
way for the British occupation of Matabeleland.
 In the same year Cecil Rhodes sent Charles Rudd to see Lobengula and seek a treaty
giving the British monopoly in his kingdom. This led Rudd concession of 1888.
 Cecil Rhodes used concession to obtain charter for the British South Africa Company in
1889.
 After getting charter Rhodes made plan for British occupation in Mashonaland and by
1890 he brought a group of settlers from South Africa to Mashonaland.
 The activities of the British in Mashonaland brought them into conflict with the Ndebele;
as a result a war broke between Ndebele and British.
Causes of the resistances.
i.British occupation of mashonaland.
 British occupation of Matabeleland had ended Ndebele powers over the Shona whom
they always raided for cattle and women.
ii.Forced labour.
 Ndebele was against forced labour in mines, Europeans homes and farms
iii.Loss of land.
 Ndebele land was taken away for European settlement and other projects hence created
bitterness.
iv.British incitement of the Shona.
 British incited the shona on many occasions to raid the Ndebele for cattle. This was
meant to provoke the Ndebele to attack the shona.
v.Killing of European servants.
 This was immediate cause of the war.
 Indunas punish some Shona for disobeying Lobengula for instances they raided white
farms to recover their stolen cattle. In the process they killed Shona servants of the
Europeans
Course of the war.
 War broke in October 1893 when Ndebele killed the shona servants belonging whites.
 However British and their allies were stronger than Ndebele army.
 When lobengula realized he will be defeated he evacuated from his capital Bulawayo and
fled northward with his people.
 Lobengula died in 1894 and his Induna surrendered to British.
Results of the war.
 It led to widespread starvation among the Ndebele as their livestock were taken away.
 It led to distruption of Ndebele economic activities for instance they were prohibited
from carrying out agricultural activities before they surrendered.
 It led to alienation of Ndebele land for settlement by the British.
 It led to destruction of properties during the war e.g. farms and granaries.Bulawayo the
capital city was also destroyed.
 The war created widespread fear and insecurity among the Ndebele.
  It led to increase hostility between the Europeans and Africans, which later led to
chimurenga war.
 The war weakened the Ndebele military power.
 It led to recruitment of Shona into British police.
 It led to imposition of hut tax on Ndebele.
 Ndebele monarchy system along side caste system were dismantled.
 Ndebele lost their independence and become subject of British.
Reasons why Ndebele community was defeated.
 British had superior weapons e.g. guns as compared to Ndebele.
 British army was better trained and well organized.
 Lobengula and his soldiers were weakened by an outbreak of small pox.
 Disunity among the Africans e.g.Tswana and the Shona supported the British against the
Ndebele.
 The subject in the lower castes, the Enhla and Holi did not take part in the war.
 British army got reinforcement from South Africa.
The Shona-Ndebele war (Chimurenga war) 1896-1898.
 The 1893 Ndebele war led to another armed conflict from 1896 to 1897.
 War was known as Shona-Ndebele war or Chimurenga war.
 It began in March in March in Matabeland and in June 1896 in mashonaland.
Causes of the war.
i.Loss of independence.
 The Ndebele loss their independent and become subject of the British in the 1893 hence
began the resistances in attempt to regain their independence.
ii.Loss of lands.
 Both the Shona and the Ndebele lost their land for European occupation. Africans were
pushed to live in reserves.
iii.Loss of cattle.
 The Ndebele animals were taken away by the whites after 1893 war.
 Also in 1895 the Ndebele was forced to kill their animals due to outbreak of rinderpest.
iv.Hut tax.
 Both the shona were subjected to heavy taxation by the British.
 The taxes were collected with a lot of force and brutality hence they resisted.

v.Introduction of forced labour.

 The Shona was forced to provide labour in the settler plantation, Europeans mines and
homes therefore they resisted.
vi.Mistreatment by the Shona police.
 The Ndebele began the resistances because they were mistreated by shona police
employed by the British.
vii.Disrespect of traditional religion.
  British totally disregarded the Shona traditional religion. They mistreated the leaders of
the mwari or mlimo cult among the Mashona.
viii.Outbreak natural calamities.
 In 1895 they were natural calamities in the Matebeland and Mashonaland e.g. drought,
famine, locust invasion, outbreak of rinderpest etc.
 The Shona interpreted this calamity to mean that their god Mwari was displeased by the
present of the Whiteman in their land hence they began the resistances to get rid of the
Whiteman.
ix.Inspiration by their religious leaders.
 The rise of leaders such as Mkwati in matebeland and Kakubi and Nehanda in Mashona
encouraged people to rebel against British South African Company. The leaders promise
protection from the British bullet.
x.Interference with the trade.
 The Shona resisted because they hated the interferences with their trading rights by the
British South African Company.The company forced the Shona to only trade with them
and fixed low prices for their goods.
Course of the war.
 In attempt to bring Transvaal under British rule Cecil Rhodes organized resistances being
led by his assistances Dr.james, however the raid failed. When the news reached
Zimbabwe, the Shona and Ndebele realized that the whites could be defeated
 Africans began the war by attacking the Europeans, destroying their properties and
killing the white’s men.
 Africans used all the weapons they could acquire and in some cases they employed
guerrilla warfare.
 The Shona and the Ndebele were organized by their Mlimo cult and medium spirit
leaders.
 Mkwati and sigingamatisha were very active in Matabeleland with the encouragement of
Lobengula’s son, Nyamanda and the Ndebele chief priest, Ungula.
 Banda and Tshiwa organized the Shona into military regiments, men, women and
children were all involved in the efforts to send the Whiteman away.
 Reinforcements had to be brought from other parts of Southern Africa to suppress the
revolt. The Africans resorted to guerrilla warfare in the Matopo and other hills.Ndebele
revolt ended in December, 1896. While that of the Shona Continued until October 1897.

Results of Chimurenga war.

 The Shona and Ndebele were defeated due to lack of Superior weapons many nations lost
their lives.
 Many Africans especially Africans loss their lives during the war.
 The Shona and the Ndebele lost cattle which were confiscated by the BSACo.
 Africans lost their independences and become the subject of British.
 A lot of properties were destroyed especially when BSACo used scorched earth policy.
 It led to alienation of African land and Africans were pushed to go and lived in reserves.
  The Ndebele chiefs were recognized by the British administration as a reward because
they surrender earlier.
 Famine and starvation resulted in Matebeland and Mashonaland and as a result Cecil
Rhodes sent 1000000 bags of maize to solve the problems.
 The Shona leaders’ i.e. Kakubi and Nehanda were capture and executed through hanging.
 Africans lost faith in their religion as the magic protection failed to work and as a result
turned to Christianity.
 The Shona and Ndebele realized the important of unity hence they united later in the
struggle for indepence.
 The colonial office in London blamed the BSACO.for the poor administration which led
to uprising.
Reasons why the Chimurenga was defeated.
 Shona and Ndebele did not unite to fight the enemy as one team. They lacked
coordination which made easy for the British to deal with each one at a time.
 The British had superior weapon.
 The brutality of the British South African company demoralized the fighters.
 The British were well trained compared to the shona and Ndebele.
 The indunas and military regiments of the Ndebele were broken during the first revolt. In
this case they were not prepared for the war.
 Natural calamities and famine which occur in Matebeland and Mashonaland weakened
the people hence could not put up prolonged war against the British.
 British got reinforcement from Botswana and South Africa.
 The African fighters were demoralized by the arrest and execution of their leaders like
Nehanda and Kakubi.
 Magic protection promoted by cult leaders failed to work as a result many people were
killed by the British bullets.
 The British South African company was determined to crush the rebellion.
b) COLLABORATION
 This was the process of accepting and accommodating Europeans occupation without
resistance. They did this to safeguard their positions against internal power struggles or as
a protection from stronger external or neighbouring societies.
Examples of African communities who collaborated:
 The Baganda
 The Lozi.
THE BAGANDA.
 By 1850, Buganda was the most powerful centralised state in East Africa.
 It was ruled by Kabaka.
 It had a large army and navy and was engaged in long distance trade with the Arabs and
Swahilis from the Coast.
 The first European to reach Buganda was John Speke, a traveler in 1862 and followed by
James Grant.
 European whose visit had a greater impact on Buganda was Henry Morton Stanley, a
reporter from the New York herald.
 He first visited East Africa in 1871 whom he was sent to look for Dr. David Living stone
he also visited Mutesa court in 1875.
  It was HM Stanley who convinced Kabaka Mutesa to accept Christian missionaries in his
kingdom.
Kabaka Mutesa 1(1856-1884)
Reasons why Kabaka Mutesa I collaborated.
 He wanted to acquire western education, medicine and technology for the benefit of
his kingdom.
 He wanted missionaries to check growing influence of Muslim in his kingdom.
 He wanted to establish trading links with the Europeans so as to get goods like
firearms.
 He wanted protection against mukama of bunyoro whose power was rising and was
a threat to his authority and trade.
 He wanted help against Khedive Ismail threats in his Northern Districts.
 He also wanted technological experts to teach the people some those skills.
 The first missionaries to arrive were Protestants of the Church Missionary Society (EMS)
from Britain in 1877 followed by the Roman Catholic while fathers in 1897 Kabaka Mutesa
confined the missionaries in his capital Rubaga .this result was that the members of his court
and those who lived in the capital converted to Christianity.
 When mutesa died, four religious factions had emerged these include.
 Protestants
 Roman
 Catholic
 Muslims
 The traditionalists.
Kabaka Mwanga.
 He was succeeded by his son Mwanga who was 18 years old .at the beginning Mwanga
associated himself with young Christians but turned against them and killed 30 in May
1886 for refusing to give up their faith.
 The period from 1888 – 90 was time of political upheaval in Buganda .
 Mwanga was overthrown and exiled to Sese Island on lake Victoria but he was help by
Christian (catholic and protestants) to recapture his throne in 1890.
Reason why Kabaka Mutesa collaborated.
 He wanted assistances to consolidate his position as king of Buganda.
 He feared British military might.
 The British were to assist him check on the influence of religious groups within the
kingdom.
 He wanted to use the British to help him dominate other kingdoms in the region such as
bunyoro.
Process of collaboration.
 In 1890, Uganda officially became among the British spheres of influence it was to be
administered by the Imperial British East Africa Company (IBEAC).
 In 1891, Fredrick Lugard signed a treaty of protection with Kabaka Mwanga which gave
the Imperial British East African company control over Buganda.
 In 1891 the ibeaco ran bankrupt and evn after receiving financial support from the
missionaries the company was still unable to administer Uganda.the only alternative was
to abandon Uganda if the British government was willing.
  British foreign secretary was in favour of Uganda remaining under the British and as a
result Sir Gerald Portal was secretaly instructed to go to Uganda to study the situation on
the round and give a report.
 Following his recommendation, Uganda was declared a British protectorate in 1894.
 Under the British rule, Kabaka mwanga realised that he was expected to be just a pubbet,
while real power rested in the hands of the British admimistrators.
 Kabaka Mwanga revolt against the British in 1897. Which failed as some of his people
supported the British.
 He was arrested and exiled to Kismayu in 1899 and later to the Seychelles, where he died
in 1903.
 The British made Daudi Chwe, Mwanga’s infant son the new Kabaka. Since he was too
young to rule, three senior ministers the katikiro (P.M), Chief justice and treasurer were
made his agents. They were Apollo Kg Star Mugoanya and Zachary Kisingiri
respectively.
THE BUGANDA AGREEMENT OF 1900
 It was signed between the British and Buganda.
 The agreement considered four factors namely:
 Boundaries.
 The system of government.
 Land ownership.
 Finance.
Terms of the Buganda agreement.
Boundaries.
 Buganda was recognized by the British as kingdom within the Uganda protectorate.
 Her boundary was defined and her size almost doubled by the inclusion of areas recently
acquired from Bunyoro.
Government.
 Kabaka was recognized by the British as the ruler of Buganda, although his powers were
limited.
 The government could not make laws to do anything contrary to the wishes of the
protectorate government.
 A British Resident was to be stationed in Buganda to advise the Kabaka and his
government and safeguard the interest of the protectorate government.
 His three ministers, the Katikiro, Treasury and Chief Justice were recognized.
 Lukiiko was formally constituted as the kingdom’s legislature and court of appeal.
Land.
 Half of the land was made crown land and people were allowed to live on item tenancy
basis.
 The other half was divided on freehold basis among the Kabaka, other members of royal
family, ministers, saza chiefs and about 1000 minor chiefs.

Finances.
 A hut tax of three rupees and a gun tax were imposed.
 All revenues were to go to the protectorate government.
 No further taxation was to be imposed without the consent of the kabaka and the lukiiko
 The Kabaka, the ministers and the chiefs were to be paid for their services.
SIGNIFICANCE OF BUGANDA AGREEMENT
 It gave them a basis for the administration of Buganda, whose position in the protectorate
was strengthened.
 Kabakas powers were considerably reduced.
 The Christian Saza chiefs were the real beneficiaries of this agreement. The new land
tenure gave them land and the right to impose land rent.
 The increase of the Sazas from 10 to 20 by the confirmation of Buganda’s annexation of
several countries from Bunyoro, caused friction later, with Bunyoro over her lost
countries
RESULTS OF BUGANDA COLLABORATION
 It led to introduction of Christian and European influence in Buganda.
 Christian missionaries introduced new technologies and skills in Buganda
 It led to declined of Islamic influence in the kingdom as Christianity grew strong.
 The Buganda lost their independence and become subject of the British.
 The Buganda were given protection from their traditional enemies the Bunyoro.
 Trade links increased between the Buganda and the British.
 kabaka gained recognition as he was given the tittle of His Highness by the British
 The Buganda kingdom used their Christians friends to check and counter the omukama of
Bunyoro.
 Kabaka’s powers were reduced in the face of growing educated members of the Lukiiko.
 The Buganda was given an advantage and position in the colonial administration.
THE LOZI – LEWANIKI
 The kingdom was located in modern day Zambia.
 They were ruled by Lewanika.
 He had ascended the chieftaincy in 1884, but it was only after suppressing a bloody revolt
that he was able to established himself firmly on the throne on which he set up to 1916.
 Lewanika responded to the European advance by asking for British protection through Sir
Sydney Shippard, the British administrator of Buchuanaland.
REASONS FOR LEWANIKA’S COLLABORATION
 Lewanika also wanted the British to protect him against internal enemies e.g. in 1884,
Lewanika faced an internal rebellion-to safeguard his position
 Lewanika was encouraged to collaborate with the British by King Khama of Botswana
who had already benefited from British protection against the Dutch in South Africa.
 Lewanika wanted the British to protect his kingdom from attacks by other African
communities such as the Ndebele and Shona-protection against African enemies.
 He desired Western education and civilization for his people.
 He realized the futility of resisting against the British.
 He was encouraged by missionaries to seek British protection.
 He wanted to safeguard the independence of Lozi kingdom.
 He wanted to acquire material benefits from British such as European manufactured
goods.
The process of collaboration
 Lewanika collaborated with British by Signing of treaties
 Examples of treaties lewanika sign include:
 Ware treaty.
 Lochner treaty
  Lawler treaty.
 The coryndon treaty.
 He first signed a treaty with Harry Ware in 1889 before signing the Lochner Treaty of 1890
and the Corydon Treaty of 1898.
Lewanika-ware treaty.
 Lewanika sign treaty with harry ware and the treaty was called Lewanika-Ware treaty.
Term of the treaty.
 In the treaty lewanika allowed Ware to prospect for minerals for a period of 20 years in
Lewanika dominion. But mineral prospecting was not allowed in Barotseland, where
the Lozi lived.
 These treaties put Bulozi under British protectorate.
 Lewanika became friendly to British agents like Frank Lochner and the missionary, François
Coillard, whom he allowed to establish a permanent mission station within his territory.
 He sent his sons to the Coillard mission school as a show of acceptance of westernization.

Lochner Treaty of 1890.

 It was British missionary Francois Coillard who negotiated for the meeting between
Frank Lochner, acting on behalf of Rhodes, and Lewanika in 1890.
 The treaty put Lewanika’s Kingdom under the protection of the British South African
Company.
Terms of the Lochner treaty.
 BSA Company was granted all mining rights in Lozi land.
 The company promised to protect the kingdom from outside attacks.
 Lewanika was to be paid t 2000 sterling pounds a year and 4% royalties of all
minerals mined in the kingdom.
 The BSACO.Was to build schools, telegraph services and promote trade.
 Lewanika was to be transformed into a constitutional monarch not absolute as before
 That a British resident was to be posted in Lewanika capital to advise him on foreign
matters
 The treaty consequently implied that Lewanika had given up his kingdom to the British
company.
 In 1897, Robert T. Coryndon a former police officer was sent as a British resident in
Bulozi.
 Upon his arrival, he made arrangements for the signing of the Lawley treaty of 1898
which further reduced the size of the area governed by Lewanika.
Terms of Lawler treaty.
 The BSA CO. retained prospecting and mining rights in Loziland.
 BSA CO. was to acquire land from the lozi for European settlements.
 The treaty gave administrative and judicial rights of whitemen in Barotseland to the
BSA CO.
 The BSA CO. was to develop education, telegraph and postal services in the
kingdom.
 Lewanika was to end slavery and witchcraft in the kingdom.
 In October 1900, he signed another treaty, the Coryndon Treaty with Lewanika.
 He Coryndon Treaty (1900)
Terms of coryndon treaty.
  The British government would be responsible for administration of Bulozi. The company
administrator would answer to the High Commissioner at the cape.
 The British South Africa Company would appoint officials and pay for the administration
of the area.
 The British South Africa Company would provide schools, industries, postal services,
transport and telegraphic facilities.
 Lewanika would receive only 850 sterling pounds a year as his salary.
 The company was allowed to acquire land on the Batoka plateau.
 The company maintained mining rights in Barotseland.
 Lewanika was to stop slavery and witchcraft in his area.
 Lewanika was made paramount chief of Barotseland. His powers were reduced more
when more white settlers arrived in 1905 ready to participate in government.
RESULTS OF HOZI COLLABORATION
 It led to establishment of British colonial rule in Northern Rhodesia without any
bloodshed.
 The Lozi rulers were given authority over Barotseland but under European
administrators’ supervision.
 Barotseland’s rights over ivory and elephants trade were reserved.
 Traditional practices such as slavery and witchcraft were abolished.
 British developed schools, health centres, and transport and communication networks in
Barotseland.
 He got British protection from Ndebele attacks.
 Lozi people lost their independences.
 The British recognized Lewanika as a paramount chief of Barotseland and gave him
necessary protection.
 Lewanika received payment of £ 2000 yearly
 The British South Africa Company took over the control of the minerals
 The Lozi land was alienated and given to British settlers
 The Lozi were later forced to pay taxes in order to maintain the administration.
 Forced labour was introduced in the kingdom as the Africans were forced to provide
labour on settler farms.
 The Lozi people were employed in the colonial civil service
 The British used Barotseland as a base to conquer the neighbouring communities.

UNIT 2.
ESTABLISHMENT OF COLONIAL RULE IN KENYA
Background to the Scramble and partition of east Africa.
 The earliest Europeans to come to East Africa were the Portuguese in the 15th century.
However their presence was limited to the coast.
 In 17th and 18th centuries, European traders, explorers and missionaries made frequent
visits to the east African coast.
 From mid 19th century some started travelling into the interior of East Africa.
  Scramble of East Africa started when German chancellor Ottovon mismark recognize
treaties sign by Karl Peters with a number of chiefs in Tanganyika.
British occupation of Kenya.
 British colonized Kenya after defeating competing interests from other European powers
mainly Germany and Italy.
Factors that led to British occupation of Kenya.
i.Wanted to control the Source of the Nile.
 Britain wanted free passage to the source of the Nile which was important sources of
livelihood to Egypt.
ii.Strategic interest.
 East Africa was of strategic importance to the British in safeguarding their interests in
India.
iii.Wanted raw materials.
 Britain wanted raw materials for her industries.
iv.Wanted market for their manufactured goods.
 Industrial revolution in Europe led to establishment of many industries hence there were
competition for market of manufactured goods. British came to look for market for her
manufactured goods.
v.They wanted to protect of British nationals.
 There were a number of British traders and missionaries who were operating in the
region. British occupied Kenya in order to provide protection to them.
vi.Wanted to abolish slave trade.
 British occupied Kenya in order to help stop slavery and slave trade.
vii.Wanted to promote of legitimate trade.
 Having abolished slave trade, Britain came to Kenya to promote legitame trade. This was
a trade in African products such as cotton, rubber, cocoa and minerals.
viii.Wanted to invest their surplus capital.
 British wanted to invest their surplus generated by their industries.
ix.For prestige.
 In the 19th century, the acquisition of colonies was viewed as a prestige in Europeans as
result Britain occupied Kenya for national prestige.
x.Wanted to settle their surplus population.
 Population pressure in Britain following success in Britain following success in agrarian
and revolution made Britain to look for colonies overseas to settle excess population.
xi.The independences of the USA.
 When USA become independent in 1776 Britain lost important colony hence look for
alternative colonies to compensate for the lost.

The process of partition.

 Before 1884, European powers who were involved in East Africa sought clearance from
the Sultan of Zanzibar before proceeding to the interior but after the Berlin conference a
bitter struggle occur between the British and the Germans over the control of East Africa.
 In September 1884, a Britain, Sir Henry Johstone, with the Sultan’s permission, signed
treaties with the chiefs in the Kilimanjaro area. He did this on behalf of the British
commercial groups which intended to trade there and construct a railway.
  In the same year, a German, Karl Peters also singed treaties with the chiefs of Osaga,
Uziga, and Ukami and Nguru areas without consulting the Sultan. The Sultan protested
without much success.When Karl Peters went back to Europe, Bismark recognized those
areas as failing under German influence so they were declared German protectorates and
the German East Africa Company was to administer them.
 It’s a struggle between the Germans and the Sultan of Zanzibar occurs over the German
control. The British entered struggle in favor of the sultan of Zanzibar.
 To set things straight Germany demanded a commission to look into the actual extent of
the Sultan’s control. The work of the commission led to the singing of the Anglo-German
agreement of 1886.
The Anglo-German agreement /1886
Terms
 The sultan of Zanzibar was given a 16km (10miles) coastal strip and the off-share Islands
of Pate, Mafia, Pemba, Zanzibar and Lamu.
 Germany got the territory between river umba in the north and Ruvuma in the South.
 Coastline of Witu was given to British.
 Britain got the territory north of river Umba stretching up to river Juba in the North.
Weakness of Anglo-Germany agreement of 1886.
 The Western boundary was left undefined thus living Uganda open to any power that
got there first.
 To reduce administrative cost a number of companies were entrusted with administration on
behaves of their home government.These include:
 Imperial British East African Company.
 German East African Company.
 Imperial British East African Company formerly known as British East African Company
was formed by William Mackinnon. It was granted charter in 1888 which gave them power
to administer areas on behalf of the British.
 German east African company formerly known as Witu was formed by Karl peters in 1887.
Conflicts between German and British companies.
 After 1886, there was rivalry between the British and German trading companies. The
I.B.E.A.CO was favored by Sultan Barguish of Zanzibar. He granted it judicial and
political powers as well as the right to levy custom duties over his mainland dominions.
Soon the IBEAC was claiming over an extension area of about 300km into the interior
from the coastline. This annoyed the Germans and it sparked off a dispute between the
two companies.
 At the same time, Italy had joined the colonial race and was disputing with the British
company over the parts owned by the Sultan in the Northern coast. These were Kismayu,
Merka, Mogadishu and Warsheikh.
 The British were, however, determined not to allow the Sultan’s northern ports to fall into
German hands. Therefore, Britain handed over Lamu to the Sultan, who in turn
relinquished it to Britain. The other northern parts were ended to Italy and like the Sultan
gave them back to Britain.
 In the interior, contest over Uganda was inevitable, in1889 the IBEA Co, sent Fredrick
Lugard to promote British interest in Buganda. But before he got there, Karl Peters had
already secured a treaty with Mwanga.
  When Lugard arrived it was too late to have the Kabaka change his mind. This marked
the beginning of another struggle between the two companies over another East African
Territory.
 Meanwhile in Europe, Lord Salisbury was engaged in diplomatic negotiations on behalf
of Britain with the German government. The negotiations were concluded by the Second
Anglo -German. Treaty also known as Heligoland Treaty in 1890.
The Second Anglo-German treaty of 1890
Terms.
 Uganda was recognized as the British sphere of influence.
 Germany abandons her claim over her territory of witu.
 Zanzibar and Pempa islands were recognised as a British protectorate.
 The German possessions include a strip on Lake Tanganyika acquired from Britain and
the coastal region of Tanganyika from the Sultan for a fee.
 The Western of Uganda and Tanganyika boundary was defined.
 The Sultan was left with the 16km strip along the coast.
 The British give up the Heligoland Island in the North Sea to Germans in return for Witu.
Anglo-German agreement of 1890 brought the period of scramble and partition of East Africa to
an end.
The company rule.
 After the completion of the partition of East Africa administration was left in the hands of
companies that is IBEA co and GEA co.
 They were given license in 1888
 Once granted a Royal charter in 1888, the Imperial British East Africa Company leased
the land between Mombasa on the coast and Lake Victoria from the Sultan of Zanzibar.
The aim was to counter German, French and Italian influenced in the area
Aims or duties of Imperial British East Africa Company.
 To administer the area called British East Africa.
 To maintain law and order.
 To counter Germans, French and Italian influence in the area.
 To control and develop trade in the area by facilitating movements of goods and people
between the coast and the interior.
 To collect taxes and custom duty in the area.
 To support the campaign to end slavery and the slave trade in the region.
Achievements of imperial British East Africa Company.
 It suppresses the rebellion against the British.
 It laid down the basis for colonial administration by establishing forts
 It secured freedoms for many slaves.
 It started the construction of roads.
 It started the development of early industries.
Problems faced by IBEACO.
 Inadequate funds to administer the country.
 Resisting Africa communities meant that the company required a force to maintain law
and order yet they had financially constrained.
 Inadequate personnel to assist in administration.
 Scarcity of natural resources and profitable commodities for export hindered the work of
the companies.
  Poor means transport hindered trading activities between the coast and the interior
 Poor coordination between company official in Europe and their agents in East Africa
each with different vision and priority led to delays and confusion in East Africa.
 Company officials were inexperienced in administrative matters.
 Hot and dry climate and diseases e.g. malaria, sleeping sickness etc.
Reaction of IBEA CO. on the problem.
 The company handed over its leases to the British government.
 The company staff moved to serve the new protectorate administration including people
like George Mackenzie, George Portal and Fredrick Lugard.
 The company also passed over the infrastructure such as posts and a small police force to
the British government.
Methods used to establish colonial rule.
i.Signing of treaties.
 Used where Africans were peaceful and had accepted British colonial protection and
payment of taxes.
Example
 Maasai agreements of 1904 and 1911.
ii.Military force.
 Military expeditions were sent to areas where people had refused to co-operate with
British.
Examples
 Nandi.
iii.Construction of administration posts.
 At first British officials used the posts which were constructed by the IBEA Co. but later
built their own operational bases.
iv.Collaboration
 The British found it necessary to co-operate with the local leaders especially these whom
they thought had power and prestige. In return, these rulers assisted the colonialists to
fight other people.
v.Treachery.
 The British tricked African leaders to give away their land.
Example
 Lenana of the Maasai.
vi.Use of missionaries.
 The British used Christian missionaries to persuade Africans to accept their authority.

Response of the peoples of Kenya to British Invasion and occupation.

 Some Africans viewed colonialism as a treat to her sovereignty. Others thought it as a good
opportunity to build up personal power and accumulate wealth. The former opted to resist
colonialism while the latter to co-operate with the colonial administrators.
 They were various responses to the British invasion and occupation of Kenya.
 These include:
i.Resistances.
The communities that resisted the British
They included:
 Bukusu
 Gusii
 Kabras
 Marakwet
 Nandi
 Pokot
 Somali
 Taita
 Turkana.
ii.Collaboration.
Some communities cooperated with foreigners
They include:
 Maasai.
 Wanga.
iii.Mixed reaction.
Some communities exhibited mixed reactions.
They include:
 Akamba.
 Agikuyu.
 Luo.
Reason for their resistances.
 They wanted to maintain their independence
 They wanted to protect their land.
 They wanted to protect their culture.
Effect of the resistances.
 Loss of lives
 Destruction of property such as homes and farms.
 Disruption of economic activities.
 Famine
 Many Africans especially those in the highlands, lost their land.
Reasons why most of the attempt at armed resistance failed
 The Kenyan societies were divided into small autonomous units which were no match for
the British military strategy.
 Local rivalries that allowed the British to pla the communities against each other.
 The Africans relied on weapons and strategies that were inferior to the British
 Natural calamities like epidemics weakened the Africans.
 Lacked professionally trained soldiers
Resistance
Nandi
 They were dominant community in Rift Valley having replaced the dreaded Maasai
whose power had declined because of epidemics drought and internal strife.
 They resisted for a longer period than any other community.
Causes of the nandi resistance.
i.Nandi pride.
  Nandi pride made them to resist i.e. Nandi was strong powerful and proud community
which had conquered her neighbours e.g. Maasai, luo etc.their pride therefore made them
to resist.
ii.Kipnyole prophecy.
 Kimnyole, an orkoiyot of the Nandi had prophesied that the Nandi would be defeated and
ruled by foreigners. As a result their resist as an attempt to avert the fulfillment of a
prophecy made by a discriminated prophet. Nandi had stoned Kimnyole to death in 1890
on the suspicion that he had caused a drought.
iv.Physical appearance of the white people.
 Nandi hated the physical appearance of the whiteman.They associated their pale colour of
the Europeans skins to devil that had come to inhabit their territory.
v.Land alienation.
 Nandi wanted to protect their land from being taken away by the British.
vi.Desire to maintain their independence.
 Nandi wanted to preserve their independence which was under threat from the British.
vii.Taxation.
 Britain imposed hut tax on the Nandi.Nandi refused to pay tax because they did not
understand why they pay tax for the houses which they built.
viii.Forced labour.
 Nandi was forced to provide labour in settler farms and on public projects. This angered
the Nandi who decided to go to war.
ix.Mistrust of strangers.
 Nandi resisted because they did not want strangers to pass through their territories.
x.Nandi military strength.
 Nandi had strong warriors who successfully raided their neighbours.Their military
superiority over their neighbors’ gave them confidence to attack the British.
The course of the resistance
 The Nandi resistance began in 1895 when Andrew Dick killed two Nandi warriors.
 The Nandi retaliated by killing Andrew dick friend Peter West and his thirty workers.
This led to 11years of hostility between the Nandi and the British.
 In the course of the resistances Nandi employed guerilla warfare where they ambush the
caravan traders and mail carriers who passed through their land.
 When the railway reached the Nandi territory Nandi resisted by:
 They refused to cooperate with the railway builders.
 They kept stealing building materials to make weapons and ornaments.
 They ambushed and murdered railway builders.
 In 1900, the British sent three punitive expeditions under Colonel Evatt, the commander
of the Uganda Rifles .The British received reinforced from the Maasai, Baganda, Swahili
and Indian mercenaries while the Nandi were supported by the Kipsigis enabling them to
resist for so long.
 In 1901 they were a temporary truce worked out by the British administrator, Walter
Mayes (1901-1905), after realizing the heavy causalities both sides were experiencing.
 However the war was re-ignited again when the Nandi realized that the British had
started settling and farming on their land. They destroyed the railway in protest. The
British responded by destroying crops and villages and stealing cattle.
  The Nandi war of resistance only ended when the British officer in Nandi, Captain
Meinertzhagen, hatched a plan to have Koitalel, the chief coordinator of the resistance,
killed.
 In october1905 Orkoiyot and his advisers were killed during a “peace” meeting convened
by Meinertzhagen.This made the Nandi to seek for peace in December 1905 ending the
ten year long resistance.
Reasons for long Nandi resistance
 The use of guerrilla warfare made it difficult for the British Nandi easily.
 Tropical diseases reduced the efficiency of the British army.
 The forested and hilly terrain of Nandi land made it difficult for the soldiers to move
swiftly.
 The Nandi mixed economy ensured their good and reliable food supply for the warriors.
 They had well-trained, experienced and disciplined army which enabled them to face the
British with confidence.
 Nandi used to manufacture their weapons.
 They had a systematic spy network, thus could obtain needed information for the
struggle.
 They had able leaders under orkoiyot who provided the right leadership.
Factors for the defeat of the Nandi
 The British were supported by some Africa communities e.g. the Maasai and Somali.
 The British had superior weapons e.g. rifles while the Nandi used spears and arrows.
 Natural calamities e.g. small pox and rinderpest killed many Nandi and weakened the
survivors.
 The British used scorch earth policy i.e. burning, looting and destroying everything. This
caused famine and starvation among the Nandi
 After the death of Koitalel Samoei, other leaders lacked courage and organizational
skills.
 Nandi warriors were demoralized by the death of Koitalel Samoei.
Result of the Nandi Resistance
 Nandi land was alienated for the White settlement and the Nandi were pushed to reserves
where they could not carry out their farming activities.
 The Nandi lost their independence and become the subject of the British.
 Many people were killed in the course of the resistances.
 Much properties were destroyed in the course of the resistances e.g. crops .This led
famine in Nandi land
 The Nandi lost their military superiority in the region as they were subdued by the
British.
 The Nandi warriors were recruited into colonial security forces.
 Many British forts were built in Nandi land.
 The British confiscated livestock belonging to the Nandi and gave to their enemies like
the Maasai.
 The resistances delayed the building of the Kenya Uganda railway
Agiryama
 It was one of the important participants in trade with both the East African Coast and the
interior communities.
Caused of the Agiryama Resistance
  They lost their lands that were productive for cotton and rubber plantation.
 The Agiryama were opposed to forced labour i.e. they were forced to provide labour in
British plantation farms.
 Force taxation.
 They were forced to provide able bodied men to join the army
 Disruption of their ivory trade.
 Disrespect of agiryama culture.British did not respect the agiryama culture for example
they destroyed their religious shrines and raped the agiryama women.
Course of the war
 They resisted by refusing to present themselves for work on the white plantations. Instead
opted to sell their produce in order to raise the required tax.
 Other migrated out of his jurisdiction into the Taru desert, prompting Hobley, the then
provincial commissioner to visit the area.
 When the Agiryama’s grievances were presented to him, hobley dismissed them.This
visit together with the Skirmishes at Chakama, when the British soldiers opened fire on
some Agiryama warriors served as the impetus for the formation of the resistance
movement
 Agiryama resistances was centred on Mekatilili Wa Menza a charismatic Agiryama
woman who together with Wanje was Madorika rallied the Giryama to return to their
traditions and more specifically to a meeting at Kaya fungo.At the meeting agiryama
realized they had the same grievances e.g. forced labour and the imposed headmen.
 The agiryama re-affirmed their loyalty to the ancestors and their traditional ways
denouncing the missionaries and everything to do with British. They took traditional
oaths Mukushekushe for men and Fisi for women.
 The British response to Giryama by arresting Mekatilili and Wanje and deported them to
Kisii. However the people were still defiant, they even resisted an order for them to move
and build a new Kaya at Mangea prompting the British to destroy Kaya Fungu.
 This outraged the Agiryama who speedily took up arms and fought gallantry from the
forest for more than one year.
 The British used scorched-earth, policy, setting homes of the agiriama on fire, as they
attempted to catch the warriors and collect a fine imposed on them. Since the British had
more powerful weapons, the warriors changed tactics pursuing guerilla attacks instead.
Conditions under which the war ended.
 Agiriama were to offer labourers for European settlers and public works.
 Able-bodied men were to serve in the King’s African Rifles.
 The British would occupy all the land to the North of R. Sabaki.

Roles of Mekatilili wa Menza

 Encouraged the Agiriama to fight the British by administering oaths for unity.
 She presented the grievances of Agiriama to British.
 She rallied the Agiriama together against a common enemy.
 Her leadership highlighted the role of women in the struggle for independence.
Effects of agiryama resistances.
 Mekatilili Wa Menza and Wanje were arrested and deported to Kisii.
 Led to closure of Agiriama shrine at Kaya Fungo and opening of a new one at Mangea.
 Agiriama lost their independence and become the subject of the British.
  Many people lost their lives especially agiryama.
 Much Properties was destroyed especially when British used explosives to destroy kayas.
 Agiriama were disallowed to brew their traditional liquor.
 It led to disruption of agiryama economic activities e.g. their lucrative trade at Takaungu
in which they acted as middlemen.
The Bukusu
 They are a sub-section of the luhya may occupy present day Bungoma county and parts
of Trans-Nzoia county in the Rift Valley province.
 The reaction of the Bukusu against the British had its foundation in the relationship they
had with the Wanga, who were their traditional enemies.
Causes of the Bukusu resistance.
 The Bukusu did not like the Wanga administration imposed on them by the British.
 They hated cultural interference by the Europeans which was witnessed by the activities
of the missionaries.
 The Bukusu were against taxes imposed on them by the British .The taxes were collected
with force and brutality.
 The Bukusu chiefs wanted to maintain their independence and the powers of their own
ruler.
Courses of the resistance.
 The murder of Mr. Hamisi, a Wanga agent, was the immediate cause of the war. He had
confiscated Bukusu cattle on his way back; he was ambushed and killed at Lumboka near
present day Bungoma town.
 The British sent a punitive expedition against the Bukusu to recover the guns Hamisi had.
 The Bukusu on sensing defeat went to seek refuge from chief chetambe of the Tachoni’s
fort at webuye.
 The British pursued them and with the use of the machine guns killed many Bukusu.
 This marked the end of rebellion.
Results of the Bukusu resistances.
 Many people especially Bukusu lost their lives.
 It led to animosity between Bukusu and Tachoni as the Bukusu felt that they had been
betrayed by Tachoni.
 The Bukusu came under the British protectorate as part of eastern Uganda.
 The Bukusu lost their sheep and cattle.
 The Bukusu women and children were taken prisoners.
 The Bukusu lost their independence as mumia’s rule was extended to their land.
 Bukusuland were alienated and were pushed to live in reserves.

The Somali.
 In 1890 the British and Italians signed the Ango-Italian treaty which defined the British
and Italian spheres of influence in Somaliland, creating British and Italian Somaliland.
 Somali resistances against colonial rule began in 1893.
Causes of the resistance.
 They did not want to be dominated by the Christian British and yet they were Muslim.
 The British interfered with their pasture land and watering points.
 The British stopped the Somali from raiding their neighbours.
 The British interfered with their nomadic life style.
  Division of Somaliland into Italian and British spheres of influences divided influence
Darod and Hawiye clan in 1890. The Somali were determined to reverse this.
 They were against punitive expeditions sent by the British on their land.
The course of the resistance
 The Somali clans-darod and Hawiyes attempted revolt in 1893 but this was unsuccessful.
 The Ogaden -Somali revolted in 1897 and in 1900, they murdered the British sub-
commissioner for jubaland – Jenner.
 In response to this action, a punitive expedition was dispatched but it was partially
successful as it didn’t defeat the Somali.
 There was a tactical retreat by the Somali especially the Garee, marehan and Aulihan
clans who began to stock pile arms which were used to attack British posts for about two
decades from 1905.
 Resistances bore fruit in 1925 when boundary change was effected, placing the ogaden in
Italian Somaliland.
Results of the resistance.
 Many people lost their lives.
 Somali cattle were confiscated.
 British divided the Somali into Darod and Hawiye in 1890.
 The Somali lost their independence and become subject of colonial rule.
Reasons why Armed Resistance failed in Kenya
 The Kenyan societies were organized in small autonomous communities which couldn’t
provide a common front to face the enemy.
 Communities were not cohesive but kept fighting one another. This gave British room to
play these communities.
 African lacked sophisticated weapons.They used spears stones, brows and arrows.
 The African warriors were ill – trained
 Epidermics and natural calamities had reduced the population of some of the
communities.
 Poor leadership on the part of Africans.
 The soldiers were demoralized when many warriors were captured and killed.
 Some African communities collaborated with the British against follow Africans.
 Kenya-Uganda Railways facilitated swift movement of British military for swift defeat of
unrest.
 British used trickery when dealing with some communities.

Collaboration
 The communities who collaborate in Kenya include:
 Maasai
 Wanga.
 Collaborations took various forms such as:
 Offering logistical and tactical assistance to the British.
 Provision of foodstuffs.
 Arresting and betraying of resistors.
 They collaborated because.
 They felt too weak to resist the British.
 They needed outside help to overcome their local neighbouring enemies.
  They stood to gain materially from the British allies.
 They believed the British were only temporary visitors to be used and later
discarded.
Maasai
 The Maasai dominated the plains of the Rift valley from about 1750 occupying the area
stretching from Uasin Gishu to Mount Meru.
 They had a central leader, the Laibon, who combined both religions and political rules.
 Laibon was also the symbol of unity from the community.
 They also had the best military organization with the age stets ensuring a constant supply
of warriors.
Reasons for Maasai Collaboration.
 They had been weakened by numerous animal and human diseases e.g. pneumonia,
cholera, small pox and Rinderpest.
 Natural calamities e.g. drought and locust invasion which destroyed the grass leaving
behind a huge of loss of livestock.
 Severe famine caused by natural calamities e.g. drought leading to deaths.
 Rise of Nandi as a strong power in the 19th century was a threat as they raided the Maasai.
 Civil wars between the Purko & Kwavi weakened the Maasai.
 Lenana wanted military support against his brother Sendeyo of the Loita Maasai.
 Lenana needed food to save his people from starvation.
 Maasai feared military might of the Whiteman especially after witnessing the kedong
massacre in which one Whiteman killed hundreds of Maasai morans.
 Maasai wanted help to get back their women and children taken by the Agikuyu. They
had been left in custody of the Agikuyu during 1891 famine.
The course of the Maasai collaboration.
 The collaboration between the Maasai and the British began with land concessions
contained in two treaties signed between them and the British.
 The first Maasai Agreement were signed between Lenana and Stewart in 1904 .The
agreement created two reserves for the Maasai, one at Laikipia and another at Ngong.
They were promised that this land would always be there as long as they existed as a
race.
 However the settlers in Laikipia complained about the presence of Maasai, leading to the
signing of the second Maasai agreement of 1911 which evicted them from Laikipia and
confined them to the Ngong Reserve.
 The Maasai morans were used by the British in raiding resisting communities like the
Nandi, Luo and Bukusu.
Results of the collaboration
 Lenana was recognized as the paramount chief of the Maasai in 1901.
 The Maasai nomadic grazing habits were curtailed.
 The Maasai lost their independence and become the subject of the British.
 Maasai land was alienated as and were displaced to live in unproductive reserve.
 It led to division of the Maasai between those supporting Lenana and those against
collaboration.
 Maasai economy was disrupted as their livestock was reduced.
 They were rewarded with materials things e.g. grains and cattle taken from the other
communities.
  Their custom of cross-breeding livestock with the Samburu was stopped, which
weakened their stock.
 The Maasai freedom to conduct their rituals like the initiation was restricted to only a 5-
square-mile reserve.
 It led to eviction and displacement of Maasai from their land.
 Lenana was supported by the British against Sendeyo in the succession dispute.
 The Maasai was employed by the British as auxiliaries, mercenaries and guides.
Wanga
 Wanga is one of the communities that comprise the Luhya.
 They lived in area bordering Uganda.
 They inhibit the area bordering Uganda, as they were actively involved in trade with the
Arabs and Swahili.
 Nabango Mumia ruled between 1882 – 1949 as he welcomed the IBEA
Reasons for Wanga collaboration with British
 He wanted military assistance against his enemies like the Luo of Ugenya and Bukusu.
 He wanted political power to consolidate his position and that of his kingdom among the
Luhya.
 He wanted British military support in his wars of expansion of the Wanga kingdom.
 He collaborates for social prestige.
 Mumia hoped to gain materially from the British.
 Mumia saw the futility of fighting the strong white military men.
 Mumia had previously welcomed the Arabs and Swahili.This was therefore not a new
practice.
The course of collaboration.
 Mumia’s headquarters served as the operational base for British operations in western
Kenya. Military expeditions were sent out from here between 1894 and 1906. These
included expeditions against the nandi, luo of sakwa, seme and ugenys, as wel as the
bukusu and banyala.
 Although the British had stationed baganda and Sudanese soldiers in wanga, they were
often joined by mumia’s own fighters when they went out on expeditions.
 Once the British rule had been established, administrators were required. Mumia
provided wanga agents who were sent out as chiefs and headmean in other communities.
Results of the collaboration.
 Mumia was made the paramount chief of the Wanga-1909
 Wanga relatives were used as agents by the British to rule other parts of western kenya.
 Mumias became the centre of Colonial administration in Western Kenya.
 Mumia enjoyed trading activities with British, with Mumias being a major terminus for
trade caravans to Uganda.
 It intensified hostility between Wanga and other Abaluhyia communities.
 The British assisted him to expand his territory to Samia, Bunyala and Busoga.
 The Wanga acquired material benefits like clothes and firearms from the British.
 The Wanga lost their independence.
 Many people from the community were converted to Christianity.
 He was assisted by the British to subdue his enemies like the Luo of Ugenya and other
Abaluhya clans.
 His Kingdom was used as a base to colonize communities in Western Kenya
Mixed reaction.
 There were other communities that exhibited both responses to the arrival of the British
and their attempts at establishing their rule over Kenya.
 Mixed reactions were attributed:
 Change of leadership
 Communities occupying large territories
 Lacked of centralized authority
 Communities who exhibited mixed reactions are.
 Akamba.
 Agikuyu.
 Luo.
Causes of the resistance.
i.Lack of respect for Akamba traditions.
 During the construction of the IBEAC fort in Machakos George Heith cut down the
sacred ithembo tree for use as aflagpole.
 This greatly angered the local prophetesis Syonguu, who directed the warriors to attack
the government.
ii.Prevention of raids.
 In 1894 the British prevented the Akamba warriors in Kyevaluki and Kangundo from
raiding the Agikuyu. Raiding was important to Akamba as it enabled them acquire
commodities which they traded in.
iii.Establishment of Garrison.
 The British stationed troop in garrisons in Ukambani in an effort to prevent Skirmishes
between the Akamba and their neighbours.
iv.Misconduct of company officials.
 The soldier stationed in Ukumbani stole from the Akamba raped their women and bullied
the people. They took sanctuary in their fort and the fire – arms that they carried.

v.Disruption of trade.
 The British affected the long distance trade of the Akamba when they stopped their
sources of supply of trading commodities.
vi.Akamba wanted to safeguard their independences.
The Course of the Resistance.
 In response to the provocation of the British soldies, the Akamba warrior’s insipired by
mwana muka carried out raids in British forts and posts such as the post at mwaka. They
also attacked the homes of collaborators.Inspite of the punitive expeditions mounted by
the British,mwana muka mobolised the people to erect a blockade between Machakos and
fort smith, preventing all communications between these two British posts.
 Following the devastating punitive raid that followed, comprising 140 askaris, 300
agikuyus and 900 Maasai’s, mwana muka appeal for peace.
 At the beginning of the 20th century a spiritual dance-kathambi spread in ukambani
organized by a prophetess sioutune wa kathure and kiamba wa mutuavio.they urged
people to withdraw from all European activities i.e. labour and taxes. This paralyses all
economic activities.
 Syotune and kiambaa were arrested and deported to kismayu.
  Toward the end of 1911, the results of the decrees became evident as no taxes were paid
to the British, the passing caravans and the garrisons could not to obtain any food, elders
would not participate in meetings presided over by the colonial administration. Those
who participate were threatened and sometimes attacked. Those who had employed on
the railway deserted their posts, while in some extreme cases; some evictees attempted to
reposes their land.
 These actions led britain to mount extra patrols in the area and to deport siotune and
kiambu and several other leaders at the coast. These actions brought calm to ukambani
but they did not kill defiance’s on the people as it would emerge later in 1930’s
Results for the resistance.
 The akamba lost independences as colonial rule was established.
 Much of the akamba lands were alienated for European settlement.
 Many people lost their lives.
 It led destruction of property such as villages.
 The akamba lost their livestock which was confiscated by the colonialists.
 The akamba were employed into king’s African rifles.
 It led to imposition of taxes.
Collaboration of the akamba
Causes
 They feared the military strength of the British
 Some collaborate for personal gain. They see it as an opportunity to enrich themselves
and increased their prestige.
 Some akamba chiefs wanted to retain their position.
 Some chiefs wanted protection from their enemies.
 1899 famine had weakened some sections making them unable to stage a meaningful
resistance
Results of the collaboration.
 It led to establishment of wealthy class of traders, who uses their connections with the
British to increase their wealth.
 It led to spread of Christianity as missionaries was welcomed in the area as part of of the
relationship with the British.
 Akamba men were conscripted into king’s African rifles.
 Akamba lost their independences as colonial rule was established.
 Akamba land was alienated for European settlement.
 It led enmity in akambaland between collaborators and those who resist.
AGIKUYU
 Since they lived on different ridges, the agikuyu were a loosely confederated community.
This enabled the British to play on this apparent division to further split them.
 Chiefs who resist is Waiyaki wa Hinga
Reasons for resistance
 The Agikuyu feared loss of independence.
 The Agikuyu also feared loss of their positions.
 They were forced to supply grains to traders.
 Interference with their culture by the British.
 IBEAC raided Agikuyu for cattle and grains
 Massive land alienation by the British
  Harassment and ruthlessness of the British.
The course of resistance
 Initially the agikuyu resistance took the form of non co-operation with the British which
include:
 They refused to supply grain to the British posts and passing parties.
 They defied directives to supply porters to British caravans.
 refused to enlist in public works.
 Physical confrontation.
 This resulted in series of punitive expeditions, culminating in the unrest of Waiyaki WA
Hinga, who died on the way to stand trial in Mombasa.
Results of the resistances.
 It led to loss of lives as many people were killed.
 Agikuyu lost their independences as British established colonial rule.
 It led to destruction of properties. Many villages and farms were destroyed.
 Agikuyu lost their livestock which were confiscated by the British.
 The British were forced to move their bases from Fort Smith to fort hall.
 It led to hatred between the resistors and collaborators.
Collaboration.
 At the same time, there were a number of leaders within the agikuyu community who
collaborated with the British Government for various reasons.
 Collaborators include:
 Kinyanjui wa Gathirimu
 Wang’ombe wa Ihura
 Karuri wa Gakure.
Reasons for collaborating
 For personal wealth
 Safeguard their position
 Protection from their local enemies.
The course of the collaboration
 The collaboration put themselves at the service of the British in hope of getting rewards.
 The individuals who were given in collaboration, exhibited unquestionable loyalty to the
British in reaction for favours.
Results of the collaboration
 It led to emergences of classes based on wealth.
 It led to division in the agikuyu community between those loyal to British and those loyal
to the traditional ways of life.
 Agikuyu lost their land which was alienated for settler farming.
 Some collaborators received western education and were converted to Christianity.
 Agikuyu lost their independences and become subject of the British.
THE LUO
Collaborators – Gem and Asembo
Resisters – Sakwa, Seme, Uyoma, Ugenya and Kisumu
Reasons for the Luo resistances
 The wanted to protect their land
 Fear of losing their independences.
 Were against forced labour
  Were against forced taxation.
 The British habit of attacking them for grains and livestock.
The course of the resistance.
 The Luo conducted raids on British parties such as the canoe party that was fond of
steadily their fish.
 In retaliation the British mount punitive raids against them. The luo, Especially those of
Sakwa , seme and Ugenya offered very stiff resistance but were finally subdued in 1899.
Results of their resistances.
 It led to loss of independence by the Luo.
 It led to destruction of property through looting and burning.
 Many people lost their lives.
 It led to hatred between collaborators and resisters.
 African leadership was undermined as it was replaced with British administration
 Luo land was alienated by the British.
Reasons for the collaboration.
 There was some influence from the neighbors-Wanga for benefits like education
 There was need for assistance against neighbours like Luo of Seme, Uyoma, Sakwa etc.
 They realized the futility of resisting the British-from the experience with the neighbors
Consequences of the Luo collaboration.
 The luo of gem and asembo assisted the British in the war against the luo of seme,
uyoma,sakwa and ugenya.
 They helped the British to contain the Nandi.
 The luo of gem and sakwa were also used in the colonial administration set-up.
 They lost independence as colonial rule was established over them.
The process of colonial administration in Kenya
 Having established their powers over the indegenous, the British now embarked on
administration of the colony.
 They established a central and local government for effective administration.
Central and local government.
 Kenya was administered by the central government in order to harmonize the political,
economic and social organization of different communities.
 At the head was the colonial secretary based in London. Among the function of colonial
secretary include:
 Political head of British administration.
 Overall coordinator of colonial policies.
 In Kenya the British government was represented by a governor in charge of the colony.
Among the duties of the governor include:
 He represented British government in the colony.
 He assented law before implementation.
 He was the overall in charge of the colony / Head of executive council.
 He supervised the provincial administration.
 He appointed administrators.
 The colony was divided into provinces and it was headed by provincial commissioner.
Among the duties of provincial commissioner were:
 He represented governor in the province.
 He implemented government policies in the province.
  He supervised work of District Commissioners , District Officers.
 The colony was further divided into division headed by district commisioner.Among the
function of district commisioner includes:
 He implemented government policies in the districts.
 He maintained law and order and security in the district.
 He presided over district advisory committees.
 He coordinated work of District Officers and Chiefs.
 District was further divided into division headed by district officer whose function were:
 He implemented orders from DC’s.
 He co-coordinated work of the chiefs
 He maintained law and order in divisions.
 Division was further divided into location headed by chiefs. Among the functions of the
chief include:
 They maintain public law and order.
 They were also involved in hearing of petty cases.
 They also organized for clearing of roads and footpaths.
 They could also employ other persons to assist them e.g. messengers.
 They assisted the European DO’s in collection of taxes.
 They controlled the brewing of illegal liquor, cultivation of poisonous plants
and carrying of weapons.
 They mobilized African labour for public work.
 They convened public meetings.
 They communicated directives from the government.
 The chiefs were assisted by the headmen whose functions.
 They connected the government and the people at grassroots
 They mobilized people for development within villages.
Hierarchy.
Colonial secretary.
↕
Governor.
↓
Provincial commissioner
↓
District commissioner
↓
District officer.
↓
Chief.
↓
Headmen.

Local government
 It was aimed at involving the local people in the running of the government.
Functions
 To provide legal forum for locals to make decisions through committees for their affairs.
 To utilize local resources for development.
  To link people with central government.
Local native councils (LNC-1922)
Objectives
 To encourage and develop a sense of responsibility and duty among the Africans.
 To provide a way for the educated Africans to air their view at district level.
 To restrict the Africans in their reserves.
 To enable the government to contain the Africans properly.
Establishment of the African district councils.
 By 1948 nominated members were the majority in all the councils
 It was these councils that provided a political means trough which Africans could air their
grievances
 ADC consist of DC and Africans members appointed by PC
Functions of ADC.
 Provide social amenities such as water.
 Promote agriculture at the local level
Local government in European areas.
 Found in areas where European settlers were living.
Achievements of local government
 It restricted African political activities.
 It provided basic social needs.
 It maintained basic infrastructure.
 It collected taxes.
Impact of the establishment of local government
 It exploited local resources and initiatives in development.
 It maintained law and order using a small police force set up to in 1896.
 It promoted development of infrastructure and African welfare.
 It arbitrated African cases/disputes through District African Courts.
Challenges faced local governments.
 Shortage of trained and experienced workers.
 Poor transport and communication, hence poor coordination.
 Inadequate funds to run their activities.
 Rivalry between locals and settlers.
 Racial discrimination.
COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION
 Different colonial powers used different methods to admnister their colonies.
 They are three system of administration used by europeans to rule africans.These are
 Indirect rule.
 Direct rule.
 Assimilation policy.
 Like British used both direct and indirect rule in Nigeria and Kenya and in Zimbabwe
they used direct rule only.
 The French practiced assimilation and association in their colonies.
 They all focused in the effective colonization through the Whiteman dominance. The
Africans were useful as long as they encouraged and supported colonial interests.
INDIRECT RULE
 It refers to a system of administration in which colonial powers used the existing
traditional systems of government to implement colonial policies.
 In places where communities had elaborate administrative structures as in northern
Nigeria, the local chiefs were used.
 In places without elaborate kingships or chieftainship organisation, the colonial powers
created and instituted one as in the case of the agikuyu of Kenya.
a) THE BRITISH IN KENYA.
The British used indirect rule in some parts of Kenya.
Reasons why British used indirect rule in Kenya.
 Inadequate funds for administration.
  Inadequate personnel.
 They wanted to avoid resitances.
 The method had succeded in India and Uganda.
 In some parts of Kenya, there existed traditional systems of government
 Kenya was administered by a central government under a governer.
 The British found most Kenyan societies under no elaborate government, save for the
coastal Arab settlement and the wanga of western Kenya.
Application of indirect rule in Kenya.
 The British applied both direct and indirect rule in Kenya.
 Indirect rule in Central Kenya among the Agikuyu was applied through the creation of
the chieftaincies in the stateless society. British made use of the African customary laws
and created chiefs among the agikuyu.
 Chiefs were allowed to judge local dispute and try minor cases involving Africans.This
helped reduced cost of administration.chiefs were appointed to administer the agikuyu
mbari’s in kiambu, muranga and nyeri.
 Except in white highlands where Europeans were living, the British applied through the
indirect rule in African reserves.
 They created district African tribal units in which they encouraged the use of the different
dialects. This redefined the societies into separate languages with distinct customary
differences in dress and cultural traits.
 In Western Kenya the British found the Wanga under an elaborate government.they
recognized chief Mumia as the overall rulers of the Abaluhya.
 In Gusii land and Luo land they identified collaborating and cooperative African leaders
as the chiefs of the area. The indirect rule was considered cheap and effective.
Through the passing of village ordinance act 1902 and 1912, chiefs were to carry out the
following duties.
 Maintain law and order.
 Settle petty disputes.
 Clear roads and footpaths.
 Collect taxes.
 Recruit labour for public works.
 Control the cultivation of illegal plants such as bhang.
 Restricts carrying of weapons.
 Controll brewing of illegal liquor.
Effects of indirect rule in Kenya
 It made the African communities to remain divided. The appointed chiefs and their allies
greatly supported colonial administration.
 Africans were ruled using unpopular colonial laws as implemented by appointed chiefs.
 The appointed chiefs were unpopular among the Africans and were regarded as
collaborators of colonial government.
 The colonial chiefs misused their position to amass personal wealth.
 It led to the creation of district isolated tribal reserves in the interest of the British.
 It boosted the policy of divided and rule through creation of tribal reserves.
b) The British in Nigeria
 Nigeria was divided into three administrative units:
 Lagos
  Protectorate of northern Nigeria.
 Protectorate of southern Nigeria.
 Indirect rule was associated with Fredrick Lugard.
 According to him indirect rule implied a single government in which the native chiefs
have clearly defined duties and an acknowledge status, equal with British officials.
 The chief had a lot of power and the British administrator could only interfere when it
became necessary.
 It was the task of the British officials to conserve what was good in indigenous
institutions and assist them to develop on their own lines.
Reasons for using indirect rule.
 Existence of an elaborate local administrative system even before the coming of the
British.
 Shortage of European administrative officers
 Communication barrier between the British and local.
 Poor transport made it difficult to reach all parts of the country.
 Wanted to avoid resistance from the colonized people.
 Lacked of adequate funds.
 The British had prior experience in the use of the system for they had successfully used it
in India.
Indirect rule in the Northern Nigeria
 Before the coming of the British, most of northern Nigeria was part of the sokoto
caliphate.
 The caliphate was divided into emirates which were semi-autonomous units under the
control of emirs whose appointment had to be confirmed by the caliph.
Application of indirect rule.
 When the British occupied Northern Nigeria, they left the Emirs and their official to rule
the people with the supervision of British resistant who were attached to each of Emir
Courts.
 Under the British rule Slavery was abolished and the people of northern Nigeria
continues to be subject to Muslim law administered by the Emirate courts.
 In the application of indirect rule British made some changes to the old system. These
changes include:
 Fulani system of taxation which was complicated and liable to abuse was replaced by
a single tax levied on each village. Taxes were to be collected by emirs.
 A fixed proportion of the Emir’s resistance as was transferred to the central British
administration and used to finance specialized services such as health, agriculture and
railways, which could best be provided by the British experts.
 The rest of revenue remained at the disposal of the emir’s government.
 The British believed that African authorities could succeed if they acquired
responsibility for the collection and use of large sums of money.
Duties of the emirs.
 They collected taxes.
 They recruited labour for public works.
 They head local governments.
 Tried cases in the local customary courts.
 Maintained law and order.
  Appoint village heads.
 They communicate colonial policies to the people.
 They supervised construction of roads and markets.
Structure of British colonial rule in northern Nigeria.
 At the top was the colonial secretary based in London.
 Under the colonial secretary was the governor who was incharge of the administration of
the colony.
 The colony was divided into province headed by Resident or Provincial Commissioner.
 The provinces were further sub-divided into Districts headed by Districts Officer
answerable to Provincial Commissioners.
 District was sub-divided into locations/emirates headed by chiefs or emirs.
 All positions except that of Emirs and headmen were held by Europeans.
 Each province had a court of appeal which was presided over by the resident magistrate.
Southern Nigeria
Nigeria had been divided into three administrative units:
 Lagos
 The protectorate of South Nigeria.
 Protectorate of North Nigeria.
Reasons why indirect rule did not succed in the Southern Nigeria.
 Lack of centralized indigenous system of administration.
 Southern Nigeria had many ethnic groups unlike North.
 Introduction of new ideas e.g. forced labour and taxation for which they were unpopular.
 The failure of the British administrators to understand the socio-economic and political
system of Southern Nigeria which was based on the office of the Oba made them give up
easily.
 Opposition from the educated elite who felt left out of administration of their own
country.
 Traditional leaders were given more powers that they had under traditional law made
them unpopular.
 Language barriers due to lack of common language between British supervisors and the
chiefs.
 Misuse of power by the warrant chiefs who raised taxes for their own benefit. They also
sexually harassed women.
 Use of excessive force to suppress any form of resistance provoked resentment e.g. the
shooting of women during demonstration against the British.
 Southerners opposed direct taxation and forced labour.
Shortcomings of the indirect Role in Nigeria
 The system was only suitable for region with elaborate system of government.
 Language barrier.Very few officials knew enough of the African language.
 The chiefs and their council took more interest in matters they understood than in those
which were new and unfamiliar, such as forced labour and Christianity.
 Lugard’s idea of education for chiefs and councilors in modern ideas needed long, patient
and skilful efforts.
 Some aspects of the system were resented such as taxation.
 The educated elite resented the rule by uneducated traditional chiefs.
Effects of indirect rule in Nigeria.
  The British modified the previous system of administration, thus making the African
traditional rulers lose their independence.
 It helped to preserve African culture in the region as the British did not want to interfere
with the African way of life.
 It led to abolition of slavery and slave trade.
 The British abolished Fulani system of taxation and replaced it with a single tax on each
village.
 Retention of Muslim law / Sharia made the region to lag behind.
 The African chiefs became wealthier than the rest of the people because they were paid
for their services.
 Traditional rulers became unpopular among the people due to their new roles of
collecting taxes.
 It led to loss of independence by the people of North Nigeria because the British
modified the previous system of administration/africans traditional rulers lost their
authority.
Direct rule
 In this system of administration, the colonial power ruled directly through its appointed
personnel.
 It disregarded the traditional political leadership and appointed directly their own
administrators.
 The policy was successfully applied in these areas where the traditional leaders were
unco-operative to colonial authority.
The British in Zimbabwe Southern Rhodesia.
 Zimbabwe used to be known as Southern Rhodesia.
 It was part of British Central African Federation.
 Countries that formed British Central African Federation include:
 Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe).
 Northern Rhodesia (Zambia).
 Nyasaland (Malawi).
 The colonial rule was introduced by British South Africa Company of Cecil Rhodes in
1899.
 Cecil Rhodes used his colossal financial resources to organize the settlement of 200
Europeans in Mashonaland in 1890.
 When the company rule gradually became firmly established, this new colony was named
Rhodesia after Cecil Rhodes.
Why the British used direct rule in Zimbabwe.
 They had enough personnel who could administer the area.
 The British South Africa Company had enough finance to pay the administrators.
 They wanted to directly control mineral wealth so as to maximize profit.
 They wanted to ensure complete control of the Africans to avoid resistance.
 Zimbabwe lacked a centralized system of government / The traditional system and
indigenous political institutions since they had been destroyed during the British wars of
conquest.
 Chimurenga war had eroded European confidence in local African leadership.
 The British found the Zimbabweans uncooperative.
Application of direct rule in Zimbabwe.
 Southern Rhodesia was at first administered by BSAco until 1923 when its rule ended in
1923.
 Company was headed by Cecil Rhodes who encouraged settlers by giving them free land.
 Coming of settlers into Zimbabwe had consequences which include:
 Taking African land.
 Forcing Africans to provide albour in settler’s farms.
 Took African gold.
 Matebele order –in-council of 1894 empowered the company to impose a hut tax on the
Africans.
 Africans were pushed into reserves to create room for European settlements.
 Legislative council was established in1898.It was dominated by whites and it comprises
five elected settlers and four nominee from BSA co.Africans were not represented and
had no voting rights.
 Order in council of 1898 led British to establish of executive council and appoint resident
commissioner and commandant general for Rhodesia.They were four nominee of the
BSA co. to the executive.
 Native department under European native commissioner was created in 1902.its function
include:
 Collection of taxes.
 Recruitment of labour.
 Allocating land to the Africans.
 The white rule in Southern Rhodesia was characterised by struggle of control of land
between the settlers and BSA co.
 The white settlers took advantage of their political influence in government to attain a
considerable degree of self-government by the time of collapse of the company rule.
 Company rule end in 1923 and Rhodesia was declared a crown land or crown colony.
 A new constitution was established that set up a legislative council and a cabinet of
ministers.
 A governor was appointed to represent crown.however governor had slimited powers
because settler had dominated both legislative and executive council.
 Settlers created two-pyramid policy.Under the policy white minority was at the top while
the majority Africans formed the base.
 Results of the policy.
 Africans were discriminated in all spheres of life.
 Land apportionment act was passed in 1930 .It categorized land into:
 Native Reserve Area-set aside for African population.
 Native Purchase Area-Also for African could buy land there.
 European Area-exclusively for Europeans.
 Unassigned Area – set aside for expansion of government buildings.
 The act resulted in Africans losing more of their productive land and pushed to the
reserves.
 Africans were exploited through regressive policies such as forced labour and taxation.
 In an effoert to cling to power, the then prime minister, Ian smith declared unilateral
declaration of independence.as result Zimbabwe become independent.because ofthis
britain requested uno to imposed sanctions.
  In 1969 new constitution was introduced in Zimbabwe which further narrow down the
rights of the Africans.
 In 1970 Ian smith declared Rhodesia a republic breaking links with Britain.
 Declaration of independence of Zimbabwe by Ian smith angered Africans and armed
struggle by majority Africans against white minority government began.
 The armed struggle was led by:
 Zimbabwe African National Union under Robert Mugabe.
 Zimbabwe African Peoples Union under Joshua Nkomo.
 Zimbabwe gained independence in 1980 and Robert Mugabe become its first prime
minister.
The structure of direct rule in Zimbabwe.
 The administration was very authoritative and managed by the white minorities.
 It was characterized by the use of executive orders, decrees and emergency laws to
control African activities.
 Racial segregation was the main guiding principle in administration.
Its structure was as follows.
 The governor appointed by British government to represent the Monarch.
 The Legislative council which was dominated by minority whites was the most powerful
arm of the government.
 The Prime Minister controlled both the legislative and the executive. His cabinet was
made up of whites only.
 There was a native’s affairs department. This was equivalent of a district.It was under a
white officer.
 Districts were divided into locations.
 Locations were divided into sub-locations headed by sub-chiefs.
 Duties of the chief were:
 Collection of tax.
 Allocation of land to Africans.
 Recruitment of African labour for Europeans farms.
 Solving cases involving Africans.
Effects of Direct rule in Zimbabwe
 Africans were displaced from their ancestral land due to land alienation.
 African were subjected to poverty and suffering.
 European took much of productive African and pushed them into reserves.
 African traditional chiefs lost their authority and power over their subjects.
 The administration of the colony was in the hands of the British who never referred to
Africans, even where African interest were concerned.
 Africans were subjected to heavy taxation whose mode of collection resulted into a lot of
suffering and loss of property by Africans.
 The administration of the colony was given to the BSA Company.
 African traditional economy was interfered with as were as were now forced to work on
white farms.
 The introduction of Christianity and Western education undermined African culture.
 Africans were subjected to forced labour in the mines and settler farms.
 Pass laws and creation of reserves denied Africans the freedom of movement.
 It promoted racial segregation which disadvantaged the Africans in all spheres of life.
  It led to development of transport systems and infrasture in settler occupied areas.
 It led to introduction of new crops in the settler dominated areas.
 It led to the rise of African nationalism which turned violent due to lack of constitutional
means to articulate their problems.
Assimilation
 It was a system of government used by the French in West Africa where the colonized
people were to be transformed into French men.
 It’s derived from the French verb assimile which means to cause to resemble. This was an
assumption by French that their civilization and culture had attained the highest possible
standard.
The French in Senegal
 French applied this policy in Africa.
 They regarded the overseas territories as part of provinces of Frances and were to be
represented in the French national assembly.
 French laws were applied in the colonies as they were in France.
 The French revolution of the year 1789, had in its declaration of the human rights,
guaranteed the liberty of all men regardless of race or colour.
 In this idea of granting the rights of French citizenship to all men wherever they were had
its origin.By a decree, in 1848 all communities in the french colonies emancipated from
slavery would have representation in the French national assembly.
 French applied this policy in four communes or urban centre.This includes:
 St.Louis
 Goree
 Dakar.
 Rufisque.
Reasons why french used assimilation policy.
 The coastal inhabitants of West Africa had for along time had contacts with the
French.This made them familiar with some aspects of french culture.
 The French considered their culture and civilization to be superior to that of the rest of
the people hence wanted to impose it on the Africans.
 People of West African coast were increasingly becoming urbanised.
 Africans wanted to enjoy previledges brought about by assimilation e.g western
education.
 Large population of mulattos at the coast of West Africa who were of mixed origin.They
associated themselves with the French and spoke french.
 Africans were familiar with European trade, colonial administrators and missionaries.
 Most of the Africans had already been converted to Christianity
The structure of assimiliation as applied in Senegal.
 There was a minister of colonies based in Paris who was responsible to all French
colonies.
 Under the minister were governors each incharge of a colony.
 As from 1895 a loose federation was established in the French colonies of West Africa.
 The governor of Senegal whose headquarters was at Darkar became the Governor –
General of all West African colonies.
 Other governors of Dahomey, Upper Volta, Niger and Mauritania were directly
responsible to the Governor of Senegal.
  Among the functions of Governor-General based in Dakar include:
 Handle all appointment.
 Incharge of army.
 Incharge of technical matters such as posts and telegraphs.
 Territorial governors’ incharge of the colony carried out duties transmitted from Paris
through the governor-general in Dakar.
 Each colony was divided into province reffered to cercles. Each cercel were of the same
size and population.Each cercle was administered by a commandant de cercle.
 Cercle was subdivided into sub division, the equivalent of a district under the chief de
subdivision.
 It was then divided into cantons or locations ruled by a chief de canton.
 The cantons were divided into villages or sub-location ruled by chef de village.
 Cantons and villages were headed by Africans.

Lieutenant - governor (Country)

Commandant de Carde (Province)

Chef de sub-division (District)

Chef de canton (Location)

Chef de village (Village)

Aspect of assimilation in Senegal/characteristics of assimilation.

 There was political assimilation.Senegal was regarded as an overseas province of
France.Senegalese were considered french citizens and allowed to elect representatives to
the french chamber of deputies.
 Under socio-cultural assimilation the Senegalese were transformed into Frenchmen in
black skins.
 In education, French was the language of instruction in all spheres of life in Senegal.
 There was economic assimilation where there was the use of the french currency.
Conditions for assimilation.
 To be assimilated, the Africans had to fulfill the following conditions.
 Be able to speak french.
 Be able to read and write in French.
 Reside in the four communes in Senegal.
  Be employed in french services or army.
 One had to practised monogamy.
 One had to be Christian.
Benefits enjoyed by Assimilated Africans.
 They were allowed to send representatives to the french chamber of Deputies.
 They were allowed to vote during elections.
 They were provided with western education.
 They were exempted from forced labour, taxation and arbitrary arrest.
 They enjoyed trading rights.
 They subjected to French judicial system.
 They were employed in the french civil service
 They had freedom of movement within the French empire.
Why assimilation policy failed.
 Lacked adequate funds to sustain their operations.
 Cultural diffrences between the French and Africans.Africans were attached to their
culture and hence they opposed the French cultural imperialism.
 The Africans traditional chiefs who had lost their authority were opposed to the policy.
 Lacked of adequate personnel to implement the policy.
 The French feared that the policy would lead to loss of labour on their farms.
 Resistance from the French parliamentarians who feared being out-numbered in the
Chamber of Deputies by the Africans.
 Disregard of African laws based on African culture and Islam caused a lot of resentment.
 The high standards expected by the French for one to be assimilated made the policy
unworkable.
 The french businessmen feared competition from the assimilated Africans.
 The french themselves who had used this policy were unable to agree to destroy the
French colonial empire.
 The rise of African nationalism undermined the policy of assimilation.
Effects of assimilation in assimilation.
 Introduction of French sytem of education gave the people of Senegal chance to receive
western education.
 It led to emergence of elite class who served in the French public service and the army.
 Structures introduced during the policy of assimilation were copied by the independent
governments.
 The elite class later on spearheaded African nationalism in Senegal.
 Africans were allowed to take part in the political affairs of France as either voters or
candidates during the elections as members to the chamber of deputies.
 Senegal was considered a province of France overseas.
 Traditional rulers lost their authority over their subjects.
 It led to loss of independence as french rule was established.
 It created division between those who had been assimilated and the rest of the people.
 African culture was undermined as the people took to french language and Christian
language.
 The influence of Islam was greatly felt as many people were converted to Christianity.
Comparison between the British and French systems of Administration.
Diffrences.
  The French used military officials while the British used professional administrators.
 British rule varied from one colony to another depending on whether direct or indirect
rule was used. The French made use of a uniform policy of assimilation in their colonies.
 British rule didn’t interfere much with the African culture while assimilation was aimed
at replacing African culture with French culture.
 Assimilated Africans in French colonies were granted French citizenship with full rights
while those in British colonies were regarded as subjects..
 The elite in British colonies were subjected to the same harsh rule as the rest of the
colonized Africans while in french colonies they enjoyed previledges.
 The British granted African chiefs a lot of power while the French undermined traditional
African rulers.
 The laws in the French colonies were legislated in French while in the British colonies
the laws were made by legislative colonies in each of the colonies.
 Each British colony was ruled separately by a governor while the French colonies were
ruled together as a federation and were regarded as overseas provinces of France.
 The French colonies elected their representatives to the chambers of Deputies in Paris
while the British colonies were not represented in the British parliament.

Similarites.
 Both the British and French appointed their own European officials into senior position
of administration in their colonies.
 Both British and French adopted excessive economic exploitation in their colonies e.g
land alienation, forced labour and taxation.
 Both the British and French appointed Africans chiefs in communities that didn’t have
centralized system of administration.
 Both the British and French abolished slave trade and established legitimate trade in the
colonies.
 Both British and French had a governor as chief executive of the colony.
 Both British and French colonies were divided into provinces, districts, locations and
sub-locations as units of administration.
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENTS
DURING THE COLONIAL PERIOD IN KENYA
INTRODUCTION
 The British realized Kenya had fertile soil which could be exploited to make them
profit.They encouraged the settlers to come and take over the vast “empty lands.
 The biggest problem was the meeting transport and communication.
 In order to open up the territory, means of transport and communication had to be
established there included railway, road, water and air transport and postal and
telecommunication services.
THE UGANDA RAILWAY
 The Uganda railway connecting Uganda to outside world refer to rail line from Mombasa
to Kisumu. This railway was called Uganda Railway because it built to link Kisumu by
then part of Uganda.
 The need to build the railway started with views of businessman like William
MacKinnon.
 Survey works on the railway were done by the Imperial British East Company but it
lacked the funds to lay the track.
 The British government provided the funds needed for the construction of the track.
Reasons for Building the Railway
 To establish effective control over British East Africa.
 To facilitate exloitation of the resources in the interior.
 To stop slave trade and promote legitimate trade.
 To facilitate the movement of troops and government administrators into the interior parts
of the British protectorate.
 To link Uganda with the coast and the outside World.
 To controll Uganda as it was the source of river Nile.
 To transport raw materials from the interio to the coast and manufactured goods from the
coast to the interior.
 To facilitate the movement of Christian missionaries to the interior to spread Christianity .
The process of building the railway.
 Survey work for the railway route was carried out by Captain MacDonald of the Royal
engineers company.
 Engineer incharge of construction was George Whitehouse.
 Headquarter of the construction works was at Kilindini in Mombasa.
 Construction began on 5th August 1896.
 Railway start from Mombasa passed through Mariakani, Voi, Tsavo and reached Nairobi
in 1899.
 Headquarter was moved from Mombasa to Nairobi.
 Railway reached Kisumu in first December 1901
 Construction of the railway was done by Indian coolies.
 It took six years to be constructed at the cost of eight million pounds.
Reasons why Indians was used to construct railway.
 They had experiences in railway constructions.
 India was British colony.
 Majority of the natives were unskilled to be of any used in any engineering challenges
facing constructions.
Problems Encountered during construction of the railway
 Africans were not skilled and unwilling to provide the much needed manual labour
during the construction.
 Shortages of food, water and medicine.
 Delay in delevering building materials from Mombasa.
 The importation of coolies, clerks and craftsmen from India caused delays and additional
costs.
 Harsh climate across the coastal plains, the dry Nyika and Taru desert was intolerable due
to heat and dehydration. Some areas had heavy rains.
 Tropical diseases such as smallpox, malaria and jigger attacks slowed down the progress.
 The Indian workers were attacked by jiggers, which infected their limbs to a level that
could not work.
 Attack by the man-eaters of Tsavo reduced the hours of work and caused mass desertions
by labourers
 They faced hostility from interior communities e.g. the Maasai. The Nandi stole their
telegraphic wires to make ornaments and weapons.
 The terrain across the highlands into the Rift Valley was rugged and expensive to level
therefore caused engineering problems that took a long time to solve.
Consequences of the railway construction
 It led to development of urban centres like Nairobi, Naivasha, Nakuru and Voi.
 Many Indians who were involved in railway constructions settled in the country and start
business along the railway lines.for example, they set up shops at various points.
 It encouraged the coming of settlers to Kenya.
 It led to creation of employment opportunities.Africans were employed to provide semi-
skilled labour during construction and after construction.
 It opened up interior of Kenya hence made the government control quicker and effective.
 Christian missionaries were able to make into the interior where they established mission
stations, churches and schools.
  It led to transfer of capital from Mombasa to Nairobi because Nairobi was mid way
between Mombasa and Lake Victoria.
 It becomes a major source of revenue for the colonial authories.
 It promoted interaction between different Kenyan communities.
 It led to export and import trade
 It led to establishment and growth of agro-based industries.These includes milk
processing and milling plants.
 It led to the development of other forms of transport and communication e.g. road,
telegraphs, postal services and air transport.
 It led construction of feeder roads to link trading and agricultural centres with the railway
line.
 There was massive land alienation for railway construction with the Maasai and Nandi
being moved into reserves
 It facilitated cultural and social interaction among different races.
 It promoted rural-urban migration and enterprise activities such as hawking and charcoal
selling became possible among Africans.
How it promoted economic development in colonial Kenya.
 It hastened the transportation of goods and services.
 It promoted the growth of trade and commercial activities.
 It opened the interior for better farming and agriculture.
 It led to the growth of industries and mining.
 It led to the growth and development of urban centres.
 It created employment.
 It led to the development of other means of transport.
SETTLER FARMING IN KENYA
 Charles Elliot, the British commissioner (1900 -1904) encouraged Europeans to come
and settle in thehighlands.
 He felt that large scale farming could help the protectorate meet the cost of administration
and maintain the railway.
 Farming in the highland was however, not an easy task for the settlers. They had to clear
bush, find labour and determine which crops to grow.
How the Kenya-Uganda Railway contributed to the settler farming in Kenya.
 It provided cheap and reliable labour network.
 It opened up the Kenya Highlands for settlers.
Reasons why setterer farming was encouraged
 The colonial government wanted to make Kenya a Whiteman’s country by encouraging
white setterles to form the backbone of the economy.
 They wanted settlers were to finance the administrative costs of the colony without
involving the British tax – payers.
 The economic activities of the settlers would help pay for the construction costs of the
railway line.
 Apart from the vast “empty lands” there were no other natural resources to be exploited
in the colony.
 Africans did not have the funds and technical know how to be involved in large scale
farming.
 The settlers were expected to produce raw materials for the many industries in Britain.
  The highlands were suitable for European settlement as they land cool, wet climate and
fertile volcanic soils.
 The settlers would help to control Asian immigration and influence in Kenya.
Methods used by the colonial government to promote settler farming.
i.Acquisition of Land
 Colonial government acquired land for the settlers.they used many methods to acquire
land which include use of force, signing of treaties and legislation.
 Nandi for example were evicted by forced to create room along the railway for European
settlement.
 British signed treaties with the Maasai in 1904 and 1911 hence got the laikipia plateau for
European settlement.

ii.Provision of labour
 Settlers also needed labour and to achieve colonial government initiated several measures
to force Africans to provide labour.These included introduction of hut tax and poll tax.
iii.Technical assistance
 The setterles were given agricultural extension officers in the fields.
 They were also given resource stations to facilitate the development of better breeds to
improve yields.
iv.Transport and communication.
 The colonial governemtn developed extensive transport networks apart from the
railway.They were roads which ran from the railway to settler farms.
v.Security
 The colonial government ensured that there was security for the settlers.Hostile
communities in the places where settler occupied were defeated.
vi.Credit facilities
 The colonial government set up financial institutions to provide loans and other credit
facilities to settlers to make them have the money to invest in farming.
Methods used by colonial government to obtain African labour.
i.Taxation.
 The introduction of hut tax and poll tax ensured hat Africans sold their labour to get
money to pay tax.
ii.Master Servant ordinance.
 This made it an offence for any African to evade duty which would lead to imprisonment
fine or both.
iii.Low Wages.
 Africans were renumerated lowly in order to make them completely dependent on selling
their cheap labour for daily needs.
iv.Forced Recruitment:
 There was forced recruitment of labour for the settlers.
v.The native registration ordinance:
 It enforced registration of all adult male Africans to facilitate labour recruitment.
vi.Creation of reserves:
 African was restricted in reserves which were overcrowded. They had limited resources
both socially and economically.
  Africans were forced to leave reserves and go provide labour in settler farms.
vii.The Kipande system:
 Africans were to carry Kipande which was a form of identification on which personal
details were written individually.this was done to curb desertation from the employer.
viii.Northey circular.
 African chiefs were to encorouge local people into the wage labour.
ix.Squater system:
 Arbirtary land alienation led to African being squatters on the land that was once theirs.
x.Cash crops.
 Africans were forbidden to grow cash crops such as tea, copper and sisals.
 This made them not to have an alternative source of income hence they provide labour on
the white men’s farms to get income.

Problems encountered by settlers.

 Raids by locals whose land had been taken.
 Africans were unwilling to offer labour which was needed to clear the bush and prepare
for cultivation.
 Settlers lacked basic skills and experience as many had not practiced agriculture before.
 The settlers were not familiar with the seasons & therefore could not predict when and
what to plant.
 Shortage of capital to invest in agriculture.
 They were unable to market their produce during the world wars.
 There was poor means of transport & communication network which affected the
movement of people & goods.
 Pests and animal & crop diseases were prevalent in the highland.
Main crops grown by European settlers in colonial Kenya
Wheat
 It was introduced by Lord Delamere in Kenya in 1903 in Njoro.
 He established first plantations at njoro however it was affected by wheat rust disease.
 After the research rust-resistant was developed and in 1912 delemere harvested wheat in
his njoro farm.
 Delemere set up flour mill, the unga limited company which encouraged farmers to grow
more wheat.

Coffee
 It was introduced by the Roman Catholic missionaries, the French fathers of St. Austin’s
mission
 It was planted near Nairobi in 1899.
 Lord Delemere and white settlers grew coffee.
 Lord Delemere founded the coffee planters association which aimed at encouraging many
settlers to grow coffee.
Tea
 It was first grown at Limuru in 1903 by the Caine brothers.
 In 1925, large tea companies e.g. Brooke Bond and African Highlands Tea from India
were formed.The steady high demand for tea and coffee made many farmers to grow it on
large scale.
  The main teabelts were Nandi, Kericho, Sotik, Nakuru, Murang’a and Kiambu.
Sisal
 It was brought into Kenya from Tanzania where it had been introduced in 1893 by Dr.
Richard Hindarf, a German.
 In 1904 it was planted for the first time near Thika and quickly proved successful.
Cotton
 In 1906, cotton growing scheme was started in Nyanza.
 In 1923 Kenya cotton ordinance was passed to encourage cotton production.
 Cotton becomes profitable in 1930s due to presence of agricultural instructors.
Pyrethrum
 It was introduced in 1930, and soon became the basis of insecticide manufacture.
 It was grown in Nakuru and Molo.

Dairy Farming
 Lord Delamere imported pigs, cattle’s and sheep from Britain and carried out
experiments with different breads of livestock on his farm at Njoro.
 In 1925 delemere established the Kenya Co-operatives Creameries.
Challenges in dairy farming.
 The animals died of mineral deficiency and diseases like east coast fever.
 Raids from the Maasai and nandi community.
 Delemere established Kenya cooperative creameries.
Colonial land policies
Land acts / ordinances
1. Indian acquisition Act -1896
 Act empowers the government to compulsory acquire land for the railway, government
buildings and other public purpose.
2. Land Regulation Act -1897
 It allowed the government to issue a certificate of occupation and a lease of 99 years.
3. East African Land Order in Council -1901
 It defined crown land as ‘All Public Land’ which is not private
4. Crown Land Ordinance -1902
 This allowed the government to sell or lease crown land to Europeans at 2 rupees per 100
acres or rent at 15 rupees per 100 acres annually.
5. Maasai agreement -1904.
 First agreement signed between lenana and the British.
 The agreement pushes the Maasai to Laikipia and Ngong reserves.
 In 1905 four more African reserves were created.
6. 2nd Maasai agreement -1911 .
 It was signed after the death of lenana.
 It pushed out Maasai from fertile Laikipia reserves for European settlement.
7. Crown land ordinance -1915
 It preserved the White highlands exclusively for the White settlers.
 The settlers were given a lease up to 999 years.
8 Kenya Annexation Order in Council 1920.
 Africans were tenants of the Crown even in reserves.
9. Land commission -1924
  It fixed the boundaries of reserves.
10. Native Lands Trust Ordinance -1930
 African reserves belonged to the Africans permanently.
11. Carter commission -1932
 It fixed boundaries of the White Highlands.
12. Kenya Highlands Order in Council -1939
 It reserved white highlands permanently and exclusively for Europeans.
Swynneton plan – 1945 –consolidation and registration of Africa Land with a view of better land
management.
Consequence of colonial land policies
 The Africans lost their land to Europeans.
 Most land was used for the construction railway, European settlement and missionary
work.
 The Africans were pushed to reserves and they became squatters.
 Traditional structures were disrupted by the situations in reserves.
 Kipande system was introduced to ensure labour supply.
 Taxation was introduced.
 Indians were denied access to agricultural land.
 Nationalism rose and grew in Kenya.
 It increased European immigration in to Kenya.
 Land became a great source of African resentment.
The Devonshire white paper
 There was a conflict between the Asin community and white settlers which was as a
result of Social segreagation.
 To meet the challenge the Indians in Kenya formed the Indian National contress whose
leader was Aina Jeevanjee. Their complaints were aimed at Europeans settlers whom they
outnumbered but had excluded them from social and economic activities.
 The previous governor, Sir Edward Northey whose term ended in 1922, had made many
concessions to whites who made them build a great influential position in the colony.This
trend was reversed by Sir Robert Caryadon.
 In 1922, the British government issued a report in the European settlers-Indian conflict
where it was decided that apart from the white Highlands, there was no racial segregation
in Kenya Indians were allowed to elect four members to the Lego.
 The settlers were unhappy with the above report of 1922, in March 1923; they sent a
delegation to London to demand for what they considered as their rights. The Indians also
sent their delegation too.
 In London they meet Duke of Devonshire who was the colonial secretary. Devonshire
after an interview with both parties issued his findings in a document referred to as the
Devonshire white paper of 1923.
 Governances of the groups.
European settlers.
 The settlers wanted to retain Kenya highlands exclusively for the whites.
 They also advocated for separate development of all races in Kenya based on the
envisaged policy of segregation.
 They demanded more independence from Britain.
 They also wanted restriction on Indian migration to Kenya.
Asians.
 The Asians demanded greater share in the colonial government affairs.
 Equal rights with the whites.
 Inclusion in the Kenyan Highlands.
 Ban on their restriction on immigration and an
 End to racial discrimination and political injustice.

Africans.
 The Africans wanted their land back.
 They wanted to be given freedom to offer labour the way they wished
 Abolition of Kipande and squatter system.
 Representation in the government.
Recommendations of the white paper
 The white highlands were to be reserved for European settlers only.
 Indians were allowed to elect give members to the legeo.
 Racial segregation was abolished in residential areas and restrictions on immigrations
lifted.
 A missionary was to be nominated to the legend to represent the interests of Africans.
 Settlers had to maintain their representation in the Legco.
 The European settlers demand for self government in Kenya was rejected.
 The interests of the Africans were to be given priority before those of the other races in
the event of conflict, for Kenya is an African country and interests of the Africans were
paramount.
 Colonial Secretary would exercise strict control over the affairs of the colony.
Effects of Devonshire white paper.
 It saved Kenya from being a white settler dominated colony.
 It reduced settler dominance.
 European demand for self-government was rejected.
 It led to establishment of local native councils for Africans.
 Dr. Arthur, a missionary was appointed to represent the interests of Africans in
Legislative Council.
 White Highlands were reserved for Europeans alone.
 The whites in the colony felt betrayed by this paper as it made them not to achieve their
goal of a self – government controlled by whites only.
 The Indians were disappointed becaue they were not allowed to settle in the white
highlands and have political equality with the whites. The Indian congress refused to take
up its seats in the ligeo in protest. They exam didn’t hold elections in municipal councils
till 1933.
 The Africans benefited as the paper had recognized their importance as native of the land.
It led to the appointment of Dr. Arthur, a European missionary to represent the Africans
in the legco in 1924.
 The African land issue was not solved well.
 The paper didn’t solve the conflict situation among the different races in the colony.
Urbanisation
Factors for urbanization in colonial Kenya
  Construction of the Uganda railway encouraged growth of towms along the railway such
as voi and nakuru
 Indian coolies set up shops in various parts of the country.These centres grew into towns.
 Administrative posts set up by the colonial government grew up into towns. This included
Machakos, Murang’a, Mumias and Kapsabet.
 Army posts set up by the colonial government such as nanyuki grew into towns.
 Activities of settlers’ farmers encouraged growth of towns like Eldoret.
 Mining centres grew into towns such as magadi.
 Agro-based industries such as flour mills wheat processing plants and saw mills attracted
labourers. They grew into urban centres.
 Some towns developed around mission entres such as Rabai.
 Rural-urban migration led to the high influx of Africans into urban areas leading to the
development of towns.
Why Africans moved to urban centres in colonial Kenya
 The overcrowded unproductive reserves created by the colonial government made living
conditions difficult thereby resulting into migrations to towns.
 The recreational facilities and other social amenities in urban centred attracted the
Africans.
 The taxes imposed on Africans forced them to towns in search for jobs.
 Towns had better infrastructure such as tarmacked roads which gave people better life.
 Widespread poverty in the rural areas caused a lot of suffering.This forced the people the
people to move away into the towns.
 Land alienation had pushed Africans into reserves forcing them to seek alternative
livelihood in town.
 African entrepreneurs wanted to take advantage of markets in towns by starting small-
sacle business.
 There were jobs in the towns with better wages than in rural areas.
Problems faced by Africans in urban centres during colonial period in Kenya.
 There were inadequate housing facilities to meet the demand of the African people / it led
to the development of shanties/slums.
 Increased population in urban centres led to serious water shortage.
 The social services provided to the Africans were inadequate and of poor quality.
 Lack of planning of housing led to poor drainage and sanitation facilities.
 Establishment of industries in urban centres led to pollution of the environment which
affected the health of the inhabitants.
 Inadequate housing led to the mushrooming of slums.
 There were many unemployed people who got involved in social vices/crime.
 Africans working in urban centres received low wages which affected their standard of
living / Africans were subjected to racial discrimination.
Ways through which the colonial government controlled migrations of Africans to urban
centres.
 Taking headcount of those who were supposed to live in towns and reserves.
 Enacting strict rules about migrations in to urban centres .
 Ensuring that only those who had specific activities to undertake in the urban areas lived
there.
 Introducing the Kipande system.
Consequences of Urbanization
Positive impacts
 Urbanization led to interaction between people of diverse ethnic and racial background.
 It led to rise of African nationalism.
 It transformed the lifestyles of the urbanised Africans e.g mode of dressing and eating
habits.
 It promoted market gardening for the communities near towns, for example people of
kiambu were able to get market for their goods.
 It created new employment opportunities for the vast majority of unemployed Africans.
 Welfare associations were formed to carter for the needs of African workers.
 Popular sporting & cultural activities which took place in towns cemented relationship
between different ethnic groups and races.
 Industries expanded due to large labour force and abundant raw materials concentrated in
urban centres.
Negative impacts.
 Most Africans lacked employment in urban centres, leading to poverty and misery.
 It led to mushrooming of slums as there were no housing schemes for Africans.
 It led to introduction of the kipande system to check on the movement of Africans.
 It led to increase in crime and immorality.
 It led to erosion of African culture
 It led to racial segragation.
Education and health
 Western education and health care were introduced to our country by early Christian
missionaries.
 The colonial government joined in the provision of these services.
Education
Western education in colonial period was provided by four groups.These were:
 Christian missionaries.
 Colonial government.
 Africans.
 Asians.
Missionary educations.
 In 1840, the first mission schools were started at Mombasa and Rabai by krapf and
rebman who were working for the church missionary society. (CMS)
 Missionary education spread to the interior through the use of Uganda railway.
 Missionaries built many schools without any help from the government.
Objectives of missionary educations.
 To teach Africans basic literacy and numeracy skills.
 To teach Africans better farming methods.
 To train African catechists.
 To teach Africans basic technical skills.
 To teach Africans better methods of hygiene.
Features of missionary educations.
 It taught elementary subjects such as religion, writing, reading, hygiene and arithmetics.
 It was industrial or technical in nature aimed at producing african carpenters, masons and
farm labourers.
  It was religious and aimed at producing followers of a specific denomination of
Christianity.
How missionaries fulfilled their education objectives.
 Designing a curriculum with emphasis an agriculture, tailoring, masonry and capacity.
 Establishing of secondary 2nd of Africa e.g alliance in 1926, Kabaa in 1927, Yala in 1939.
 Training African teachers who managed the bush schools (schools found in remote
areas).
 Offering the necessary financial and material support to make these schools operational.

Colonial government.
Colonial government formed education commission called Fraser commision of 1908
Fraser commission recommended the following:
 Provision of technical educations to Africans.
 Continuation of racially segregated schools.
 Increased collaborations between the colonial government and the missionaries in the
provision of education.
 Provision of grants to mission schools.
Results of Fraser commission.
 The government opened a number of industrial and agricultural schools.
 It built schools in areas not effectively served by missionaries.
In 1924 the government established another education commission to identify Africans
educational needs.This was called the Phelps stokes education commission.
Recommendation of Phelps stokes education.
 A uniform system of education in mission and government schools.
 Establishment of colleges to train teachers and related personnel.
 Construction of schools in rural areas.
Significance of the Phelps-Stokes Commission on elementary Education .
 It led to setting up of an education department in 1911 which provided grants to mission
schools and put up government schools.
 It led to setting up of an education ordinance that controlled and supervised education.
 It led to the building of the native industrial training centre at Kabete in 1924 and the
Jeanes School, Kabete 1925 to offer technical and industrial training. Others like
Kapsabet, Kajiado, Tambach, Kitui, Kwale, Kabianga and Kapenguria also followed.
 There was the provision of elementary education by Africans. This was begun by John
Owalo of Nomiya Luo mission in 1910.
Characteristic of Colonial Education
 Colonial education was based and managed along racial line of European, Asians and
Africans.
 Curriculum for Europeans was superior and enriched with professional marketable
course.
 The facilities and services for European schools e.g classroom, furniture and stationery
were of better quality.
 Each race was on its own public examination.
 A very small number Africans were to receive secondary education.
Level of education
The development of western education for Africans during the colonial period took three
levels.Namely:
 Primary education.
 Secondary education.
 University education.
Primary education
 It was begun by missionaries and was later transformed into elementary schools.
 It covered class 1-4 and the curriculums include:
 Writing.
 Arithmetic.
 Reading.
 Hygiene.
 Class 5-7 emphasized on acquisition of technical skills such as carpentry, metal work and
masonry. It aimed at providing semi-skilled manpower for the colonial government and
settlers.
 Colonial government favoured industrial education and as result established native
industrial training centre at kabete.
 Similar schools were also started in other parts of the country.This include Kabianga,
Kapenguria, Kajiado, Tambach and Kapsabet.
 Subjects like agriculture, Ghee producion, Tailoring, Masonry and capentry.
 Africans were not pleased with the technical and agricultural-oriented education which
they were given.they wanted more academic educations to enable them compete with
other races on equal footing.
 Consequently they started their own schools to address the anomaly.
Secondary Education.
 It was exclusively left for the Europeans. The aim was to eliminate Africans from
competing for jobs with the Europeans.
 However the Africans pressed the government to address the imbalance.
 The missionaries took up the challenge in 1926 by forming an alliance of protestant
missions and put up the first African secondary school known as Alliance at Kikuyu
while the Catholics put up one at Mangu in Thika.
 The secondary schools for the whites included:
 Prince of waters (Nairobi School)
 Duke of York Lenana school for European boys
 Kenya Girls High school (Kenya High)
 Limuru Girls by CMS for European Girls.
 Hospital hill became the first multi-racial school in 1953.
 The schools for Indians included “the Asian Railway School.
Why Africans were not given academic education during colonialism
 They were considered as lacking the mental capacity to acquire academic
education.
 To avoid competition with the whites for job market.
 To use them for manual job only.
 To limit African political awareness.
European education.
 European children unlike Africans got adequate education.
  The settler presence led to establishment of schools for European children
 By 1918 there were three boarding primary schools and one primary day school for
European children in Kenya.
 In 1924 the central adisory committee on european education was set up.this committee
pressed for the establishment of a secondary school for European children
 In 1931 Prince of Wales now Nairobi school was set up.
 Duke of York now lenana and the Kenya girl’s high school were also built.
University education
 Initially, university education was only given to Europeans children.
 Africans got university education only at Makerere University in Uganda.Makerere was a
technical college set up in 1922 offering diploma certificates.
 It got affiliated to the University of London in 1949 to offer degrees to those graduating
from secondary schools in East and Central Africa.
 Those Africans who failed to get to Makerere sought education overseas. Mbiyu Koinage
was the first Kenyan African to acquire University education.
 In 1954 the Royal Technical College offered higher diploma due to pressure by the
Africans. It was affiliated to the University of London in 1959 and in 1961 it began
offering degree courses.
 In 1963 Makerere, Dar es Salaam and Royal College Nairobi were joined to form the
University of East Africa which collapsed in 1977 with the collapse of the East Africa
community.
Role of Africans in the provision of education
 They began their own schools so as to protect female circumcision and polygamy and to
acquire higher education as opposed to technical and industrial education.
 The schools were established in
 Nyanza under Nomiya Luo church.
 Central, known as the Independent schools. This was formed by K.I.S.A Kikuyu
Independent Schools Association and the Kikuyu Koinange Education
Association.
 By 1938, the Kikuyu set up Githunguri Teacher Training College under Mbiyu
Koinange.
Health
 Before colonial period Africans relied on traditional medicine.
 Western medicine was intoduced by Christian missionaries.
 Mission station served as healthcare and treatment centres.Station was also used to train
Africans on hygiene.
 Dr.John Arthur set up medical mission at at Thogoto.
 Church missionary society started medical work at buxton high school.
 Missionaries and other Europeans development comprehensive medical system e.g
medical facilitate in Kikuyu (1902) Kaloleni (KOH) Kaimosi (1903) and Maseno (1905).
 White Prime Author opened a mission at Thogoto.
The main objectives of establishing health centres were
 To eradicate diseases such as small pox, malaria and sleeping sickness.
 Train medical personnel to handle western medicine.
 Improve health and hygiene for Africans and Asians in towns where there was
crowding.
  In 1921 Public Health ordinance was passed .It empowers medical deparment to provide
medical services to all races in the protectorate
 In 1951, the King George (VI) Hospital (Kenyatta National Hospital started training
female nurses).

POLITICAL DEVELOPMENTS AND THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN

KENYA (1919 - 1963).
Since 1895 when Kenya became a British protectorate, the Kenyans objective has been
A return to basic human freedom
Political independence.
Factors that led to the rise of African nationalism in colonial Kenya
 Introduction of taxation i.e. poll tax and Hut tax
 Introduction of Kipande system by colonial government
 Forced labour and poor wages for Africans.
 The question of land alienation,
 Racial discrimination in provision of social services;
 Disregard for African culture and traditions
 Poor working conditions for African in industries and farms.
 Imposition of de-stocking policy.
 Lack of participation for Africans in the government
Nationalism was expressed through the formation of several political associations
Early political organizations in Kenya up 1939.
 Emergence of many political associations between 1919 and 1939 was attributed to the
participation of many African in World War 1.
 The war made many Africans communities meet and compare their experiences and they
realized they had common problems.
 They also realized that the Whiteman was not different from them. He could get wounded
and also die.
 This encouraged them to strive for equal rights with the Europeans.
 It also gave them unity.
Characteristics of early political organization
 They were led by mission educated Africans like Harry Thuku and Jonathan Okwiri.
 They used non-violent means to express their grievances,for example,delegations and
petitions.
 They had similar grievances e.g forced labour taxation etc
 They were formed from ethnic/tribal grounds
 They receive support from Asians e.g material and moral support.
 Membership was small as majority of Africans did not see their importance.
Early Political Parties
 Kikuyu Association.
 Young Kikuyu Association.
 East African Association(EAA)
 Kikuyu Central Association(KCA)
  Kavirondo Tax payers and Welfare Association(K.T.W.A)
 Ukambani Members Association (U.M.A).
 Taita Hill Association.
 Coast African Association.
1) Kikuyu Association (KA)
 It was formed 1920
 Chief Kinyanjui WA Gathirimu & Chief Koinange WA Mbiyu was a patron.
Demands Kikuyu Association.
 It fought for alienated land.
 Increase in African wages
 Abolition of Kipande.
 1921, it was changed to Young Kikuyu Association
Young Kikuyu Association
 Formed in the June 1921
 Had the following founders
 Harry Thuku
 Abdalla Tairara
 Mwalimu Hamisi
 Mohamed Sheikh
 Thuku was educated at the Gospel missionary Society school at Kambui.
 He worked as a telephone operator in Nairobi.
 The main reason why the Young kikuyu Association was formed was that the Kikuyu
Association which was dominated by the colonial chiefs had failed to press the colonial
government for African demands.
 Y.K.A under Thuku adopted a mere radical approach which the leaders of the Kikuyu
Association disliked.
 Thuku with the Y.K.A demanded for the following
 All alienated land should be returned
 Better working conditions for Africans
 Reduction of taxes especially the poll tax
 Withdrawal of Kipande system
 The wages of African workers should not be reduced, but increased.
 That all land owners be given title deeds.
 This organization was not tribal. Later on, the founders saw the need to bring in many
more ethnic groups since they argued that all Africans had similar grievances against the
whites. They then made them change the name to the East African Association.
East african association.
It was formed in 1921 by leaders of the young kikuyu association.
 Young kikuyu association had been formed in 1921.
 Leaders changed the name from Young Kikuyu Association to East African
Association.This was because they felt that unity among africans would be enhanced if
the people from all communities and religions were included in it.
Members include
 Harry Thuku - Chairman
 IM. Ismael
 Johnstone Kamau (Jomo Kenyatta)
  Norman Mboya
 Abdalla Bin Assumah.
 Kibwana Bin Kembo
 Jesse Kariuki
 Joseph Kangethe.

Demands of the East African Association.

 They demanded for the return of the alienated land.
 They wanted the colonial government to abolish hut / poll tax.
 They demanded for the abolition of Kipande.
 They demanded for better working and living conditions.
 They demanded that the elections to the legislative Council be done on a common roll.
 They demanded for the abolition of forced labour.
 They demanded for more education for Africans.
 They demanded an end to compulsory destocking.
 They demanded for the revocation of the colonial status.

 Thuku sought the help of the Asian politicians like M.A. Desai who published the East
African Chronicles newspaper and helped to provide vehicles for transport.
 He also got in touch with the Pan- African movement by writing a letter to Marcus
Garvey and W.E.B Du Bois. He also wrote to the London colonial office and this led to
his sacking from government.
 He was now able to travel the country widely and publicize his ideas. The Asians gave
him a vehicle that enabled him to travel to Kisumu and get in touch with James Beauttah
of the Kavirondo Taxpayer Welfare Association.
 In the 1920s Thuku became so popular.
 Harry Thuku was arrested on 15th March 1922 and detained at the Kingsway police
station (Central Police Station). This attracted a large crowd of people who demanded for
his release. A shootout began and 21 people were killed including Muthoni Nyanjiru who
incited the crowd.
 Thuku was deported to Kismayu. His friends like Waiganjo and Mugekenyi were
banished to Lamu and E.A.A was banned.
 In 1921 they had a public rally in Ngara road and addressed the following.
 Kenya should not be a colony
 The election to the legco is on a common roll.
 All alienated land is returned to the Africans.
 More educational support unities are created for Africans.
 There should not be compulsory distocking to be discouraged.
 On 14th March 1922 Harry Thuku was arrested and charged with instilment, sedition
which led to demonstration and riots in Nairobi with demands for his unconditional
release.
ACHIEVEMENTS OF East Africa Association
 The authoritarian governor Sir Edward Northey was recalled.
 It presented Africans gievancies to the secretary of state for colonies in London through
cables sent by harry thuku.
  It united Africans in voicing their demands as harry thuku made contacts with leaders of
other associations.
 It helped to raise awareness on Africans grievances through the press using east Africa
chronicles.
 Dr. John Athur was nominated to represent the Africans interest in legco.
 It established links with outside world to support African demands through contacts made
by harry thuku with young Uganda association in Kampala.
Kikuyu Central Association (K.C.A)
 It was founded in 1924 after the demise of E.A.A.
 Its head quarter was Kihuhia in Muranga.
Officials were
 Joseph Kang’oto - President
 Jesse Kariuki - Vice President
 Henry Gishuru - Secretary
 Job Muchuchu - Treasurer
 Henry Mwangi
 Henry kiiru
 John Mbuthia
Kca had association with Asian lawyers such as isher dass and madan.They helped the
association draw its memorandum to the colonial secretary and to the Kenyan government before
the Second World War started.
Objectives.
 It advocate for growing of coffee by Africans
 It worked towards resolution of alienated African land.
 To have laws written in Kikuyu.
 To pressurize colonial government to abolish kipande system.
 To pressurize colonial government to abolish racial segregation.
 To respect African culture and customs.
 To agitate for the release of political prisoners.
Grievances of K.C.A
 Wanted return of the alianated African land.
 Abolition of the kipande system.
 An end of forced labour.
 An end for the colonial system of education.
 The release of harry thuku.
 Wanted African representation in the legislative council.
 Wanted Africans to be allowed to grow cash crops.
 Wanted translation of colonial laws into Gikuyu language for ease of understanding by
Africans.
 Wanted reduction of colonial taxes.
 An end to racial discrimination.
 Better working and living conditions for Africans.
 More education opportunities for Africans.
 It wanted the lifting of the ban on female circumsion.
Achievements of the KCA.
  It presented petitions to the governor in which it articulated African grievances.for
example in 1925 it petitioned the governor and opposed Supreme Court ruling declaring
that Africans were not owners of their land even in the reserves but were tenants at the
will of the crown.
 It published a newspaper called muigwithania (rconciler) which articulated African
grievances.
 It started independent schools and churches where Africans could learn without the
guidance of the missionaries.
 It helped to start other political organisations which were also protesting again bad
colonial policies.example were the ukamba members association.
Kavirondo Tax payers and Welfare Association (KTWA)
 It has its roots in the young Kavirondo Association (YKA) which was founded in 1921
by student and teachers of Maseno School.
 On 23rd December 1921, about 8,000 people of central nyanza held a meeting and
decided to form organization to help them fight for their rights and interests.
Officials.
 Jonathan Okwiri - president
 Benajmin Owour - Secretary
 Simon Nyende - Treasurer
 Ezekiel Apindi
 George Samuel Okoth
 Joel Omino
 Mathayo Otieno
 Jeremiah Awari
Grievances
 Repeal of kipande laws.
 Abolition of forced labour.
 Reduction of hut tax and poll tax and exemption of women from taxation.
 Better Wages.
 Revocation of change of status from the protectorate to colony.
 Establishment of separate Legco for Nyanza.
 Issuing oif title deeds to African land owners.
 Introduction of higher education for Africans.
 Demand building of government schools in central Nyanza.
 Creation of paramount chiefs for central and south nyanza.
 Dissolution of labour camps.
 Demanded abolition of African registration.
 On 8th July 1922 Association officials met Sir Edward Northey who agreed to look into their
demand however refuses tocomprise on the issue of reverting the colony to protectorate.
 In July 1923, missionary Archdeacon Owen of the Christian missionary society in Maseno
was appointed as the official of the association.
 Officials were prevailed to change the name to Kavirondo Tax Payers and Welfare
association
 Under Owens Leaderhsip the association ktwa was transformed into welfare
association.Government asked Owen to do so because it was becoming too political.He
 named kavirondo taxpayers and welfare association with hmself as the president and district
commissioner in nyanza as vice president.
 Executive committee included:
 Jonathan okwiri.
 Ezekiel Apindi.
 Benjamin Awuor.
 Joel Omino.
Under the leadership of Owen, the association concentrated on social and welfare matters.
This included:
 Carrying out compaigns to encourage people to build pit larines.
 Planting trees to conserve the environment.
 Killing rats and maintaing cleanliness to eradicate diseases.
Achievements of KTWA.
 It fought for the abolition of forced labour.
 It demanded the demarcation of African reserves and granting of title deeds for their land.
 In successfully opposed a native authority amendment which wanted aficans to be jailed
for failure to join communal labour.
 It sent representatives to the Hilton young who had been set up to listen to african
grievances over land and other issues.
 In 1930 the association began loosing its momentum due to internal disagreement and
factions’ e.g the Abaluhya formed their wing known as North Kavirondo central
association in 1934. The association survived until 1944.
Ukambani Members Association (UMA)
 It was formed towards the end of 1937.
 Members included:
 Samuel Muinid Mbingu - Chairman
 Elijah Kavule Vice P
 Isaac Mwalozi Secretary
 Simon Kioko Treasurer
Demands
 Wanted an end to the destocking policy which forced the akamba people to reduce their
livestock.
 Abolition of forced labour.
 An end to the alienation of African land by European ranchers.
 An end to heavy taxation imposed by the colonialists.
 UMA took the opportunity to mobilize the community against the unpopular decision made
by Samuel Muindi Mbingu.akamba collected their cattle and moved with them to
nairobi.they wanted to talk to the governor over the issue.they stay in Nairobi for six weeks.
 Eventually governors agree to hold a meeting in machakos.
 Muindi mbingu was arrested and deported to lamu where he was held for eight years.
The Coast African Association.
 It was formed in 1943 at members
 Members were:
 Nawanasele – President
 Mohammend Bin Mwichande -Vice Presidnet
 E.W Timothy General secretary
  H. C banks Honaranry Treasuere
 Mohamned Bin Omar
 Enoch Benjamin
 H. G Harrison
It demands were:
 Removal of uneducated chiefs.
 Improved education for Africans.
 Adequate health facilities.
 Abolition of taxation.
 Taxes collected from African traditional drinks be used to develop the rural areas.
 Appointment of African administrators
 Formation of co-operative unions for Africans.
 African representation of the Coastal region in the Legislative Council.
 Land alienation which affected the Mijikenda.
 Elevation of Shimo la Tewa to a high school.
The Taita Hills Association
 It was formed in 1939 at voi.
 It led to political agitation in taita.
 Foundeing members were:
 Mango Waresha Kalondi - Chairman
 Paul Chumbo - Treasurer
 Jimy Mwambichi - Secretary
 Daniel mapinga.
Demands of taita hills association.
 An end to land alienation.
 An end to forced picking of coffee and compulsory potterage of the settler coffee by
Africans.
 An end destocking policy.
 Abolition of the kipande system.
 End to taxation.
 End of the plans to move wadawida from taita hills to samburu to give room to the white
settlers.
 Members of Association used to write letters to the colonial government as a result the
colonial government shifts its plan of moving the Wataita from ancentral land in the hills to
the plains.
 The govenement revised the Taita receive boundaries and reduced the land initially covered
out for European settlers.
 Colonial government stoped distocking measure among Wataita.
Achievements of early Political organizations.
 They Promoted unity by mobilizing Africans to demand for their rights.
 They presented grieveances of Africans community to colonial government.
 They Promoted African culture e.g female circumsion.
 They Promoted politicial consciousness among the African by raising political
awareness.
 They campaigned for better wages and better working conditions for African labourers.
 They publicised the grievances of African community the outside world.
  They formed the basis for struggle for independence later.

Problems faced by early political organization.

 Harassment by the colonial government
 Deportation o f their leaders e.g. Harry Thuku, Muindi Mbingu and Mwambichi which
demoralized members of the association
 Political wrangles/disagreements between members e.g. C.A.A which died upon the
departure of the leaders.
 Lack of skills in running political parties which led to mismanagement of the offices.
 Lack of funds to run the association, since the Africans were faced with the problem of
land alienation, taxation and poor working conditions.
 Disunity as most associations were ethnic based.
 Banning of the associations by the colonial government.
 Poor means of transport and communication
Methods used to air their grievances
 The use of mass media such as newspapers like Coast African Express.
 Protests e.g. the Akamba trek to Nairobi
 Writing memorandums
 Addressing protest letters to the governor e.g. Taita Hills Association
The emergency of independent churches and school.
 They emerged as a result of protest against mission churches and schools established by
different missionary societies.
 The missionaries trained Africans to be catechists, government clerks and workers on
their farms, in the churches they emphasized the benefits of Western culture as appeared
to African culture.
 Many Kenyans at first rejected missionary attempts towards conversion and education.
Later, however they realized that education was leading to material benefits and
responsibilities, they began to demand it.
 In 1919, the colonial government had agreed to give financial support while the
missionaries provided the supervision, management and partial financing of schools.
 Africans began to established their own churches and schools. This was in response to the
negative attitude and open discrimination against them by the missionaries applied with
the general injustice of the colonial administration that frustrated African interest. People
of Kenya used independent churches to resist against the excessive colonialism.
Causes of the rise of independent churches and school
 The missionaries taught against African customs such as female circumcision and
polygamy. Africans wanted to join Christianity and retain their cultural values.
 Africans disliked the 3Rs education that prepared them for low positions in government.
They aspired for an education that could put them on equal terms with European and
Asian children.
 They were formed to resent against colonial domination and exploitation expressed
though the kipande system, forced labour and racial discrimination.
 The desire for leadership in their own churches by the Africans. They had little say in the
mission churches and all major decisions were made by the missionaries.
 Rise of some Africans e.g. John Owalo and Elijah Masinde who had received a divine
calling from God.
  Some were formed after they felt dissatisfied with the interpretation of the Christian
scriptures e.g. the Holy Spirit church broke away from the mainstream churches on such
account.
 Mission churches disregarded the traditional African expression of worship e.g. dancing,
singing and divine healing; therefore some churches were formed to allow Africans to
express their Christianity freely. They wanted to preserve their cultural heritage.
 To create more job opportunities for educated Africans.
Examples of independent churches in Kenya.
Nomiya Luo Mission.
 It was first independent religious and educational movement in Kenya.
 It was started by john owalo.
 He received wide education and experience from several mission schools. He started a
Roman Catholic, and then joined the Scottish mission at Maseno and Nairobi.
 In 1907, he claimed to have a vision in which and directed him to start his own religion
he broke away from the CMS and founded his own mission. The Nomya Luo mission -
1n 1910. Nomiya Luo mission means ``the mission that I was given” or “the mission that
was given to me”
 John Owalo proclaimed himself a prophet and denied the divinity of Jesus but accepted
that Jesus was a prophet and Son God.
Christian Universal Evangelist Union.
 It was founded in 1938 by Ishmael Noo, a former techer and preacher.
 He was originally a member of the Anglican Church.
 He lived in sakwa location of central nyanza.
Dini ya msambwa.
 It was formed by Elijah Masinde in the 1940’s at maeni village, Bungoma County.
 The church championed African cultural values and fought against European dominance
and cultural interference.
 African Independent Pentecostal Church (AIPC)
 It was established at gituamba in kiambu.
 It was led by peter gatheca and musa murithi.
 It had broken away from the gospel missionary society.
African Orthodox Church.
 The church broke away from the aipc.
 Its founder were Aerthur Gathuma and Philiph Kiande.
 Arthur gatungu was a former student of alliance high school and a teacher at gituamba.
Examples of independent schools.
They wer a number of independent schools which came up.
They included:
Gaithieko independent school.
 It was opened up in kiambu and gathieko in 1913.
Githunguru independent school.
 It was founded in 1925.
 It was closed down in 1929 following conflicts with missionaries.
 It was reopened in 1930 qnd become a full elimentary school.later it become a teacher
training college.
Examples of independent school association.
 The Kikuyu Independent Schools Association (KISA) established in 1929.It was later
affiliated to the African independent Pentecostal Church.
 The Kikuyu Karinga Education Association(KKEA) established in 1933.it was linked
with the african orthodox church.
Characteristic of Independent Churches and schools
 They accommodated African cultural values e.g. polygamy.
 They were not against education and Christianity, but against the westernizing influence
of the missionaries and type of education and literature that was being offered.
 The leadership in both schools and churches was Africans.
 They were somehow connected with political parties wich were founded to oppose
colonial rule.
 Unlike political movements which were mainly based in towns, the independent schools
and churches had their following form the rural masses.
 The independent schools and churches were somehow connected with political parties
which were founded to oppose colonial rule.
 They retained some aspects of mainstream churches.
Problems faced by independence
 Wrangling between the leaders.
 Competition from the missionary churches and schools.
 Closure of the institutions by the colonial authorities during the emergency.
 Shortage of manpower to manage their activities e.g.teachers.
 Shortage of funds to implement their programmes.
 Harassment of the members by the missionaries and the colonial authorities.
Political organisation and movements after 1945
 The political and social movements which were active in early 1920s and 1930’s were
burned and their leaders put in detention for fear of creating internal unrest.
Factors which promoted nationalism in Kenya after 1945.
 Acquisition of western education by many Africans enabled them to articulate their
grievances more forcefully as well as understand political developments internationally.
 The experiences of the World War 2 ex-soldiers who discovered that the Europeans were
not superior to them in any way. Also, the colonial government failed to fulfill promises
made at the time of war, i.e. giving them land and employment. The European ex-soldiers
were rewarded with large tracts of land after the war and this provoked bitterness in them
towards the colonialists.
 The granting of independence to India and Pakistan in 1947 gave Kenyans the confidence
that they could also achieve independence.
 The Atlantic charter signed in World War II in 1941 by the British Prime Minister
Winston Churchill and U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt declared that with the end of
the war, all subject people should enjoy the right to self-determination
 The spirit of Pan Africanism spearheaded by African–Americans led by W.E.B Dubois
and George Padmore urged that Africans should enjoy political freedom in their
continent. In 1945 African leaders namely Jomo Kenyatta, Kwame Nkurumah and
Kamuzu Banda took part in the congress and resolved to press for self-determination.
 The rise of the Labour Party to power in Britain after World War II which favoured
decolonization.
  The emergence of the USA and USSR as super powers who wanted the colonies to be
granted full independence so that they could produce raw materials and also provide
market for the expanding industries. The Soviet Union promoted decolonization
believing it would lead to weakening of the capitalist nations.
 The World War II drained the treasuries of European countries including Britain and
France. Their taxpayers were becoming reluctant to support the cost of running the
rebellious colonies.
 The establishment of the United Nations after the World War II in 1945 called for the
granting of independence to all subjects as the first step towards achieving international
peace and security. France and Britain were members of U.N.O and could not afford to
ignore its anti-colonial stand.
 The liberation of Ghana in 1957 was a big influence on the other colonized like Kenya.
President Kwame Nkurumah championed the cause of the nationalists struggle in other
parts of Africa.
The Kenya African Study Union
 On 10th October 1944 Eliud Mathu, a graduate from Fort Hare University and Oxford
University and a former teacher at Alliance School was nominated to the Legco by the
colonial governor.
 Later, he together with well educated Africans led by Francis Khamisi met in Nairobi and
they formed the Kenya African Union (K.A.U)
 Its officials were
 Harry Thuku as Charirman
 Francis Khamisi as Secretary
 Albert Owino as Treasurer
 Committee members were
 James Gichuru
 John Kebaso
 Simeon Mulandi
 Harry Ole Nangurai
 S.O. Josiah
 F.M Ng’ang’a
 J.D Otiende
Aims of K.A.U
 Assist Mathu in his new task in Legco
 Provide multi-ethnic organization for the development of African interests
 Fight for better living and working conditions for Africans.
 To advocate for more constitutional reforms for Africans
 Two weeks after its formation, the officials were ordered to change the name to K.A.S.U
since it was to be involved in studying the problems facing the Africans.
 In 1945 James Gichuru became the president after Harry Thuku stepped down.
 Under Gichuru, KASU made a lot of progress e.g. it published a newspaper ‘Sauti ya
Mwafrika’ with Khamisi as editor. Gichuru and Khamisi travelled widely in Kenya, Uganda
and Tanganyika to convince Africans not to accept the proposed federation.
 In 1946, the leaders of the association felt that the name KASU was inappropriate since they
involved in the political affairs of the country with a view of improving African life. In
February 1946, they changed the name to K.A.U.
The Kenya African Union (KAU).
 In 1946, Kenya Africa Study Union members held an annual delegates confrence.In the
conference they resolved to remove the word study from the organisation.they therefore,
reverted to their original name of kau
 Returned of Jomo Kenyatta from London from London in September 1946 strengthens the
union.
 In June 1949 he was elected president of KAU after Gichuru stepped down.
 He was assisted by W.W.W Awori as vice president, Ambrose Ofafa as treasurer and
Gikonyo Muchohi as secretary.
Objectives.
 Unite the Africans towards an African nation
 To foster economic, social and political interests of the Africans.
 To support Eliud Mathu
Demands of KAU
 Abolition of the forced labour.
 Abolition of kipande system.
 Release of African political detainees.
 Return of alianated African land.
 Abolition of taxes
 Self government for Africans
 More seats for Africans in the Legco
 Free and compulsory education
 Equality in wages and salaries among all races.
 More trade opportunities for Africans.
 Improvement in the living and working conditions of Africans.
 Compensation for the ex-service men
 Racial discrimination and undermining of cultural practices of Africans to be done away
with.
 In 1951 KAU experienced a major rift in the party between the radicals and the moderates.
The radicals led by Fred Kubai, Paul Ngei, and Bildad Kaggia advocated for the use of force
while the moderates led by Kenyatta called for the use of a peaceful constitutional reforms.
 The radicals took over Nairobi KAU branch. They demanded for the removal of the
moderates from the executive committee.
 Under the radical leadership, KAU revived its nationalist activities.A central committee was
set up to co-ordinate oathing activities of the maumau freedom fighters.
 Radicals demanded for the removal of the radicals; however Kenyatta insisted that the party
leadership had to be multi-ethnic and that the Secretary General had to come from Western
Kenya.
 When the national delegate’s conference met in 1951, the following were elected
 Jomo Kenyatta as President
 J. D Otiende as secretary General
 Paul Ngei as assistant secretary
 Harry Ole Nangurai as treasurer.
 The Nairobi branch of KAU was led by Fred Kubai as chairman, J.M. Mungai as vice and
Kaggia as secretary. The radicals worked closely with members of the Mau Mau movement
in Nairobi. This caused a lot of tension between the radicals and the moderates.
  The activities of the radials increased when the British colonial secretary refused to meet the
KAU representatives, Mbiyu Koinange and Achieng’ Oneko who had a memorandum on
the land question.
 By 1951, several KAU branches were opened in Kisumu by Oneko, Maragoli by Johana
Adala, and Mombasa by Muinga Chokwe. They also held frequent rallies to revitalize the
party.
 In 1952 Jomo Kenyatta, Paul Ngei, Kaggia and Oneko held a rally in Nyeri which attracted
over 25,000 people. This event shocked the colonial government thus the party was banned.
 The government declared a state of emergency on October 20, 1952 following the murder of
chief waruhiu.All the national and district KAU leaders were arrested and detained because
of their connection with MAU MAU.
 The most prominent were Jomo Kenyatta, Achieng Oneko, Kungu Karumba, Fred Kubai,
Paul Ngei and Bildad Kaggia.
 Arrest of KAU leaders led to election of Walter Odede as acting president, Joseph Murumbi
acting secretary and Awori as treasurer.
 KAU continued to press for the release of their detained leaders.
 Oliver Lyttelton, the secretary of state for colonies came to Kenya during the state of
emergency. KAU presented to him a 24 point memorandum of grievances understood as the
major causes of the violence in Kenya, i.e.
 Denial of a voice of the Africans in politics.
 Detention of African leaders unlawfully
 Land alienation
 Unequal economic practices
 Release of Jomo Kenyatta and his KAU colleagues.
 They then engaged a British lawyer known as D.N Pritt to defend the Kapenguria six namely
Kenyatta, Ngei, Kung’u, Kaggia, Oneko and Kubai.
 On 9th March 1953 Walter Odede was arrested while Joseph Murumbi escaped to Bombay.
On 8th June 1953 KAU was finally banned.
 From the time kau was banned upto 1955, there were no political parties in Kenya.thus most
of the African interests and nationalist activities were voiced through trade unions.
Achievement of KAU
 It provided guidance and political support to Eliud Mathu the African representative to
the Legco.
 It laid down the foundation for the growth of KANU which ushered Kenyans into
political independence.
 Some of the members e.g. Fred Kubai and Bildad Kaggia were active as Mau Mau
fighters.
 It influenced the British colonial government to increase African representation in Legco.
 It opened up branches in various parts of the country to educate the Africans on the need
to unite against European domination.
 It published its own paper, Sauti ya Mwafrika to popularize its objectives throughout the
country.
 It supported trade unions
 It supported mau mau war of independence.Nairobi branch conducted oathing to its
members while other branches hels rallies to seek support of all Kenyans.
 It provided leadership to the nationalist struggle
  It organized rallies in most parts of the country to create awareness on the rights of the
Africans.
Problems facing the KAU.
 Lack of enough funds to support its programmes including rent payment.
 Poor inadequate leadership e.g. Kenyatta was the Party president and also principal
Githunguri T.T.C
 Ethnic divisions
 Threats from large communities like the Gikuyu who had dominated the party.
 Lack of political awareness by the Africans who lived in the urban areas.
 Poor means of communication channels to air their grievances to colonial government.
 Interference from the colonial government e.g. when they were forced to change the
name from KAU to KASU.
The MAU MAU rebellion.
 The maumau movement was an armed struggle by Africans in Kenya aginast the british.
 Its origin was in Central Kenya among the agikuyu.
 The movement was one of the strongest and longest armed anti-colonial struggles in
Africa with far-reaching consequences.
Causes of the Mau Mau uprising
 Land alienation. Many communities lost their lands. The Kikuyu were the most affected
due to their closeness to Nairobi. Africans were pushed to the reserves. Many of them
opted to settle as squatters in the Rift Valley. This led to bitterness among the Africans.
 The poor living and working conditions. The labourers on the settler farms lived in poor
houses, were fed on carbohydrates leading to malnutrition, and were severely punished at
the slightest mistake. In the urban areas they were pushed into slums, were not allowed to
have their families with them and their movements were restricted. This made African
women resort to prostitution as a survival strategy.
 Oppressive policies such as increased taxation, forced labour and low wages. The
introduction of the Kipande system too irritated the Africans for they felt discriminated
and humiliated.
 The colonial government had totally failed to make any constitutional reforms e.g.
Africans associations were banned and their leaders detained. This led to underground
movement activities (by KCA) which involved oathing as a measure of secrecy.
 Preservation of culture at whatever cost, especially the female circumcision. To prove
this, Africans at the Kijabe A.I.M forcefully circumcised an elderly white missionary
who later died due to heavy bleeding.
 Colonial brutality. The killing of Africans on flimsy excuses caused a lot of attention e.g.
on 5th September 1947; a number of Africans were massacred following a strike at the
Uplands Bacon Factory. The killers were not punished.
 Cruel evictions. Africans were mistreated in the Rift Valley on the European farms.
Eviction of Africans from the Olenguruone settlement scheme to the Arid Yatta region of
Machakos bred a lot of hostility. The squatters lost their houses, livestock and crops
during such evictions.
 Unemployment as African population continued to grow. The closure of the Karatina
vegetable factory provoked Africans who lost employment.
 Africans were given the worst education, health and social facilities and low wages. The
African adults were addressed as boys. This annoyed them.
  Conduct of police and chiefs. They were so brutal and many of the colonial chiefs
brutally forced the African workers to provide labour for public works for white farms.
 Disillusionment of ex-soldiers. When African ex-soldiers returned home they were
ignored as their counterparts from other races got land. This led to a lot of bitterness.
The course of the uprising
 The uprising got support from the unemployed Africans, many of whom were ex-soldiers
in the urban centres. Others were traders and the landless squatters in the rift valley.
 In Nairobi, its activities were co-ordinated by the central committee called muhimu. The
Muhimu committee administered oaths for two reasons:
 To ensure that the members remained loyal and honest therefore could keep the
secrets of the movement.
 To inspire courage and unite the members to one cause.
 Betrayal of the oaths led to instant death.
 The movement had headquarters in several places and fighting was mobilized at the
district level. The Nyandarua, Aberdares and Mt. Kenya forests were used as hideouts.
 The leaders of the movement included :
 Dedan Kimathi
 Waruhiu Itote
 Stanley Mathenge
 General Ndung’u Gicheru
 General Mwariama
 General Matenjagwo.
 The leaders had different armies in different areas such as the Aberdares, Nairobi,
Kiambu, Ngong’, Murang’a and Rift Valley. They knew how to use guns and they used
guerrilla warfare.
 During the war, the guerrilla fighters targeted European settlers, government officials,
government buildings, settler farms, Christian converts and all collaborators.
 They made their own guns, and robbed others from police stations or snatched them from
the Europeans.
 Hymn books in Kikuyu were used to spread Mau Mau ideas and to encourage peasants to
revolt.
 By 1952 the Mau Mau ideas had been embraced and most of the peasants boycotted the
soil conservation measures imposed on them.
 The killing of loyalists to the government like Tom Mbotela and Waruhiu Kung’u made
Sir Everlyn Baring declare a state of emergency followed by the arrest of Jomo Kenyatta,
Ramogi, Achieng’ Oneko, Fred Kubai, Bildad Kaggia, Kung’u Karumba and Paul Ngei
who were KAU leaders. They were jailed for seven years.
 Many Africans fled from the reserves and urban areas to go and join others in the forests.

Methods used by colonial government to discourage activities of Mau Mau movement

 During the war, the government moved scores of Kikuyu, Meru and Aembu communities
from Nairobi to detention centres and reserves in a bid to cut the fighters off from their
communities.
 Ditches were dug around the villages where they were detained so that they could not get
food or any equipment to the guerrillas.
  Fighters of Mau Mau were dealt with ruthlessly to discourage others from joining. Bodies
of those killed were displayed in villages.
 They also engaged spies among the Africans who reported on the movement of mau mau
fighters.
 Europeans got reinforcements and fighting equipments from Britain to assist.
 They arrested and executed leaders of Mau Mau e.g. Kimathi Dedan.
Women and children played a role in Mau Mau.
 They Supplied food and ammunition to the guerrillas.
 Supplied the fighters with vital information.
 The Asians also gave support by trafficking arms and ammunition to the fighters.
 Mau Mau movement was crushed by the superior military of the British.
 Fighting subsided in 1956 following the shooting and arrest of Field Marshall Dedan
Kimathi.
Factors that facilitated the Mau Mau movement (why it lasted for so long)
 Oathing helped to unite the fighters and sealed their commitment to the struggle.
 Fighters used the guerrilla tactics which made it difficult for the British to suppress the
rebellion.
 Civilian population supplied the fighters with food and equipment e.g. guns and
ammunition. They also gave them relevant information.
 Resourcefulness and courageousness of their leaders such as Deddan Kimathi and
Stanley Mathenge.
 The natural forests of Mt Kenya and the Aberdares ranges provided good hideout for the
fighters.
 Accessibility to swords, guns and ammunition. Some of them had homemade guns while
others were seized from the European settlers
 Military experience due to participation in World War II. The World War II soldiers
taught them fighting skills.
Problems that Mau Mau fighters faced
 They lacked transport and communication facilities.
 They died due to cold and other diseases that they were exposed to in the Aberdares.
 They were attacked by wild animals.
 They lacked proper fighting equipment.
 Suffered from anxiety due to the brutal retaliation by the British forces.
 Division arose among the fighters due to disagreements.
 Spies infiltrated the movement and exposed their military strategies.
 They lacked proper co-ordination due to the use of forest hideouts and mountainous
terrain by the guerrillas.
 Arrest of their leaders such as General China, and Field Marshal Dedan Kimathi

Results of the Mau Mau uprising

 It attracted the attention of British citizens and the international community to the crimes
that Kenyans were suffering from.
 The war depleted the resources of the colony and Britain.This opened doors of the British
governments to criticism by those who had always opposed colonisation.
 Kipande system was modified to a pure identity card
 It led to destruction of property. This included villages, houses, farms and other facilities.
  It changed the social life of Africans through the establishment of emergency villages
which were set up to alienate the civil society from the Mau Mau fighters.
 The Agikuyu, Aembu and Meru communities were removed from the capital Nairobi as
their jobs and occupations were taken by Africans from western region and the Rift
valley that were not associated with the uprising.
 It led to loss of many lives.It is estimated that 58 europeans and asianas,2000 kikuyu
civilians,1000 governments troops and 10000 freedom fighters died in the war.
 It led to the declaration of a state of emergency in 1952, hence curfews and other
restrictions became the order of the day among the Africans.
 It bred bitterness among the Kikuyu, Embu and Meru. The Gikuyu were divided into
government loyalists and Mau Mau supporters leading to suspicion.
 Many people were arrested and detained in detention camps where their rights were
grossly abused.
 The ban on fomation of political associations was lifted.Africans was allowed to form
political parties.
 It motivated Africans in the rest of the continent to fight for their own freedom from
colonialism.
 The colonial government realized that it made a mistake to ignore some of the grievances of
the Africans regarding land.
 It made some reforms which include:
 Sywnnerton Plan of 1954 which sparked off the resettlement of Africans in the
countryside.
 Lifting of the ban on all African political parties. In 1955, African political parties were
authorized to operate in all regions except central Kenya.
Kenya African National Union
 In March 1960 the former officials of KAU got together under the leadership of James
Gichuru and oginga and odinga worked towards establishing a new party
 On March 27 1960 a meeting was held in kiambu attended by 150 delegates from various
political organisations.
 In May 1960 another meeting was held which led to formation of Kenya African National
Union.
 Formation of political parties was allowed by the first Lancaster House Conference which
was attended by Ngala as chairman, Mboya as secretary and Daniel Arap Moi.
 The colonial government refused to register K.A.N.U with Kenyatta as the president. A
meeting in May 1960 led to
 James Gichuru being elected president
 Odinga as vice-president,
 Mboya as secretary general,
 Arthur Ochwada as assistant secretary general,
 Moi as treasure
 Ngala as assistant treasurer.
 Mwai Kibaki and Mboya helped in drawing up of constitution.
Objectives of K.A.N.U
 To fight for political independence for Africans in Kenya.
 To achieve national unity through a unitary national constitution.
 To create a society based on African socialism.
  To eradicate poverty, ignorance and diseases.
 To fight for the return of alienated African land.
 To fight for the release of all political detainees.
 To unite with other liberation movements in other countries in Africa in a bid to end
imperialism and colonialism in the continent.
 To encourage good neighbourliness in the East African region.
Role of KANU in the struggle for independence
 It mobilized Africans and united them in the struggle for independence.
 It provided political education to the Africans in Kenya.
 It took part in the constitutional talks in London in 1962 where the independence
constitution was formulated.
 It acted as a training ground for political leaders who took over leadership of the country
after independence.
Challenges that KANU faced
 Inadequate funds
 Undermining of small communities by the big communities i.e. Gikuyu and Luo who
were looked at with a lot of suspicion as having taken up all key leadership positions.
 People were dissatisfied with the way the leaders were running the affairs of the party.
 Rift within the leaders over party ideologies. Some were advocating for a unitary system
of government while others favoured a majimbo (federal) system. This led to a split
within the party. Some joined K.A.D.U and others A.P.P.
 Party elections were not held in a transparent manner.
 The release of Kenyatta boosted the party. He was viewed as an eloquent natural leader of
the Africans in Kenya, and also a political martyr. He made the party popular.
 On 1st June 1963 Jomo Kenyatta became the Prime Minister as Kenya achieved self-
government or Madaraka. The Queen of England remained the head of state.
Achievements of KANU.
 It uniting Kenyans in the independence struggle.KANU mobolised Kenyans countrywide
in demand for freedom.
 It educateAfricans on their political rights.KANU provide political education to Africans
which strengthened their zeal to fight for independence.
 It participate in the second Lancaster house conferences of 1962.KANU was instrumental
in the drafting of the independence constitution that was the main item of the agenda at
this conference.
 Putting pressure for the release of political detainees.KANU pushed the colonial
government to release Jomo Kenyatta and other political prisoners.
 It lead Kenyans to indpendence.KANU won the 1963 general elections and formed the
first independence government with Kenyatta as prime minister.
Kenya African Democratic Union (KADU).
 In June 1960, the leaders of some of the minority groups like the kalenjin, abaluhya,
Maasai and coastal communities met at Ngong.They decided to form the Kenya African
Democratic Union (KADU).
Officials
 Ronald Ngala
 Daniel Arap Moi
 Masinde Muliro
  Justis Ole Tipis
 KADU leaders favoured a federal kind of constitution which was different from KANU who
favoured unitay state.
 First elections were held in 1961,KANU won 19 seats and KADU 11end three seats went to
the smaller parties.
 KANU refused to form a government while Kenyatta was still detained. Ronald Ngala, the
president of KADU was asked to do so with the support of Michael Bundell’s New Kenya
Part (NKP).
 In August 1961, Kenyatta was realased together with those detained with him and elected to
the legco in 1962.
 During the 1963 multiparty elections, KADU was defeated again by KANU. KADU
became the official opposition party. In 1964, KADU dissolved itself and its members
joined KANU.
Objectives of KADU
 To safeguard the interests of the minority tribes.
 To push for a federal constitution.
 To organize and maintain a political democratic union in legco and the country.
 To demand for the release of political prisoners.
 To demand for constitutional reforms.
 To provide an inclusive that represented all areas in Kenya.
 To formulate domestic and international policies.
KADU operated for a few years and was able to achieve the following
 It united the smaller tribes such as Kalenjin, Abaluyia and Maasai.
 It mobilized Africans against the colonial domination.
 It contributed to the formulation of the independence constitution.
 It provided political education to Africans.
 It served as the opposition party and helped in ensuring checks on the KANU
government.
Problems faced by KADU
 Pressure from their rivals in KANU to decamp
 Wrangles between senior officials undermined its operations.
 Suspicions that certain ethnic groups were dominating the party
 Persistent lack of funds
 Illiteracy of the majority of its members
 Determination by the colonial government to manipulate the party.

African Peoples Party (A.P.P)

 It was founded by Paul Ngei, a leader of both KAU and Mau Mau. Ngei formed the party
due to the divisions in KANU and KADU that made the Somalis and coastal Arabs
threaten to move from the country. He too feared for the Akamba, hence he formed
A.P.P.
 However during the 1963 elections KANU won by a landslide followed by KADU, APP
and other minority parties got only 8 seats.
 In 1964 Kenya became a republic and both APP and KADU decamped from the
opposition to join KANU.
  Paul ngei was given a ministerial post by Kenyatta.
The Trade Union Movement
 A trade union is an association of workers whose main purpose is to improve the welfare
of the members through collective bargaining.
 The unions worked hand in hand with political parties to achieve political independence
for Kenya.
Demands of the trade unions.
 They were against low wages hence demanded for higher wages
 Equal job opportunities for all races.
 Improved housing and medical care for workers.
 Abolition of repressive and discriminatory labour laws.
 They were against the Kipande system
 They demanded the release of arrested and detained trade unionists
 They were against forced labour
 They problem of restricted movement of workers
 They were against racial discrimination in places of work.
 They demand for a reduction in working hours.
Growth of the trade union movement.
 Indians were firs to form trade unions i.e. the Indian trade union in 1914.
 Up to 1914 there existed no African trade union because:
 Africans were illiterate lacked the knowledge to run workers unions.
 The migrant labour systems discouraged them from joining such unions.
 The colonial government fought attempts by Africans to form workers organizations.
 In 1922 the Asian artisans in the railway department formed the Railways Artisans Union,
Soon their leaders were sacked and the union was closed down.
 In the 1930s, the artisans of Mombasa who included masons and labourers held a mass
meeting and establish a trade union named Trade Union Committee of Mombasa. This was
after Africans got provoked with a tragic accident in which some road constructors died but
were not compensated. R.M Shar was appointed the president of the Union.
 Indians played a very important role in that they had more experience with workers
organizations.
 In 1934 the Indian trade Union became the Kenya Indian Labour Trade Union (K.I.L.T.U) to
reflect the fact that it drew members from across the whole nation.
 In 1935, one of the trade unionist Makhan Singh advised the union to accept membership
from all races. They then changed the name to the Labour Trade Union of Kenya, then to
Labour Trade Union of East Africa (L.T.U.E.A)
 All this led to major strikes in Nairobi and Mombasa.
The African workers federation.
 On 14th January 1947, the striking workers in Mombasa formed the African Workers
Union.The strike paralyzed work in offices, banks, hotels, docks and railways.
 It was on this day that AWU was born with
 Mohammed Kibwana as President
 Mwangi Macharia as Secretary
 Mbaruk Kenze as treasurer
 Chege Kibachia as executive Officer
Causes of the 1947 African workers strike in Mombasa.
  There was unequal payment of salaries and wages.
 There were Poor working conditions.
 There was high rate of inflation.
 There was disrespect of African workers.
 A committee of 12 members was also appointed to assist the elected officials.
 On January 21st 1947 the union sent a letter to the East African Standard Newspaper in which
it outlined the workers grievances that led to the strike. These were
 A salary increase due to the high cost of living
 Implementation of the policy of equal pay for equal workers regardless of race.
 Respect for African workers whereas they were employed
 Payment of enough allowances to cater for African wives and children
 Elimination of deliberate strategies applied by employees to keep Africans in their places
of work all the time.
 During the strike, the Mombasa D.C invited the newly appointed member to the Legco, Eliud
Mathu to talk to the workers. He Suggested a change of the name from AWU to African
Workers Federation (AWF)
 He convinced the workers to return to work on 25th January 1947.
Officials of AWF were:
 Chege kibachia-president.
 Hilton mwandala-secretary.
 James muchendu-organising secretary.
Achievements of A.W.F
 It mobilized Africans from various communities to come together and fight for better
wages.
 It educated Africans on their rights.
 Introduced the idea of collective bargaining among workers.
 It united workers from different communities to fight for their rights
 It fought for better living and working conditions
 It advocated for better allowances for African workers, wives and children.
 It made the colonial government change its attitude towards labour unions and it began to
give much attention to workers grievances.
 It exposed the African grievances to the international community.
Kenya Federation of Labour
 After the declaration of a state of emergency in 1952, the government took drastic measures
against Africans. This involved:-
 Mass deportation
 Detentions
 Banning of all political activities
 Revival of forced labour
 This led to the loss of members for the unions and the membership dropped from 40,000 in
1952 to 14,000 in 1956.
 A trade union ordinance was enacted in 1952 which allowed formation of unions. Various
small African trade unions united to form the Kenya Federation of Registered Trade Unions
(K.F.R.T.U). The small unions included
 Kenya local Government Workers Union led by Tom Mboya
 Domestic and Hotel Workers Union
  East Africa Federation of Building and Construction Workers Union.
 The officials of K.F.R.T.U were
 Mwichigi Karanja as president
 Aggrey Minya as secretary general.
 S. Ondiege
 Elkana Okusimba
 Silas Okeya
 David Jomo
 S. Osore
 James Wainaina
 Dishon Sambili.
K.F.R.T.U did the following during the time of emergency
 Fought for the rights of the workers and better living conditions.
 Campaigned against low wages.
 Campaigned against poor conditions of the workers
 Campaigned against the detention of trade union leaders.
 Protested against the forceful evacuation of the Ameru, Aembu and Agikuyu from
Nairobi
 By 1955 it protested against the increased prices of tea and bread.
 It protested against continuation of the state of emergency.
 In 1955 K.F.R.T.U changed its name to the Kenya Federation of Labour (K.F.L).
 The officials of KFL were:
 David Njomo as president
 Stephen Obwaka as vice-president
 Tom Mboya as secretary general
 G.W Owuor as assistant General Secretary
 Daniel Ng’ethe as treasurer
 John Opiyo as assistant Treasurer
 Tom Mboya travelled widely and established links between K.F.L and other international
trade unions. As a result, K.F.L was affiliated with the International Confederation of Free
Trade Unions (I.C.F.T.U) which helped to check the excesses of the colonial government.
This alarmed the government and the white settlers.
Achievements of the KFL.
 It championed African grievances at the time when political parties were banned.
 It secured international support for the cause of African nationalism.
 It educated Africans on their rights.
 It helped to improve the living and working conditions of African workers e.g. in 1956 it
secured a salary increase of 68% for the workers.
 It served as a training ground for African nationalist e.g. Tom Mboya and Martin
Shikuku.
Methods used by trade unions to demand for their rights.
 Strikes
 Boycotts.
 Go slows / sit-ins.
 Demonstrations.
 Petitions / memoranda
Why Trade Unions were more active in Urban than rural
 More money and wage labour was in towns.
 Easy mobilization since they were living in large numbers.
 Leadership by educated in towns
 Mass media facilities in towns’ hence more political awareness
 Most economic, social and political injustices were suffered by town dwellers.
 Town dwellers were mixed up hence no language or cultural barriers.
 Rural labour was scattered unlike in towns where it was concentrated.
The Role of Trade Unions in the struggle for independence
 They contributed to the improvement of workers and working conditions. This was done
through strikes, go-slows, sit-ins and therefore reviewed the terms of the workers.
 They introduced the concept of collective bargaining i.e. workers raised their complains
as a group rather than as individuals. This helped to reduce victimization.
 They kept the spirit of African nationalism alive when political parties were banned.
 Trade unions secured international support for the cause of African nationalism.
 They promoted regional co-operation i.e. in East Africa, they worked together for the
good of the workers in the region.
 They promoted co-operation between employers, employees and the government through
consultation. This reduced industrial disputes.
 Trade unions provided relevant training ground for potential nationalist leaders, e.g.
Mboya Tom
 They pressed for release of political leaders such as Harry Thuku
 Trade Unions contributed money to political parties that struggled for independence.
 Trade unions educated and enlighted people on their political rights.
Problems faced by Trade Unions
 Harassment by white settlers and colonial government.
 Ignorance of the people on the role of trade unions and hence did not support it.
 They lacked trained personnel with knowledge of trade unionism.
 It had insufficient funds to run its activities.
 Choice of leaders which was based on ethnic consideration rather than competence
 Constant wrangling among the leaders of the trade unions.
 To date, trade unions continue to play an important role in fighting for the welfare of
workers. Examples of trade unions are Kenya National Union of Teachers and C.O.T.U
Role of women in the struggle for independence
 Women played a significant role in the struggle for independence in Kenya.
 Beginning from colonisation, women played a vital role in opposing colonisation.
 While not involved in most direct millitary operations, women helped to sustain the
strugglr for independence in their respective societies.
 Examples of women who participate in the struggle of independence.
 Prophetess Moraa in Kitutu.
 Syotume WA Kithuke of Ukambani used Kilume dance.
 Mekatilili WA Menza led the Agiriama 1913.
 Mary Muthoni fought for release of Harry Thuku- 1922.
Contribution of women in the struggle for independence.
 They took part in the armed resistance where some of them were leaders e.g. Marshall
Muthoni.
  They raised funds for supporting political activities.
 They encourage men to continue fighting for african freedom by exhibiting militant
approach against european misrule.for instances,when harry thuku was arrested,mary
nyanjiru physically attacked the arresting police officer
 They provided moral support to the freedom fighters to go on with the fight.
 They demanded for the release of the arrested freedom fighters like Harry Thuku.
 They supplied food to the freedom fighters in their hideouts.
 They supplied weapons and intelligents to freedom fighters.for example, Wambui Otieno
would smuggle arms to fighters in the cover of the Islamic dress.
 They administered oaths of secrecy.
 They kept their homes intact as men continued with the struggle or served jail terms.
 They endured pain and suffering inflicted by the colonial government for the sake of
liberation
 Women played roles in conference meetings, discussing the granting of independence,
for instances, Priscilla Abwao was among those who attended the Lancaster house
conference meeting on independence constitution in 1990.
 Kenya African women formed a women organisation the maendeleo ya wanawake led by
jael mbogo, phoebe asiyo and ruth habwe which worked on the framework that supported
uhuru and independence of women and Kenya.
Role of Women in the Mau Mau movement
The following are some of the contributions of women to the freedom movement.
 They took part in armed resistance and some of them proved to be better soldiers than the
men. Such included Marshall Muthoni from Nyeri, Nduta WA Kore, Elizabeth Gachika
and Wambui Wagarama.
 The Agikuyu, Aembu and Ameru community joined the fighters in the forests. The
women coordinated the rural networks.
 They provided the fighters with food, medicine, guns and ammunition, clothing and
shoes. The elderly women hid their supplies of guns and ammunition in the loins and the
policemen felt ashamed to strip them naked while looking for the guns.
 They acted as spies e.g. some women befriended the home guards and gathered useful
information about the colonial forces.
 They composed songs to mobilize support for the Mau Mau and also to ridicule the home
guards and other colonial agents. The songs inspired warriors to fight on.
 They mobilized men and women to join the liberation by using ridicule for those who
resisted joining the movement.
 They were the chief oathing administers and the oath bound the members to secrecy.
 They were raped and subjected to forced labour and physical torture by the colonial officers
in search of vital information but they still refused to betray the fighters, despite the inhuman
treatment which they got.
 Over 8,000 women from the Agikuyu, Ameru and Aembu were detained at Kamiti. Others
were put in concentration camps
 More women lived in villages encircled with barbed wire and ditches. They were subjected
to curfew and starvation though they were still monitored by the colonial government so as
not to give information to the Mau Mau.
 After Mau Mau, a good number of women were recognized, such as Jemimah Gechaga who
was the first woman nominated to Legco, Priscillah Abwao was the first woman at the First
 Lancaster House conference 1960, and Grace Onyango became the first mayor of Kisumu
after independence.
Constitiuonal changes leading to independence in Kenya.
Factors that hasten decolonization in Africa
 The experiences of the ex-soldiers encouraged them to demand for more political rights.
 The Pan-African movement pressurized the colonial government to grant political
independence to their subjects
 Colonial powers began to realize that colonies were becoming expensive due to the
constant revolts e.g. in Britain and France, the citizens were reluctant to finance colonial
empires.
 The rise of the labour party in Britain which favoured decolonisation.
 The UN signing of the Atlantic Charter which declared the right of the colonised people
to self determination.
African Representation to the Legco (Eliud Mathu)
 When Sir Philip Mitchell was appointed governor of Kenya in 1944, he embarked on a
programme of political reforms whose ultimate objective was to build a multi-racial
political representation in the governance of Kenya.
 At the same time, there was a lot of pressure demanding constitutional reforms by the
African nationalists.
 In 1944 first African, Eliud Mathu was nominated to legilsative council to represent
Africans interest.
 In 1946 second African, B.A.Ohanga was nominated to the legislative council.
 In 1948 number of africans in legislative council rose to four.Thus the composition of
legislative council in 1948 was as follow 11 Europeans and 5 Asians elected on common
roll ,four african twoArabs nominated by the governor.
 Africans began to be apointed into the executives.
Lyttleton Constitution
In 1954 Oliver Lyttelton, the British colonial Secretary visited Kenya and made proposals for the
following constitutional reforms.
 The creation of a multi-racial society where all races would share equal power.
 A multi-racial council of ministers to replace Governor’s executive council. The
unofficial members of the new council would now include 1 African, 2 Asians and 3
Europeans. Africans and Asians would be represented by members with executive power
over their ministers. The first African unofficial member to be appointed was B.A.
Ohanga who became minister for community development and African Affairs in 1954.
 Each race should elect its representatives to the Legco. Elected members to the Legco
should be 29. Nominated members should be 30. This led to the registration of 127,000
Africans as voters.
 The Africans were allowed to form local district based political organizations. This led to
the formation of
 The Nairobi Peoples Convention Party led by Mboya
 Taita African Democratic Union led by D. Mwanyumba
 Abagusii Association led by John Kebaso
 The Kenya National Congress led by Argwings Kodhek
 The Maasai Front led by John Keen.
 In March 1957 the first African elections to the Legco were held. The winners were
  Tom Mboya for Nairobi
 Masinde Muliro for N. Nyanza
 Oginga Odinga for Central Nyanza
 Lawrence Ogunda for S. Nyanza
 Ronald Ngala for Coast
 Daniel Arap Moi for Rift Valley
 Bernard Mate for Central
 James Muimi for Ukambani
 After the elections, the elected African members of the Legco formed an organization
known as African Elected Members Organisation (A.E.M.O) with Jaramogi Odinga as
Chairman and Tom Mboya as secretary.
Demands of AEMO
 Equal representation in the Legco
 Every African 21 years and above be allowed to vote
 Registration of voters be done on a common roll
 An end to the state of emergency
 Two Africans in the council opposed the Lyttelton constitution because it strengthened the
position of the Europeans.
 The Europeans led by Captain Briggs objected the involvement of Africans and Asians in the
political management of the economy.
Role of African elected members of parliament in the struggle for independence
 Pressurised for independence
 Made known the African grievances in National forumns.
 Sort for release of imprisoned and detained missionaries.
 Demanded for greater political rights for Africans.
 Made Kenyatta popular as a nationalist hero.
 Participated in the formulation of independent constitutent.
 Enlightened African masses on the liberation struggling
 Formed nationalist political parties’ e.g KANU and KADU which spearheaded for
country into independence.
The Lenox Boyd Constitution 1957
 Oliver Lyttelton was succeeded by Lennox-Boyd as secretary of state for colonies in
1957.
 On his visit to Kenya he made proposals for further constitutional changes. These were
 African seats in Legco to be increased by six bringing the total representation to
14 which was same as that of the Europeans
 He proposed special membership in the Legco with four members from each race
 Suggested that the number of African ministers be doubled.
 In response to lennox-boyd’s recommendation, the government created six more African
constituencies.
 Elections were held in March 1958, increasing the number of African elected members in
the legco to 14.
 The AEMO opposed the idea of the specially elected members but they were appointed
without their participation.
 The second African minister, Musa A Malemba was appointed as minister for housing in
1958.
Lancaster house conference.
 By 1958, the colonial government had declared it’s commitment to remove racial barriers
and grant political independence of Africans.
 This however had opened concern, as both the radical Europeans and AEMO were
offered to multi-racialism.
 The Lancaster house conferences were therefore conviened to ion out these differences.
 By 1959 the colonial government was committed to remove all racial barriers and grant
political independence to Africans. The Lancaster house conferences were convened to
iron out these differences whereby there was an open opposition between the radical
Europeans and AEMO who were opposed to multi-racialism.
The first Lancaster House Conference (1960)
 This meeting was convened in London at the Lancaster house, the Headquarter of the
British colonial office in January 1960.
 It was convened by the secretary of state for colonies Sir Ian MacLeod. All members of
the Legco attended the conference. They were led by Ronald Ngala as chairman and Tom
Mboya as secretary.
The Africans demanded for
 A vote on the common roll based on one man one vote.
 A majority in the proposed council of ministers
The following decisions were reached
 12 elective seats in the Legco would remain intact.
 There were to be 33 seats in the Legco vied for on a common roll
 20 seats would be reserved 10 for European 8 for Asians.
 The council of ministers was to be altered to bring in 4 Africans, 3 Europeans and 1
Asian.
 It authorized the formation of countrywide political parties for Africans. This led to the
formation of KANU and KADU.
 This conference was an important milestone in African political development in Kenya. In
this, the Europeans lost their bid to dominate in Kenya. Some began to leave the country.
 On the other hand, Africans felt that it failed to give them a responsible government though 4
of the elected African members of the Legco accepted ministerial positions reserved for
Africans
 Ronald Ngala Minister for Labour, Social Security and Adult education
 Julius Gikonyo Kiano, minister for Commerce and Industry
 Musa Amalemba, Minister for housing, common services, probation and Approved
schools.
 James Nzau Muimi, minister for health and Welfare.
 Among the African communities, new alliances were formed due to the high hopes of
independence
 Kalenjin Political Alliance led by Taita Arap Towett
 Coast African Political Union led by Ronald Ngala
 Kenya African Peoples Party led by Masinde Muliro
 These political groups were formed due to the fear of political domination by the larger
ethnic groups e.g. the Luo and the Agikuyu.
 In 1960 more members of the Legco joined KANU and KADU.
 When the first general elections were held in 1961 KANU beat KADU and KANU gave the
release of Jomo Kenyatta as their condition for agreeing to form a government. Ronald Ngala
was requested by the colonial government to form the government with KADU together with
other European and Asian members.
 When Kenyatta was released, Kariuki Njiiri offered him his Murang’a constituency seat
therefore enabling him to join the Legco.
The second Lancaster house conference (1962).
Convened in Lancaster house London between February and April 1962, presided over by
Regional Maulding, the then colonial secretary.
Its objectives.
 Work out the final steps to self governance.
 Draft independence.
 Set out the difference between KANU and KADU.
 The KANU delegation was led by Jomo Kenyatta and advocated for a strong unitary
government while KADU was led by Ronald Ngala favoured (majimbo) system of
government.
 Second Lancaster house conferences settled for independence constitution.
Features of independent constitution.
 A federal government with 6 regions each retaining Internal Katiba.
 The central government was to consist of a two-chamber national assembly, namely the
senate and the House of Representatives.
 A governor-general as head of state and commandr - in – chief of the armed forces.
 The prime minister and the cabinet would be formed from the Party with majority seats.
 The senate was to have 41 members, one from every district.
 The House of Representatives to have 117 members with 12 specially elected members
and attorney general.
 Each province was to have an assembly for elected members.
 Spelt out the rights and obligation of citizen.
 Spelt out the poweres and responsibilities of the central government.
 In May 1963 elections, KANU won 73 seats while KADU won 31 and APP won 8 seats.
 Jomo Kenyatta then became the Prime Minster on 1st June 1963 (Madaraka day). This meant
that Kenyatta controlled only the internal affairs and defense dockets were still under the
control of the British government.
 On 12th December Kenya attained full independence meaning that Kenya could now run all
her internal and external affairs. Kenyatta was the Prime Minister while the Queen of
England remained the head of state.
 On 12th December 1964 Kenya was declared a republic with Kenyatta as an executive
president. In this the Queen of England ceased to be head of state.
RISE OF AFRICAN NATIONALISM
 Nationalism comes from the word nation. A nation is made up of people who share
cultural and social background and have in the common ancenstry in historical terms.
 Nationalism gives individuals a sence of belonging to a given state or country
 It’s defined as a statement based on common cultural charactersitcs that binds people
together as one nation.
 Nationalism is defined as the desire for independence and self-determination among a
group of people.
Factors that promoted African nationalism
Internal factors.
 Racial segregation: colonial givernment enacted laws that discriminated against the
Africans because of their skin.This affected Africans socially, polticially and
economically.This made the Africans to fight the colonialists.
 Colonial labour laws: Africans were subjected to harsh labour conditions.Working
condition for africans were too hostile and were underpaid with an aim of keeping them
working.This led to bitterness among africans.
 Over-taxation: colonial government introduced various forms of taxes to be paid by the
Africans.This taxes overburdened Africans.
 Land alienation: Colonial government introduced land policy that was meant to
disadvantages the Africans, resultng into many of being squatters on their land. Others
were pushed to reserves which were not productiove.These measures by the colonial
government increases bitterness among Africans.
  Western education: Africans who had received missionary education become exposed to
the ideas of the free world.They began to question the legitimacy of colonialisation and
as a result spearheaded nationalism movements and the struggle for independence.
 Exploitation.Europeans had the right to exploit minerals throughout colonial africa.They
also owned the few industries set up in the colonies.Africans were excluded from the
management and ownership,they were to provide all needed labour which was not paid
for adequately.
External factors
 Second World War.Africans was recruited to fight in the war.During the war they
interacted with people from other parts of the world.They learned the ideas of
liberty,equality and democracy.They also learned that europeans were not superior race
as all races died when exposed to gunfire.When they returned they spearheaded liberation
struggle in their countries.
 Leninist-marxist influence.There was a communist revolution in Russia in 1917.This
revolution led to growth of Marxist ideas which condemned colonialism as part of
capitalism exploitation.This encouraged African nationalists.
 Pan-africanism.This was a movement of Africans in the diaspora.Most of them lived in
Europe and America.It condemned colonial injustices.Its activities encouraged
nationalists in Africa.
 The United Nations.After World War II U.N.O was formed with the aim of preserving
international peace and security. It declares colonialism as illegal and against human
rights.
 Influence of the USA.After the 2nd world war,the USA emerged as a super power.Britain
and France economies had suffered under the war and they needed USA support to
rebuld.USA offered to help with reconstruction under the marshall plan but on condition
that they decolonise.
 Rise of the labour party in Britain.The labour came to power in Britain after the second
world war.It came up with policies which supported decolonisation.
 Independence of India and pakistan.In 1947 India and Pakistan were granted
independence.Their independence inspired African nationalists to fight for independence
in their own countries.
Role played by ex-soldiers in the growth of African nationalism.
 They applied the millitary skills which they had acquired to fight the colonialist.
 They trained African fighters in millitary fighting skills.
 They joined nationalistic movements.
 They mobolized the people to fight colonialists.
 They serviced the weapons used by the nationalists.
GHANA
 Ghana was British colony.
 Before Ghana acquired independence, she was known as Gold Coast. They then named it
the Gold Coast with reference to the vast gold deposits in the area. From the 15th century,
a lot of gold was mined and sent to Portugal
 Nationalism which was aimed at ending British rule in Ghana started after the second
world war.Before they were was a mild form of nationalism whose demands were for
constitutional reforms but not for total overthrow of the colonial system.
Factors for growtht of nationalism in Ghana
  Existence of a large group of young people with elementary education who were
unemployed and therefore frustrated. They flocked towns and were easily influenced by
the upcoming political parties.
 The decision by the British to put up only one university only for the whole of West
Africa at Ibadan, Nigeria instead of Ghana caused a lot of bitterness among the Africans.
 The charismatic leadership provided by kwame nkurumah united the people.
 Cutting of cocoa trees.Africans were not happy when they were forced to cut down their
cocoa trees due to outbreak of swollen shoot diseases.
 Discrimination in trade.Africans was denied import and export licence in favour of the
whites.This discontent resulted in riots.
 Exploitation of local resources.The British continued to exploit the incomes from
Ghanian mineral and agricultural produce, this makes people bitter.
 Inadequate Africans reprentatives in legco caused discontent among the Ghanians.
 Loss of power by the traditional African chiefs created discontent against the colonial
government.
 Land alienation.
The United Gold Coast Convention.
 The first party was National League of Gold Coast started by Akofu Addo in 1941.
 Many more political parties with similar aim were formed.
 In 1947 several parties merged together to form United Gold Coast convention (UGCC).
 Leaders of UGCC were educated men and businessmen.
 Officials were:
 George Grant-chairman.
 Kwame Nkurumah-secretary-general.
 Activities of UGCC were acelerated by the riots and looting of February 1948.
 Riots were sparked by the British solders that killed people who were marching to the
governors’ castle to present a petition since their pension’s wave quite insufficient due to
high inflation.
 People expressed their hunger by looting Europeans shops, which resulted in total civil
chaos.
 This looting and hopelessness of the government strengthen UGCC as more people
joined the party and its leaders become national heroes.
 Leaders demanded probe to establish the cause of disturbances.The government
responded by setting up the Andrew Alken Watson commission.
 Commission submitted its report in June 1948 and it conclude that the disturbances were
caused by social, political and economic conditions.
Recommendation of the Watson commission.
 It recommended a new constitution to cater for people’s interest.
 It recommended that black people should be given more say in the running of the
country.
 It recommended that local government should be reorganised.
 It recommended that education development should be greatly accelerated.
 British government responds to recommendation by appointing a committee to be chaired
by J.H Coussey to prepare new constitution for the country.
 Kwame Nkurumah was not included in the commission.
 Rift developed between Nkurumah and other UGCC leaders because of radicalism.
Convention Peoples Party.
 In 1949, Kwame Nkrumah formed Convention People’s Party after moving out of
UGCC.
 He was well educated person and good orator.His ideas appealed to the young people
who joined his party in thousand.
 Coussey committee made some constitutional changes which inlude:
 It provided for a semi-responsible government: an executive council of three ex-
officials and eight representatives ministers and nationally elected assembly.
 Recommendations created the basis for the 1951 general elections.Nkurumah’s party
swept the pools by winning nearly all the seats.He was allowed by the governor Arden
Clarke,to form a government with him as the prime minister.
 1954 Gold Coast attained full internal self-government under CPP.
 CPP won election held on 6th march 1957, the country attained political independence
under CPP and Kwame became first Prime minister and changed countries name from
Gold Coast to Ghana.
Role played by the CPP in the struggle for independence in Ghana.
 It demanded that voting rights to be extended to all people.
 It mobolized people to oppose colonial rule.
 It advocated for a unitary government.
 It formed the first African government after independence and Nkrumah rule was marked
by economic, social and political developments e.g. construction of new transport
infrastructure, better prices for cocoa, provision of free primary education etc.

Methods used by Ghananian Natioanalist in their struggle for independence.

 They held public rallies to mobolise the masses to articulate their grevancies.
 They used trade unions in their struggle for independence.
 They mobolised protests and demonstrations against colonial rule.
 They wrote publications and various forms of literature whose editorial objectives were
to voice and popularise the African course.For example, Nkurumah used the Accra
evening news to articulate African grievances.
 They used international forums, For example, Nkurumah made known the plight of
Africans at the 5th pan-african congress held at Manchester, London in 1945.
 They participated in constitutional negotiations, For example, the burns and coussey
constitutional negotiations.
Problems faced by Ghanian nationalism.
 Disunity among Africans where African chiefs clashed with the political elites who were
spearheading nationalism.
 Rivalrly among political parties e.g CPP and UGCC.
 Arrest and imprisonment of African Nationalist.
 Lack of adequate funds to finance nationalist activities.
 Brutal killing of Africans.
 Poor means of transport and communication
 Leadership wrangles – Nkrumah went out of UGCC.
Role played by Kwame, CPP for struggle for independence.
 He formed a political party, the CPP which fought for the independence of Gold Coast.
  He wrote a newspaper, the Accra evening news which articulated the demands of the
people of Ghana.
 He held rallies in which he mobolised the ghanian people towards the struggle for
independence.
 He organised industrial boycotts, for example, in 1950 and called on people to boycott
European goods.
 His arrest and detention in 1950 turned international attention to the plight of the Africans
in Ghana.
 He attended international conference where he highlighted the causes of the gold coast
independence.
 He attended constitutional negotiations which led to Ghana’s independence.
Reasons why Ghana achieved independence earlir than other African countries.
 Rapid economic and social changes which were caused by the extensive cultivation of
cocoa.
 Large group of educated elites spearhead decolonization. Kwame populist leadershio
unity required for nationalism in Ghana.
 He participated in the Pan-African Manchester conference of 1945 that resolved that all
countires have a right to self – determination.
 Ghana was comparatively a small country in size.It was also well served with a good
transport and communication system. Therefore made the movement of information from
one area to another faster and effectiveness.
 Presence of a few European settlers in the country compared to other countries like South
Africa. These made the struggle for independence not to be bloody or have any
complication.
How the attainment of Ghana independenc contributed to liberation of other African
countries.
 Convened two Pan-African meetings in Accra which paved the way for a series of pan-
African conferences which led to the formation of O.A.U in 1963.
 Nkurumah supported liberation movements against colonial rule both morally and
materially e.g. in Algeria he gave them grants and in Guinea he funded the nationalists.
 Nkurumah supported other African states whenever they faced political threats from their
colonial masters e.g. Patrice Lumumba in the Democratic Republic of Congo
NATIONALISM IN MOZAMBIQUE
 Mozambique was a portugues colony.
 In 1951 the government of Portugal declared Mozambique its colony and took over
adminstration from Portuguese companies until 1975.
 The headquarter of colonial Mozambique was Maputo, which was by then referred to as
Lourenco Marques.
Reasons for slow decolonisation of Mozambique.
 Portugal was a poor European country.It relied on colonies to sustain her economy.she
was therefore reluctant to lose her hold on Mozambique.
 Many western multi-national companies had invested in Mozambique in mines and
plantations.They was not willing to risk their investment by granting to Mozambique.
 There was large number of white settlers in Mozambique as a result they opposed to the
granting of independence to the colony.
  Mozambique supplied electricity to South Africa from the cabora bassa dam.South Africa
was an important source of raw materials to western countries as a result they
discouraged decolinization in Mozambique.
 Portugal enacted strict labour laws in Mozambique.African workers were denied the right
to form trade unions and go on strike.This made them to accept low pay and poor
working conditions without questions.
 Mozambique was very large in size combined with strict and vigorous censorship by
security forces,as a result it was impossible for a nationalist mass movement to emerge.
 There was an authoritarian government in Portugal which did not accommodate ideas of
freedom or independence in the colonies.
 There were few educated Africans in Mozambique to lead the liberation struggle.This
was because of the limited educational facilities for Africans in the colony.
 There was lack of unity among the Africans in mozambique.This was caused by
restriction of movement of Africans and strict press censorship.
Factors for the growth of Nationalism in Mozambique.
 Inadequate representation.Africans were under-represented in parliament in Lisbon.Only
few educated Africans were allowed tovote.This made africans to rise up against
portuguese rule.
 Racial segregations.Africans were discriminated based on their colour.This happened in
education, employment and residential areas.
 Low pay and poor working condition.Africans were paid low wages.They were also
subjected to poor working conditions.For example, they worked for long hours.This led
to resentment.
 Colonial brutality.Africans were subjected to harrassment such as police surveillance,
arrests and flogging.This made them to rebel against the portuguese.
 Loss of power by traditional chiefs.The Portuguese administrators had no regard for
traditional chiefs.They arbitrarily replaced them whenever they wanted.This led to
discontment.
 Land alienation.Large tracts of African land were alienated for white settlement.africans
were moved into unproductive reserves.this created bitterness.
 Taxation.Africans were subjected to heavy taxation which was often collected with
brutality.This made them to rise up against the Portuguese.
 Undermining of African culture.The Portuguese settlers disrepected African culture.For
example, they committed adultery with African women.
 Forced labour.The Portuguese established large population and set up mines.africans
were forced to provide labour.This made them bitter.
 Independence of other African countries.Many Africans countries in the region like
Tanzania, Rwanda and Democratic Republic of Congo were granted independence.This
inspired the people of Mozambique to fight for their own independence.
Front for the Liberation of Mozambique.
 Mozambique war of independence began in 1964 after formation of the Front for the
Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO)
 Frelimo was formed in 1962 by a coalition of forces opposed to Portuguese rule, living in
exile in East and Central Africa.
 Its leaders Eduardo Chivambo mondlane was born in 1920.He had lived and worked in
the USA as a lecture in Syracuse university.He also worked for United Nations
 department of trusteship as a researcher officer.In 1962 he resign as a lecturer and joined
Frelimo in 1962.
 Officers for the liberation army were trained in Algeria while querilla camps were set up
in Bagamoyo, Tanzania.The war began in 1964.
 Portuguese had knowledge that Frelimo was operating from Tanzania.They moved troops
to the boarder with Tanzania in an attempt to prevent querilla fighters from crossing the
boader but instead Frelimo opened full-scale people’s war against Portuguese.
 The war broke out at once in four provinces which undermined Portuguese defence
throught out the country that is from Niassa, Cabo delado in the North-East to Zambesi
and tete in the north-east.
 Frelimo consolidated its position in the North-East and opened new fronts in the north-
west.
Reasons why frelimo succeeded in its armed struggle against Portuguese.
 It had a large number of fighters.It kept on increasing its fighters who outnumbered the
Portuguese soldiers.
 Frelimo used querilla tactics.Areas such as Tete; Niassa and Cabo Delgado were suitable
for querilla warfare because of their forest vegetation unsuitable for armed vehicle and
processions of the Portuguese bombers.
 Frelimo got support from the local support.They gave logistical support to the fighters by
providing information about whereaabouts of the Portuguese army.
 The movements had adequate food which they cultivated.
 Frelimo got supports from communist countries of Eastern bloc.African countries like
Tanzania also gave the movement millitary aid alongside giving it international
recognition.
 Organisation of African Unity united independent African countries against Portuguese
rule in Mozambique.
 In liberated zones which were areas under Frelimo control, government was set up which
was geared towards people needs and goals.This gave the local reason to fight on the side
of the movement
 They incorporated women who mobilized Africans in the country.
 Ethnicity was overcome in the movement by the free mingling of people from different
areas.The people fought in the same units as one.
 Frelimo also achieved its success because it was democratic open movement.People were
allowed to air their views freely and elections were held for party official.
 Frelimo success was also boosted by the coup in Lisbon carried out by officers who were
not in support of colonial wars.
 The Frelimo tactic of attacking the Portuguese at different points at the same time forced
the Portuguese to fight on different fronts.
Methods used by Nationalist in Mozambique to struggle for independence.
 Use of mass media.Nationalist wrote articles to the newspapers expressing their
grievances.
 Formation of political association’s e.g Frelimo (font for liberation of Mozambique).
 Use of guerilla movement.
 Government support from other countries like Tanganyika, Russia and China.
 Use of international organization e.g OAU.
Challenges faced by Frelimo in the liberation struggle.
  Severe shortage of food and clothes in liberated areas, which made peasants to migrate
and withdraw their support for the movement.But as from 1966 the worst shortage had
been overcome with re-organisation in agriculture.
 The Portuguese had strict laws which outlawed political movements.These forced
Frelimo to operate from largely outside Mozambique.
 Ideological diffrences which led to the formation of rival liberation movement such
COREMO.
 Arrest, detentions and killings by the Portuguese government.
 Frelimo was denied western aid in spite of mondlanes request.This made frelimo turn to
the Russians, Yugoslavia and China.
 The attitude of the Catholic Church was hostile towards Frelimo.The church supported
colonial Portugal and termed frelimo group as terrorists.Mozambicans who belonged to
the Catholic Church and supported frelimo were threatened with ex-communication from
the church.
 Assassination of its leaders, for example mondlane provided a temporary set-back to the
liberation struggle before samora machei took over leadership.
 Inadequate funds to organise their activities.
 Ethnicity posed a big challenge to the liberation struggle in mozambique.this was because
of the facts that the natives were from many tribes.It was solved by free mixing of
fighters from different tribes.
 The South African apartheid government gave reinforcement to the Portuguese.
South Africa.
 Colonized by Britain and Boers (Holland / Netherlands)
Reasons why nationalism in South Africa were complex.
 Unlike other African countries that were colonized by one specific European power, in
South Africa both the British and the boers had imperial interests.
 The existence of valuable mineral deposits made the European powers more aggressive in
their efforts to control wealth in South Africa.
Types of nationalism.
 Afrikaner nationalism.
 African nationalism.
Afrikaner nationalism.
 The Afrikaner were the descendants of the Dutch settlers.
 Afrikaner nationalism started late in the 19th century as a resistant movement of mainly
the descendants of the dutch-speaking white people against the British.
African Nationalism in South African
 African nationalism in South Africa started as early as the 17th century when Boers first
settled there.
 African communities e.g Xhosa, Zalu, Cateshwoya put up strong resitance against British
Invasion.
 After establishment of the union of South Africa in 1910, African conditions under the
Boer rule continued to deteriorate.
 Africans expressed their disatisfication with the system by establishing independent
churches and forming new political association.
Reasons for the rise of Nationalism in South Africa.
  Unfair labour laws.Africans were discriminated against employment.They were excluded
from skilled jobs and confined to providing manual labour in mines and farms.They were
also not allowed to form trade unions.
 Racial discrimination.Africans were discriminated against in political,economic and
social spheres.They were separate schools,hospitals,restaurants and residential places for
africans.They felt humiliated and thus decided to fight for freedom.
 Land alienation.The Afrikaner government alienated african land.Many africans were
displaced making them dependent on employment on white farmers.They were confined
to unproductive community areas referred to as Bantustans.
 Christianity.Christian teaching upheld the ideas of equality and brotherhood between all
races.However, the Afrikaners mistreated the africans.The spread of Christianity
prompted Africans to fight for equality.
 Growth of an African elite.Education led to emergence of educated Africans such as
Walter Sisulu and Nelson Mandela.They played a big role in forming movements that
promoted nationalism.
 Low quality educations. Africans were denied educational opportunities.They were given
low quality education, this made them to rise up against whites.
 Exclusion from government.Africans were not represented in the government.They were
denied the right to vote.This created a lot of bitterness.
 Pass laws.The pass laws were introduced to control and limit movements of africans.This
denied Africans freedom of movement.
Grievances of Africans against the apartheid regime in South Africa.
 Africans were not allowed to vote for black representation in the government.
 They were probihited from sharing facilities with the whites.
 The pass laws restricted movement by the Africans.
 The labour laws denied them equal employment opportunities.
 Low quality education only prepared them for low cadre jobs.
 The land acts gave the whites exclusive rights over their land.
Earliest African nationalist leaders were:
 Dr. Pixty Ka Izaka Seme
 John Jabavu.
 Both had realised the effectiveness of newspapers as tools of mass mobolisation.Jabavu
was the editor of african opinion while seme was the editor of the bantu(the people).Seme
had studied in both united states and Britain and was a laywer by profession.
 Their aim was not to overthrow the white regime but to have it accept the africans.They
also wanted voting rights extended to africans.they used petitions as a way of appealing
for the intergration of the Africans into the political arena of South Africa.
 For their movement to succeed and in order to mobolise the party, they formed a political
party.In January 1912, seme summoned a conference of chiefs and formed the South
African native congress which later changed its name to African national congress (ANC)
in 1923.
The African National Congress.
 Initaly ANC followed moderate policies of, protest petitions, delegations and
representation.
  The situation however changed when young man such as Oliver Tamba, Walter Sisulu
and Nelson Mandela joined the party and introduced militancy and radicalism into the
party.These young men injected new blood into the movement.
 Nelson Mandela and water Sisulu formed the party young members for the ANC young
league, in 1943.The league resolved the use of militant action to achieve national
liberation.
 Adoption of apartheid as an official policy in 1948 led to increase in African nationalism.
 ANC tried to petition United Nation to intervene but to no avail.
 Apartheid infuriated blacks who through ANC and South African Indian Congress
launched a mass compaign of defiance and industrial boycotts.
 People started mass demonstrations in the streets and deliberately provoked the police to
arrest them.
 The government stubbonly refused to listen to the grievances of the Africans and instead
it brought about new and harsher laws.
 In 1955 the president of ANC Albert Luthuli organise general party meeting of coloured
people of South Africa called the congres of the people.
 Among the organisation that convened this congress were:
 ANC
 South African Indian congress.
 South African Coloured People
 South African Congress of Trade Union.
 The congress adopted the Freedom Chatter.
 Freedom chatter proclaimed that.
 South African belongs to those who live in it both black and white.
 There should be free political equality and power sharing among the difference
races.
 However the charter was suppressed by the police.
 The moderate approach to the South African problems by the ANC and the South African
congress (Indian) forced some Africans like Robert M. Subukwe to move out and formed
the Pan-African congress (PAC) in 1959.
 The PAC Organised mass demonstration against the pass laws on 21st march 1960.The
police responded by opening fire on the peaceful demonstrators, killing 69 of them and
wounding many.This was famous sharpeville massacre.
 Following the massacre a state of emergency was declared PAC and ANC were banned
and some of their leaders detained. It was this time that Nelson Mandela formed the
military wing of ANC called Umkhonto we sizwe (the spear of the Nation) while PAC
was called Poqo.
Black conscious movement.
 Student activitism through organised demonstrations under the umbrella of black
consciousness movement was another form of African nationalism.
 It was spearheaded by Steve Biko.
 Steve Biko organized students from secondary and universities to protest against the
apartheid regime.
 He was later arrested and and tortured to death in police custody.
 The death of Biko stirred and accelerated the struggle for African freedom in South
Africa.
Dismantling of apartheid
 The suffering of the black in South Africa attracted the attention of the international
community.
 The USA and western European countries led the world in imposing political and
economic sanctions on South Africa.
 As aresults of the sanctions and increased international pressure, President P.W Botha
was forced out of office for his hardliner stand.He was replaced by Fredrick De Clerk in
1989, who was a moderate.
 President Fredrick de clerk, the man committed to dismantle apartheid introduced
political reforms which include:
 He released all political prisoners.
 He repealed apartheid laws.
 He allowed African to take part in elections.
 He lifted ban on political parties
 De clerk also released prominent African political prisoners from the notorious robben
island prison.These include Walter sisulu and Nelson Mandela who had already served
27 years.
 Policy of reconciliation follow with an aim to end apartheid laws.This moved was
opposed by the white extrimist who wanted status quo to remain.They demanded separate
homeland for white only in northern Transvaal.
 Zulu based Inkatha Freedom party has the following demands :
 For federal constitution with strong regional autonomy.
 Recognition of king goodwill zweletheni of kwazulu-natal in the new constititution.
 ANC on the other hand wanted:
 Unified state and strong central government.
 The situation created tensions with ANC insisting on going on elections minus IFP while
call for postmonement of the election until constitution was amended.
 International mediators including US secretary of state Henry Kissinger and Lord
Carringtone failed to convinec Buthelezi to participate in the elections.
 It was Kenyan diplomat prof.Washingtone J.Okumu that convinced Buthelezi to
participate in the election.
 Election was held and 27 parties participate.ANC headed by Mandela won the election by
getting 62.2 percent of the total votes while National Party of Fredrick De Clerk managed
to get 20.4 percent.if p ofmongosuthu buthelezi coming third with 10.5 per cent.
 On May 10, 1994 Nelson Mandela was sworn in as South Africa first black president.
Methods used by African Nationalists in the struggle against apartheid regime.
 Political parties.Africans in South Africa formed political parties to unite Africans against
apartheid .The parties includes Pan African Congress, African National Congress and
Communist Party of South Africa.
 Trade unions.African workers formed trade unions to fight for their rights.These union’s
championed nationalism when active political movements were banned.They enhanced
the operation of political parties.
 Demonstrations.Africans organised demonstration in South Africa to express their
grievancies.the demonstration were peaceful,however it turn violent due to the manner in
which police disperse people leading to many death e.g soweto incident.
  Force or millitary compaign.Nationalist applied force when it become clear that the
colonial government was not listening to peaceful negotiations.They formed military arm
wings e.g Umukonto We Sizwe by ANC. Armed wings destroyed government
installation such as railways, bridges and hydro electric powers stations in order to bring
the country to standstill.
 Diplomacy.Freedom fighters in South Africa deployed diplomacy in international cercles
through the OAU and the UNO to talk to white minority rule.Tanzania effort led to the
expulsion of South Africa from commonwealth.African countries through OAU
demanded South Africa to be given sanctions by the international community.
 Hunger strikes.Nationalists in the detention and under arrest employed hunger strikes as a
weapon against their unjust confinement.
 Church.The church leader’s e.g Archbishop Desmond Tutu also preached against
apartheid rule.
 Mass media.Mass media such as radio and TV to protest against apartheid rule.
 Used art such as music, films in the struggle for independent.
Challenges Nationalists forced in the liberation struggle.
 Many people in South Africa lost their lives during the apartheid rule.
 Many political leaders were arrested and detained by the South Africa Police.Many of
them were found guilty by apartheid laws after which they were given long jail
terms.These include Nelson Mandela,Walter Sisulu,Oliver Thambo and Robert Subukwe.
 Many of the nationalsits were forced to leave South Africa to avoid beign arrested.They
lived as refugees in Mozambique, Tanzania, Zambia and other frontline states.
 African poltical parties were banned and their leaders were prosecuted for contravening
the apartheid laws.The parties were ANC, PAC and communist party.
 Africans newspapers and journalism was banned.Laws were enacted which made it
impossible for Africans to have the press.
 Trade unions in South Africa were banned for they were assumed to have political
overtones.
 Divide and rule.The white minority government created Bantustans which were
homelands for Africans.Bantustans were created on tribal lines which effectively isolated
africans.These divisions led to prolonged war between the Zulu and other Bantu tribes
before the elections of 1994.
 Movement restrictions.The apartheid regime imposed emergency laws.The laws
restricted Africans from meeting.
Contribution’s of Nelson Mandela to the fight for freedom and democracy in South
Africa.
 Nelson Mandela’s was born on July 18, 1918 at qunu Umtata in Transkei.
 His father was chief of the Tembu.
 He attended mission school and proceeded to Fort Hare University College where his
nationalist tendencies were stimulated.
 After qualifying as alawyer, he established partnership with Oliver Tambo in
Johannesburg.
 Mandela joined ANC in 1944.
 In 1952 he was elected deputy president of the ANC and as the member of ANC; He was
involved in protests and demonstration against the white regime.
 In 1953 he was sentenced to a nine month suspended jail term for organising defiance
compaigns against unjust laws of 1952.
 In 1955, Mandela and other nationalists drafted the freedom charter which called for
equal rights for all races.
 In 1956 he was arrested alongside other nationalists and charged with high treason.The
case lasted five years after which all were acquited in 1961.
 After the sharpeville massacre, a state of emergency was declared.ANC and other
political parties were banned.Despite the ban, Mandela, Sisulu and others were
determined to carry on with the struggle and others were determined to carry on with the
struggle and went underground.
 In 1961, a millitary wing of the ANC, Umkhonto We Sizwe meaning the spear of the
nation was founded.
 In 1962, he led ANC to Adis Ababa and other countries to fight for change in South
Africa.
 He returned home and continued to operate underground till August 5,1962 when he was
arrested while travelling to Johannesburg from Durban.He was charged with inciting
african workers to strike and leaving the country without valid travel documents.He
received five years imprisonment with hard labour.

 In 1963, he sentenced to life imprisonment on Robin Island.

 In 1970s and 1980s, calls to release Mandela and other political prisoners came from all
over the world.
 In 1986 the white minority government offered to release Mandela on condition that he
publicly makes a statement to denounce violence.He responded in terms similar to those
he used in 1964.He said “i have cherished the ideal of a democractic and free society in
which all persons live together in harmony and equal opportunities.its ideal which I hope
to live for and achieve.But if need be,it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die”
 In 1989 Sisulu and others were released which raised hopes that Mandela would be
released soon.
 On February 11 1990, De Klerk released Mandela unconditionally and lifted the ban on
ANC.After his release, he emphasised his commitment to the liberation struggle.
 He won the first multi-racial elections in 1994 and become the first black president of
South Africa.
 He ruled South Africa for one term of five years and retired in 1999.
LIVES AND CONTRIBUTIONS OF KENYAN LEADERS.
 The road of independence in Kenya was not a smooth one.
 It involved serious commitment and struggle between Kenyans to liberate their country
from colonialism.
 After independence, Kenyan leaders continued to play a significant role in social,
economic and political development of the country.
 They include:
 Mzee Jomo Kenyatta
 Daniel Toroitch Arap moi
 Oginga Odinga
 Thomas Joseph Mboya
 Ronald Gideon Ngala
 Prof. Wangari Maathai.
JOMO KENYATTA
Early life
 Jomo Kenyatta was born of Kamau in about 1893 at Ichaweri village, Gatundu division
of the present Kiambu County.
 His Father was called Muigai and his mother was Wambui.
 His father died when he was a child his uncle Ngengi then took care of him and his
mother.
 In 1909 Kenyatta began education at the Church of Scotland mission school, Thogoto
where he completed his elementary education in 1912
 In 1913, he was circumcised in the Agikuyu tradition and a year later was baptized and
took the Christian name Johnstone.
 In 1916, he worked at a sisal farm in Thika.
 From 1917 he went to live among his Maasai relatives in Narok, to escape forced
recruitment. While in Narok he was employed as a clerk by an Asian trader whose
company was supplying meat to the British army.He used to wear a beaded Maasai
onarment belt Kenyatta.
 At the end of First World War he went back to Nairobi and worked as store-keeper in a
European farm. He had already bought a bicycle.
 In 1919, he got married to Grace Wahu.
  In 1920, he worked in the Nairobi Municipal Council water department as water-meter
reader.
 In 1946 he taught at Githunguri Teachers Training College where, a year later, he
becomes Principal.
Political Career.
 He joined Kikuyu Central Association (KCA) in 1924 where he was elected as party
Secretary General in 1928.
 He started KCA newspaper muiguithania in which he talked about the grievances of the
Africans.
 In 1929, KCA leaders sent Jomo Kenyatta to London to present a petition to the British
government concerning their land grievances by the British government concerning land
alenation, African education, taxation and African representation in the Legco. While in
London Kenyatta met and was influenced by leading political personalities like George
Padmore and Mahatma Gandhi.
 In 1931 he returned to London to present a memorandum on a closer union in East Africa
to a parliamentary committee.
 He attended fifth Pan African congress in manchester.One of the resolution was the
delegates to return their home countries to lead the struggle for independence.
 He was elected as the president of the Kenya Africa Union.
 On October 20, 1952 he and other leading nationalists were arrested and in 1953, he was
jailed for seven years at Lokitang for leading the Mau Mau war.
 In August 1961 Kenyatta and others were released from detention.
 In October 1962 he becomes Legco member for Muranga when the sitting member,
Kariuki Njiiri, resigned to pave way for him.
 On June 1 1963, Kenyatta becomes the first Prime Minister of Kenya.
 In December 12 1964 he become president of the republic of Kenya, until august 22 1978
when he died in Mombasa.
Role of Kenyatta in the struggle for independence.
 He was a member of political organisations such as KCA, KAU and KANU which fought
for the country independence.
 Through the KCA magazines, Muigwithania Kenyatta he championed African unity and
culture.
 He publicised grievances of the African people during his stay in Europe by writing
articles in newspaper.
 He attended international conferences, for example, fifth Pan African congress in
Manchester in 1945 which condemned colonialism and demanded independence for
African countries.
 As president of KAU he travelled across the country addressing rallies which united
Kenyans in the struggle for independence.
 He united the radical and moderates nationalists in the struggle for independence.
 His arrests and imprisonment inspired other nationalists to fight on for independence.
 He was a member of the Legislative Council from which he leds demands for
constitutional reforms which led to independence.
 He attended Second Lancaster house conference to work on independence constitution.
 He took part in 1963 election which earned him the post of the First Prime Minister.
 He becomes the first President of Kenya on December 12, 1964.
Achievements of Kenyatta as President.
 He united people of all communities and races in development of the newly independent
nation.
 He introduced and popularised the ideal of hard work through the harambee philosphy
and condemned idleness.
 He expanded social facilities in the country like education and health by building more
schools and hospitals.
 He promoted regional and continental unity by supporting the East African community
and Organisation of African unity.
 He supported liberation movements in Africa in countries like Angola, Mozambique and
Namibia by providing material and moral support.
 He upheld the principles of Non-Alignment by maintaining neutrality between the two
super powers during the cold war.
 He contributed to international peace and cooperation through the support for the United
Nations Organisation.
Challenges encountered by Kenyatta as president.
 Opposition from Kenya Africa Democratic Union (KADU) members who preferred a
federal sytem of government unlike KANU which was for unitary system of government.
 Ideological diffrences within Kenya Africa National Union (KANU) which led to radical
members breaking away to form Kenya Peoples Union (KPU) in 1969.
 Insecurity in the north eastern provinces which led to loss of lives.This was caused by the
armed bandits called the shifta.
 Landlessness among the majority of Kenyans which was caused by alienation of land
during the colonial period.
 Poverty, ignorances and diseases was major challenges.
 Inadequate capital to carry out economic and social development projects.This forced the
government to seek donor funding.
 Shortage of skilled manpower to run the economy due to low level of education.
 Poor transport and communication network like roads, railways and telephones in many
parts of the country.
 Political assassinations of critics like Pio Gama Pinto, Tom Mboya and Josiah Kariuki
which eroded confidence in his leadership.
 Increase ethnic divisions as some communities felt marginalised in national, political and
economic development.
DANIEL ARAP MOI
Early
 Daniel Toroitich arap Moi was born in September 1924 at Kuriengwo, Sacho location of
Baringo County.
 He was the son of Kimoi arap Chebii and Kaban Kimoi.
 In 1934 he went to Kabortonjo Primary School.
 In 1942 he attended Kabsabet Secondary School.
 In 1944 he went to Kabsabet Teachers Training College.
 He taught at Kabarnet Governments’ school and Tambach Teachers Training College
from 1946 to 1955.
 In 1950, he married Helena Bomet at the AIC mission in Eldama Ravine.
  He was later promoted to a Headmaster or the Kabarnet Intermediate School and worked
under a white principal.
 He was elected to Legco in 1955, when the Rift Valley representative to the Legco John
Ole Tameno was forced to resign.
Political Career.
 He was elected to Legco in a by-election of October 14 1955 following resignation of
John Ole tameno.He was re-elected in 1957 and joined newly formed African Elected
Members Organisation.
 He formed the Baringo District Independence Party in 1958.
 He becomes the first politician in 1959 to be allowed to visit Kenyatta in detention in
Lowdar.
 He helped to merge the Baringo, Nandi, Kericho and Elegeyo Marakwet district political
parties into Kalenjin Political Alliance in 1960.
 He attended first Lancaster house conference of 1960 where constitutional changes
leading to Kenya’s independence.
 He helped to form the Kenya Africa Democratic Union in 1960.
 He was elected into Legco for Baringo and appointed parliamentary Secretary for
Education.
 He attended Second Lancaster House conference of 1960 as part of KADU delegation
where independence constitution was drafted.
 He becomes minister for local government in the KANU-KADU coalition government of
1962.
 He defected from KADU to KANU in 1962 and was appointed minister for Home
Affairs.
 He was elected as one of the eight KANU Vice-Presidents in March 1966.
 He becomes Vice President of Kenya in January 5 1967.
 He becomes the Second President of Kenya on October 14, 1978.He ruled until the end
of his term on December 30, 2002.
 In 2003 Moi handed over KANU Chairmanship to Uhuru Muigai Kenyatta and retired
from active politics in 2005.
Role of Moi in the struggle for independence.
 He was a member of legco representing riftvalley and as a member of the Legco he
demanded for African representation in the Legco.
 He becomes the first leader to visit Kenyatta and other nationalists in detention in 1959
and encourage to them to continue in the struggle for freedom.
 He pressed for the release of Kenyatta and other political detainees.
 He helped in the formation of kadu which took part in the struggle for independence.
 He participated in the Lancaster house conference where constitutional reforms were
negotiated and the independence constitution drafted.
 He joined other African elected members of the legco and formed the AEMO, which
played a leading role in the struggle for independence.
Achievements of Moi as president.
Moi ruled Kenya for 24 years from August 1978 to December 2002.During his rule he achieved
the following:
 He introduced the nyayo philosophy of peace, love and harmony which played an
important role in social and economic development.
  He enhanced harmony through the release of political detainees like George Anyona,
Jean Marie Seroney and Joseph Martin Shikuku.
 He encouraged participation in harambee activities which raised money for a number of
social and economic projects.
 He introduced 8-4-4 system of education.This promoted self-reliances by teaching
vocational subjects such as Art and Craft, Carpentry and Agriculture.
 He expanded education by initiating development and expansion of Schools, Colleges
and Universities.
 He improved health sector through constructions of many health facilities like Nyayo
wards.
 He encouraged development of the agriculture sector by setting institutions like the
Nyayo Tea Zones.
 He improved the transport sector through introduction of Nyayo buses and construction
or expansion of roads and airports like Jomo Kenyatta, Nairobi, Moi international,
Mombasa and Eldoret.
 He promoted sporting activities through construction of facilities like Nyayo Stadium and
Moi International Sports Centre Kasarani.
 He encouraged rural development through introduction of the District Focus for Rural
Development Programme.
 He maintained a long period of peace and political stability through wise leadership and
peacefully handed over to his successor, Emilio Mwai Kibaki in 2002.
 He promoted soil-conservation measures through construction of gabions and
afforestation programmes.
 He expanded Kenya’s foreign trade through active membership in regional and
international trading blocs like Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
(COMESA) and World Trade Organisation. (WTO)
 He mediated in many conflicts in attempt to achieve peace in the continent, like in Sudan,
Somalia and Democratic Republic Congo (DRC).
 He promoted regional unity by helping to revive the East Africa Community. (EAC)
 He improved Kenya’s foreign policy by strengthening relations with the Organisation of
Africa Unity (OAU), Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), Commonwealth and United
Nations Organisation (OAU)
 Following pressure from activists, clergy and foreign donors, he allowed the repeal
section 2A of the constitutin which led to the introduction of multi-party politics in the
country.
Challenges faced by Moi as president.
 Attempted coup of 1982 by juniour Air Force officers led by Hezekiah Rabala Ochuka on
August 1, 1982.
 Widespread criticism of his government over authoritarian and dictatorial rule.This led to
political divisions in the country.
 Freezing of donor funding by international community over lack of accountability.
 Following the collapse of communism and dictatorship in Eastern Europe, there was a
wind of change in Africa which led to collapse of one party state.This put pressure on
moi’s government to reintroduce multiparty politics.
 Politically instigated ethnic clashes in several parts of the country like Mount Elgon,
Riftvalley and coast.this resulted in lose of life and destruction of property.
  Widespread corruption within moi’s government like grabbing of public land and misuse
of public resources.This eroded public confidence in his government.
 Frequent natural disasters like drought and floods.This has led to diversion of resources
meant for social and economic projectsto support the victims hence affecting economic
development in the country.
 Political assassinations of Dr.Robert Ouko in1990 which was blamed on moi’s
government led to widespread riots in the country.

OGINGA ODINGA
Early life
 Jaramogi Adonija Ajuma Oginga was born in 1911 at Nyamira Kango in Sakwa Location
of Bondo District.
 He was enrolled at Maranda Primary School after which he went to Maseno intermediate
School in 1926.
 He joined Alliance High school in Kikuyu n 1935.
 In 1936, he won a scholarship to study at Makerere College, where he trained as as a
teacher.
 He offered to teaching job at Maseno School by Carey Fraincis.
 He later becomes principal of Maseno Verterniary School between 1943 to 1946.
Political Career.
 He was elected in 1946 to the Central Nyanza District Council as Councilor.
 In 1948 and 1952 he met Kenyatta at KAU rallies in kisumu.This influenced him to join
national politics.
 He was elected to Legco in 1957 as member of Central Nyanza and become AEMO
chairman.
 He helped to form the Kenya Independence Movement (KIM) in 1959.
 He was elected as KANU Vice President in 1960.
 He was appointed minister for home affairs under the KANU-KADU coalition
government in 1962.
 He was appointed vice president of Kenya in December 1964.
 He resigned as Vice President and from KANU and formed Kenya Peoples Union (KPU)
in 1966.
 In 1969 the KPU was banned and Odinga was arrested and detained for many years.
 He led the compaign for restoration of multi-party democracy in Kenya from 1990.
 He helped to launch the Forum for Restoration of Democracy (FORD) in 1991.
 He was elected as the chairman of ford Kenya when FORD break-up in 1992.
 He unsuccessfully vied for presidency in December 1992.However he was elected as
Member of Parliament for Bondo and he become leader of official opposition in
parliament.He remained a member of parliament until his death on 20th January 1994.
Role of Odinga in the struggle for independence.
 He attended KAU rallies in Kisumu and resolved to join Kenyatta and other nationalists
in the struggle for independence.This promoted unity in the struggle for independence.
 He was elected to the Legco to represent Nyanza and was made the chairman of
AEMO.Through the organisation he led other Legco members in demanding
constitutional reforms.
  He demanded the release of political detainees and coined the slogan Kenyatta na Uhuru.
 He participated in the Lancaster house conferences of 1960 and 1962 which laid the
ground for independence.
 He helped to form political parties such as KAU and KANU which fought for
independence in Kenya.
 He served as Minister for Home Affairs in the KANU-KADU coalition government in
1963 which organised the independence elections of May 1963.

Contributions of Odinga to multi-party democracy in Kenya.

 He resigned from KANU in 1966 and formed the KPU which become the only opposition
party in the country.In little general elections of 1966 KPU won all the seats in North and
Central Nyanza.
 In 1969 following the stoning of Kenyatta’s motorcade in Kisumu, KPU was banned and
odinga and other leaders of kpu were detained.
 Following his release from detention in 1971, he attempted to revive the KPU but was
unsuccessful.He was barred from all political activities.
 In 1982 odinga together with other activities attempted to register a political party.
 He was put under house arrest foolowing attempted coup of 1982.On his release he kept a
low profile for several years.
 In February 1991, odinga and others unsuccesfully attempted to launch an opposition
political party, the National Democratic Party (NDP).
 He helped to form the FORD in 1991, a pressure group to fight for multi-party
democracy.
 Odinga and others successfully transformed the FORD into an opposition party, with him
as Chairman.
 When ford split into two, Odinga was elected chairman of Ford-Kenya, a party he used to
run for the presidency in 1992.
THOMAS JOSEPH MBOYA
Early life.
 Thomas Joseph Mboya was born in 1930 at Kilimambogo near Thika where his father
worked in a sisal state.
 His parents were Leonards Ndigne and Maisela Awour. They came from Rusinga Island
in Nyanza Province.
 Mboya went to Donyo Sabuk Primary before moving to Kabaa Primary School in 1939.
 In 1942 he joined St.Mary’s Yala and Mangu in 1946.
 He trained as a public worker at the Royal Sanitary Institute, Kabete from 1948.
 He worked as a sanitary inspector with Nairobi City Council.
 Later he became chairman the Kenya Health Inspector’s Association.
 In 1955 he studied Industrial Relations at the Ruskin College, Oxford.
 He played a big role in the Trade Union movement and the struggle for independence.
Political Career.
 He joined KAU in 1952 and become director of publicity.
 He was elected as KAU Treasury in 1953 when other KAU officials were arrested and
detained.
 He was elected to Legco in 1957 to represent Nairobi.He was elected AEMO Secretary.
  He formed Nairobi People Convention in 1958, a political party that compaigned for
Uhuru na Kenyatta.
 He was among the founders of KANU in 1960 and he was elected Secretary General.
 He was appointed Minister for Labour in 1963 KANU-KADU coalition.
 He was appointed Minister for Justice and Constitutional Affairs in 1963.
 He was appointed Minister for Planning and Economic Development in 1965.He served
in this post until his death on July 5, 1969.

Role of Mboya in the trade union movement.

 He helped to form early trade unions such as the Kenya Local Government Workers
Union (KLGWU) where he was elected Secretary General.
 He affiliated the KLGWU to the Kenya Federation of Registered Trade Unions (KFRTU)
and was elected its Secretary General in September 1953.The formation of KFRTU
helped to co-ordinate trade union activities.
 He linked the KFRTU with international trade unions like the International Conferation
of Free Trade Union (ICFTU) of USA and Trade Union Congress (TUC) of
Britain.because of these links, the colonial government could not easily ban the trade
union movement.
 He travelled widely outside Kenya in 1954 to attend labour union conference in Belgium,
Britain and Switzerland.He used the experience gained to organise similar conference in
Kenya.
 He used his influence and contacts to fight for the release of detained trade
unionist.Mboya met leading trade unionist who influenced him greatly, like Jawaharl
Nehru, President of the Trade Union Congress of India.
 He travelled to USA in 1956 where he raised funds for the Kenya Federation of Labour.
Role of Mboya in the struggle for independence.
 He used trade union movement to protest the arrest and detention of African leaders and
compaigned for their release.
 He was a member of political parties such as KAU and KANU which fought for
independence of Kenya.
 He was elected to Legco as a member for Nairobi.He become Secretary of AEMO which
rejected the Lyttelton and Lennox-boyd constitutions and demanded greater reforms.
 He compaigned for Kenya Africans to be allowed to grow cash crops and for the opening
up of the white highlands to all races.
 He helped to form the Nairobi Peoples party (NPP) which campaigned for the release of
political detainees through the slogan Uhuru na Kenyatta.
 Together with Julius Nyerere of Tanganyika, Mboya formed the Pan African Freedom
Movement for East and Central (PAFMECA) to coordinate and speed up up the freedom
in the region.
 He attended the first and the second Lancaster house conference of 1962 where
constitutional reforms leading to Kenya’s independence were negotiated.
 He was one of the founders of KANU in 1960 and become Secretary General.The party
ushered Kenya to independence.
 He becomes chairman of the KANU preparatory committee for the second Lancaster
House Conference of 1962 which drafted the independence constitution of Kenya.
Role of mboya in nation building.
 He founded the American students foundation in 1959 which organised the airlift of
Kenyan students to study in USA.When these people returned to the country they
provided knowledge and skills which young nation required.
 As a Minister for Justice and Constitutional Affairs, he drafted the constitutional
amendments which made Kenya a republic in 1964.
 As a Minister for Labour, Mboya helped to draft the labour relations charter which
regulated relations between employers and employees.
 As a Minister for Planning and Economic Development, he helped to write the sessional
paper no.of 1965 which became the basis for Kenya’s economic development after
independence.
 He helped to draft the country’s first-year development plan of 1966-1970 which laid the
foundation for the young nation.
 As Secretary General of KANU, Mboya was one of the planners of the 1966 Limuru
conference which reorganised the party by getting rid of the radicals.
RONALD GEDION NGALA
Early life
 Ronald Gedion Ngala was born in 1923 at Vishakani village, Kaloleni divison of Kilifi
County. He was the son of Vidzo wa Ngala.
 He went to Kaloleni before moving to Buxton primary school in Mombasa.
 In 1942 he went to Shimo La Tewa Secondary School and later proceeded to Alliance
High School, Kikuyu.
 He went to Makerere College in Kampala Uganda, where he graduated with a Diploma in
Education.
 Bristol University in Britain for further studies.in 1952 he was appointed Head Teacher
of Buxton School.
 He later became supervisor of schools in Mombasa.
Political Career.
 He joined Coast African Association in 1947.
 He helped to form the Mombasa African Democratic union (MADU) in 1955.
 He and others formed the Kilifi African Peoples Union (KAPU) in 1956.
 He was elected to Legco in March 1957 as a member for Coast Rural.He and others form
AEMO where he served as Treasurer.
 He participated in the Lancaster House Conference of 1960.
 He helps to form the Kenya Africa Democratic Union (KADU) in 1960, where he was
elected President.
 He was elected to Legco as member of Kilifi in 1960.
 As KADU President, Ngala formed the government in 1961 when Kenya Africa National
Union (KANU) declined demanding release of Kenyatta and other detainees.
 He was appointed Minister of State in 1961 KANU-KADU coalition government.
 In the May 1963 general election, Ngala was elected MP for Kilifi as well as President of
the Coast Region Assembly.
 He and others voluntary disbanded KADU and joined KANU in October 1964.
 He was elected Vice President of KANU for Coast Province in March 1966.
 He was appointed Minister for Power and Communication in 1970.
Role of Ngala in the struggle for independence.
  He joined the CAA in 1947 through which he fought for the welfare of Africans in the
Coast region.
 He was appointed to the Mombasa African advisory council in 1951 through which he
represent African interests on the Mombasa Municipal Board.
 He was a member of the Legco which he used to fight for greater constitutional reforms
for Africans through AEMO, where he was a Treasurer.
 He took part in the Lancaster house conference of 1960 and 1962 which discussed the
future of independent Kenya.
 He joined other nationalists to form KADU, through which he defended the interests of
minority communities and demanded the release of detained African nationalists.
 He was the first African to form a government and the first African leader of government
in 1961.He used this position to press for constitutional reforms leading to independence.
WANGARI MUTA MAATHAI
Early life.
 Maathai was born at Ihiteh village in Nyeri County on April 1, 1940.
 She enrolled in Ihithe Primary school in 1948, She proceeded to St. Cecilia’s
intermediate primary school at the Mathari Catholic Mission in Nyeri in 1951.while at
this school she conveted to catholism and was baptized Mary Josephine.
 She joined Loreto High school Limuru in 1956.
 She later joined Mt. St. Scholastica College in Atchison, Kansas in the USA. She
graduated in 1964 with a BSC in Biology.
 She went ahead to study Masters Degree in Biological Sciences at the University of
Pittsburgh in Pennsylvania where she acquired Masters of Sciences in 1966.
 In the same year she returned to Kenya and was employed as a research assistant at the
school of Veterinary Medicine in Universtiy of Nairobi.
 In 1971, she graduated with a Phd in Anatomy from Nairobi University.
 She was appointed to teach at the University becoming a senior lecture in Anatomy in
1974 and chairperson of the department of vetinary in 1976.
 In 1977 she becomes an associate professor at University of Nairobi and Germany.
Political career and activism.
 She combined professional, work with with volunteer service in Non-Governmental
Organisations and political activism.She began by joining the Kenya Red Cross in
1971.She later become director of the Kenya Red Cross in 1973.
 She joined the Environmental Liaison Centre in 1971 where she rose to become
chairperson of the board.
 She founded green belt in1977, an organisationwhich fought environmental degradation.
 She joined the national council of women of Kenya, where she served as chairperson
between 1980 and 1987.
 She was among the founders of the Forum for Restoration of Democracy (FORD), a
pressure group to fight for restoration of multi-party democracy in Kenya.
 She unsuccesfully vied for presidency and Member of Parliament for Tetu in 1997.
 She was elected Member of Parliament for Tetu.She was appointed Assistant Minister for
Environmental and Natural Resources.
Achievements of Wangari Maathai.
 She was the first woman in Eastern Africa to obtain a doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree
in 1971.This inspired other woman in the region to undertake higher education.
 She was the first woman to be appointed to be associated professor at the University of
Nairobi in 1977.
 Through activism, Wangari encouraged many people in Kenya to fight for their rights
and for multi-party democracy.
 She stood courageously against the oppressive single-party KANU regime in Kenya.She
compaigned for opening up of democratic space and more freedoms for Kenyans.
 Agitation of wangari and others drew attention of the international community to the
oppression in Kenya, which pressurised the government for reforms.
 Through non-governmental organisations like the Green Belt Movement,Wangari
promoted environmental conservation.in 1989,she opposed the construction of a 60
storey building,The Kenya times Media Trust Complex,in Uhuru Park,Nairobi.This
project would have destroyed the park which is used by thousands of Kenyan for
recreation.
 She was a founder member of FORD and through the pressure group she helped in the
fight for restoration of multi-party democracy in Kenya.
 She led protests against plans to hive off part of the Karura forest land for private
development.
 She encouraged women to improve food security by planting indegenous crops and
maintaining small gardens.
 She actively compaigned for the release of political prisoners in Kenya.This involved
hunger strikes, street demonstrations and prayers at the Old Saints Cathedral.
 She received numerous awards for her struggle to improve the environment and multi-
party democracy in Kenya, the most important being the Nobel Peace Prize in 2004.
THE FORMATION STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE GOVENREMTN OF
KENYA.
Electrol process
 An electoral process is the method and law for holding an election.
 It outlines the laws and practices which must be followed by all people who are involved
in the elections.
Types of election in Kenya.
 General election.
 By-election.
Reasons for elections in Kenya.
 It is a constitutional requirement.The constitution of Kenya provides that elections are
held after every five years.
 To keep leaders on check.Leaders are forced to fulfill the expectations of the people.if
not, they are voted out and new ones elected.
 It is democratic right.Kenya is a democracy and gives people power to elect leaders of
their choice.
 To provide for alternative ideas.Regular elections enable people to elect new leaders with
new ideas.
 People elect the leaders of their choice to enable the people to come up with leaders of
their choice.
 Participation in government.Through elections, people participate in government
formation by electing leaders to various positions at various levels.
 In a General elections six positions are filled.They are:
 President.
 Governor.
 Senator.
 Member of National Assembly.
 Women Representatives.
 Member of County Assembly.
 During the same elections, the positions of Deputy President and Deputy Governor are
also filled.
Electoral system and process.
 The electoral system refers to the way in which elections are conducted.
 It specifies the body responsible for elections and the rules and principles guiding the
process.
Principles guiding elections in Kenya.
 Freedom of citizens to exercise their political rights.
 No more than two-thirds of the members of elective public bodies shall be of the
same gender.
 Fair representation of persons with disabilities.
 Universal suffrage based on aspiration for fair representation and equality of vote.
 Free and fair elections conducted by secret ballot free from violence, intimidation
and corruption.
 Independent and transparent elections administered in an impartial, neutral and
accountable.
Electoral Regulations.
 The Constitution.
 The National Assembly and Presidential Elections Act.
 Election offences act.
The electoral process in Kenya goes through the following steps.
1. Voter education.
 This is where the voters are enlighted and educated on details about elections.
 They are given information on where and how to register and they type of elections being
held.
 They are also sensitised on how, when and where to vote.
2. Voter registration.
 For one to vote one must be registere as a voter.
 Registration of voters is done by the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission
(IEBC).
 One can only register once at only one registration centre.
Conditions one must fullfill to qualify to register as a voter in Kenya.
 Be 18 years of age and above.
 Be of sound mind.
 A Kenyan citizen with national identity card or passport.
 Should not have been convicted of an election offence in the last five years.
3. Nomination of candidates.
 During election, there are two categories of candidates.
 These are:
 Independent candidates.
 Party candidates.
 Party candidates are nominated to vie for seats through two stages.
 These are:
 Party nomination.
 Nomination by the IEBC.
Party nominations.
 This is where members of the different political parties elect their nominee through:
 Secret ballot
 Acclamation
 Queing.
Nomination by the IEBC
 The people nominated by political parties have to be cleared by the IEBC to vie for the
various seats namely Presidental, Parliamentary, and Gubernatorial or County assembly.
 For one to qualify for election for the various seats, one must meet some minimum
requirements as follows:
Presidential.
Qualification for one to be nominated as presidential candidate
 Must be Kenyan citizen by birth.
 Should be qualified to stand as a Member of Parliament.
 Should be nominated by a political party or an independent candidate.
 Should be 35 years of age and above.
 Must be nominated by atleast 2000 voters from each of the majority of the counties.
  Does not owe allegience to a foreign state.
 Must not be a public officer or acting in any public office.
 Must hold a degree from a recognized University in Kenya.
Member of Parliament.
Qualifications for election as a member of parliament
 Must be a registered voter
 Must satisfy the prescribed educational, moral and ethical requirements.
 Must be of sound mind.
 Should not have been declared bankrupt.
 Must not be serving a sentence of imprisonment exceeding six months.
 Has been a Kenyan citizen for atleast 10 years of election.
 Must not be a state officer other than a member of parliament.
Governor
Qualification for one to be nominated as governor.
 Must be a registered voter.
 Must satify prescribed educational moral and ethical requirements.
 Must either be nominated by a political party or an independent candidate supported by
atleast voers in the world
 Should be of sound mind
 Must not have been declared bankrupt.
 He/she should not have been found to have misused of abused the public office.
 Must hold a degree from a recognise university in Kenya.
The county governor may be removed from office
Office of the governor may become vacant under the following grounds.
 If the Governor violates the constitution.
 If the Governor commits a crime, abuse office or cross misconduct.
 If the Governor is mentally or physically incapacitated to hold the office.
 If the Governor dies.
 If the Governor resigns by writing to the speaker of the county assembly.
 If the Governor convicted of any offence punishable by imprisonment for atleast 12
months.
Elections of members of county assembly
This is done by voters in the ward and they serve for terms of five years.
Qualifications for elections of member of county assembly.
 Should not be a public officer.
 Must be registered as voter
 Must satisfy education moral and ethical requirement.
 Must be of sound mind.
 Must not be bankrupt.
 Must be nominated by political party or be independent candidate.
 Should not be serving a sentence of imprisonment exceeding 6 months.
 Has been a Kenyan citizen by atleast 10 years.
 Has not within the previous 5 years held office or a member of IEBC
Independent candidates.
 The constitutions provides for independent candidates to vie for elections in Kenya.
Qualifification to run as Independent Candidate.
  Should not be a member of political party and should not have been a member of any
political party for atleast three months prior to the date of the elections.
 Should be a registered voter.
 Satisfy any educational, moral and ethical requirements presribed by the constitution or
by an act of parliament.
 Attract support of atleast 1000 registered voters for elections to the national assembly or
2000 for election to the senate.
 Attract support of atleast 5000 registered voters for presidential elections.
Campaigns.
 After the IEBC nominations, candidates are given a period of time to compaign.This ends
12 hours to the pooling day.
 Candidates organise political rallies and meet the people the people in compaign to
popularise their ideas to the people.This gives the voters a chance to evaluate their
suitability in order to make informed choices.
Polling.
 On polling day, voters cast their votes in the polling stations from 6:00 am to 6:00 pm.
 Voters must produce identity card or passport.
 Once ones’s name appears in the register of voters, one is issued with a ballot papers
which shows the names of candidates, their parties and symbols.
Counting of votes.
 After the closure of the voting exercise, counting of the votes begin.
 Presiding officer perform the exercise.
 The process is witnessed by agents of the candidates.
 The presiding officers then announce the votes obtained by each candidate.
 The results are then transmitted to the Constituency tallying centre and National tallying
centre.
 For a candidate to be declare as elected president:
 He or She must receive more than half of all the votes cast in the elections.
 He or She must garner at least 25 percent of the votes cast in more than half of the
counties.
 If no candidates meet these conditions fresh elections is held within 30 days.
 In the new elections, the only candidates are:
 The candidates who received the greatest number of votes.
 The candidates with the second highest number of votes.
 In the runoff election candidates with the highest number of votes is declared the winner.
Disputes in presidential election
In case a person is dissatisfied with the outcome of the presidential election, the following
procedure is to be followed.
 Petition is filled in the Supereme Court within 14 dyays after the date of the declaration
of results.
 Within 14 days of the petition the Supreme Court hears and determines the petition. His
decision is always final.
 If Supreme Court determines the election to be invalid then fresh election is held within
60 days.
Swearing in of the president.
 President elect is sworn in by the Chief Justice.
  It’s done on the first Tuesday after the 14 day of the declaration of the results.
 The Presidents hold office for a term of five years and cannot serve for more than two
terms.
Vacancy in the office of the president
 Incase the president dies.
 If the president resigns by writing to the speaker of the National Assembly.
 Removal of the president on grounds of incapacitation.
 If the President is impeach.
 If the petition challenging his/her election is successful in the Supreme Court.
Elections of deputy president.
 During election each candidate in a presidential election nominates a person who is
qualified for nomination for election as presidebt as a candidate for Deputy President.
 There is therefore, no separate nomination process or election for Deputy
President.However the Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission declares the
candidate nominated by the person who is elected as the President to be elected as deputy
president
 The term of the Deputy President runs until:
 The person next elected president at election is sworn in.
 Resignation, death or removal from offices.
 A person is not allowed to hold office as Deputy for more than two terms.
By- Election.
 This is elections which are held to fill an elective office which fall vacant before the
expiry of the specified time.
 It’s held within 90 days of the occurenace of a vacancy in the office of a member of a
National Assembly, Senate of County Assembly.
Conditions that may necesssitate a by-election
 If a Member dies
 If a Member misses and eight consecutive seatings of the relevant houses without
permission from the speaker.
 If a Member resigns from the party that sponsored him/her to parliament.
 When a member is mentally or physically incapacitated to perform his/her
functions.
 If a Member cease to be a Kenyan Citizen
 If a Member is jailed for aperiod extending 6 months.
 If a Member is declared bankrupt.
Factors undermining free and fair elections.
 Inadequate civic educations.Sometimes the voters are not sensitized on their right to vote
for people who can lead them effectively.
 Illitercy among citizens.Some Kenyans are illiterate.this curtails their ability to mark the
ballot papers correctly.
 Violence.Chaos hinders voting by making voters access to the voting halls diificult.
 Rigging.On many occasions aspiring candidates or their agents have complained of
rigging.
 Bribes.At time’s voters are swayed by incentives from individuals who bribe them to
vote for certain candidates.
The Independent Electoral and Boundaries Commission of Kenya.
It is one of the independent commissions established in the constitution.
Composition of IEBC
 Seven commissioners.
 A Chairperson is appointed by the president but approved by the national assembly.
 A vice - chairperson elected by the commissioners.
 Achief executive officer and secretary to the commission.
Functions of IEBC
 It is responsible for conducting and supervising elections and referendum
 It ensures continous registration of voters.
 The commission regularly revises of voters’ roll.
 It is incharge of reviewing the names and boundaries of constituencies’ wards.
 It regulates the process by which parties nominates candidates for elections.
 The IEBC settle electoral disputes arising from nominations.
 The commision ensures registration of candidates for election
 It conducts voter education.
 It facilitates the observation, monitoring and evalution of elections.
 It ensures development of a code of conduct for candidates and parties contesting
elections.
 It appoints election officials such as the returning officers, presiding officers and their
deputies and polling clerks.
Returning officers (RO)
 They are appointed for each constitutency.
Functions of the Returning officer.
 They receive nomination papers from candidates.
 They distribute election materials to polling stations
 They supervise voting and counting of votes in the constituencies.
 They tally and verify results of parliamentary elections from the polling stations and
announce the winner.
 They tally presidential results from constuency or county and relay them to the
national talling centre.
The Presiding Officer (PO)
 They are appointed for each polling station.
Functions of Presiding Officers.
 It ensures that every eligible voters votes only once.
 To help voters who are unable to mark their ballot papers.
 To seal the ballot taxes after voting is completed in the presence of part agents.
 Count ballot paper in the presence of party agents in voting stations and announce results.
Formation of Government.
In Kenya, there are two levels of government:
 National government.
 County government.
National government
It has three arms
 The executive
 The legislature
 The judiciary.
The following stages are followed in the formation of the Executive.
 Person elected as president and the Deputy President are sworn in by the Chief Justice.
 Person elected as a president becomes the head of the executive arm of the government
and appoints Cabinet Secretary and other senior civil servants with the approval by the
National Assembly.
The following stages are followed in the formation of the Legislature.
 Swearing in of the elected and nominated members of the National Assembly and the
Senate.
 The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of each of the houses are elected by the respective
house of parliament and becomes an ex-officio member.
County Government
 It operates at county level
 Each of the 47 counties has a government which enjoys powers delegated to it by a
national government.
 County government has two arms:
 The county assembly.
 The county executive committee.
 County government formation begins during the General Elections.
 Voters registered in a county elect a Governor, Deputy Governor and Member of the
County Assembly.
 Deputy Governor is elected indirectly as a running mate of the candidate who wins
election as a governor.
Steps followed in the formation of County Executive.
 Swearing in of the Governor and Deputy Governor.
 The governor appoints members of the County Executive Committee from persons who
are not members of the County Assembly
 The same must be approved by the county assembly.
Steps followed in the formation of county assembly.
 The members of County Assembly are sworn in.
 Members of the County Assembly elect the speaker of the county assembly from among
persons who are not members of the county assembly.
Structure and Functions of the National Government.
National governments consist of:
 The Legislature
 the Executives
 The Judiciary.
The Legislature.
 It comprises:
 Parliamentarians.
 Speaker of each house.
 It also referred to as parliament.
 It’s a bi-cameral meaning it has two chambers:
 The National Assembly
 The Senate.
 It’s the law making arm of the government
National Assembly
  It’s the lower house of the legislature.
 Formed during the general elections when voters in each constituency elect their
representatives.
 There are 290 constituencies in Kenya.
 It is made up of 350 members.
 Some members are nominated to represent special interest groups.
 On its first seating member elect the speaker.
Compositon of the National Assembly
 290 elected members representing the constituencies
 47 women elected by registered voters from each county.
 12 nominated members by parliamentary political parties to represent the special interest
groups such as the youth, persons with disabilities and women.
 The speaker who is an ex-official member.the
Functions of the National Assembly.
 National Assembly represents the people of the constituency and special interest groups.
 They deliberate on and resolve issues of concern to the people.
 It makes and amends laws.
 It determines the allocation of national revenue between the national and county
government.
 National Assembly approves government expenditure.
 National Assembly supervises national revenue and expenditure
 It has a responsibility to review the conduct in the office of the President, Deputy
President and other state officers and when neccessary initiates the process of removing
them from office.
 Members of the National Assembly approve declarations of war and extension of state of
emergency when declared.
 They supervise the operation of state organs.
Senate
 This is the upper house of the legislature
 Has 47 members and some are also nominated to represent special interest groups.
 It has 68 members.
 The Senate also elects the Speaker who is an ex-official member.
Composition of the Senate.
 47 elected members representated counties.
 Women members nominated by political parties represented in the senate.
 Two members one woman and one man are represented the youth
 Two members, one woman and one man to represent persons with disabiltieis.
 The speaker who is an ex-official member.
Functions of the Senate.
 The Senators participates in law making function of the parliament by debating and
approving bills concerning the counties.
 The Senate represents and protecting the interest of the counties and their governments.
 The Senate determines the allocation of national revenue among counties.
 It also exercise oversight over national revenue allocated to the county government.
 The Senate participates in considering and determing any resolutions to remove the
president or deputy president in office.
  Senate may initiate innitate bills concerning the counties.
Process of Law making
 Law-making process begins with a proposed legislation which is referred to as a bill.
 Bill may originate from National Assembly or Senate.
 A bill not concerning county government is considered only in the National Assembly.
 A bill concerning county government may originate in the national assembly or the
senate.
 A finance bill may be introduced only in the national assembly
Process of drafting a bill
 A bill is a proposed legislation.
 They are of two types of bill:
 Private member bills.
 Public bills
Private member bill
 Bill is drafted by a member of parliament.
 The member may draft the bill himself or herself or seeks assistance from a qualifed bill
drafters.
 The member publishes the draft bill in the Kenyan gazette for the members of public
acquaint themselves with its content and suggest ammendements.
 The member then presents the draft bill in the floor of the parliament.
The public bill
 It is also referred to as government bill.
 The process of drafting public bill begins from the Ministry which develops a general
policy concerning the proposed bill.
 The Cabinet Secretary presents the bill to the attorney general who makes suggestion for
improvement.
 The AG tables it before the cabinet for debate and approval. The cabinet empowers the
Cabinet Secretary to publish the bill on the Kenyan gazette for members of the public to
acquint themselves to the content and make the suggestions.
 The bill is then presented before the two speakers of parliament.
 The bill is then tabled before either of the two houses of parliament.
For a bill becomes law it has to go through the following stages.
First Reading.
 The bill is introduced in the house.
 It allows members to acquaint themselves with the content of the bill.
 No debate is permitted at this stage.
 The Mps are only required to approve or disapprove the bill.
 If it is approved it moves to the second reading.
Second Reading
 Bill is open to debate by all mps.
 It is debated in detail.
 Amendments are proposed or suggested.
 At this stage, the bill can either be rejected or be discussed or its discussion postponed for
six months to give the concerned ministry time to rethink and draft the bill
 If the bill survives this stage, it goes to the third stage.
Committee Stage
  Parliament turns itself into a committee of the whole house or a smaller committee with a
view to make improvements on the bill, taking into account recommendation made
during the second reading.
Report Stage
 The bill back to parliament in its improved form.
 Members of Parliament are given opportunity to confirm that the suggestions and
recommendation att the committee stage have been incoperated into the bill.
Third Reading.
 Further debates takes place and even additional amendments may be made on the bill.
 Voting takes place if the members of parliament approve its passed to the next stage.
Presidential ascend
 The president signs the bill into law by appending his signature after which it is gazatted.

 It’s then published in the Kenyan gazette for public knowledge and awareness
THe Process of Law making
Drafting of the bill at the Attorney Generals chamber
↓
Fist reading

2nd Reading

Committee stage

Report stage

3rd reading

Presidential ascend

Act of parliament law

Parliamentary Suprimacy (power)
 This means that the parliament is more powerful than the other arms of government.This
is because it is made up of the elected representatives of the people.
Parliamentary supremacy is executed in the following ways
 It is the only body that makes, amends and repeal laws.
 It has terminative role.Parliament may pass a vote of no confidence in the government of
the day.
 It plays critical function which is exercised during debates.
 Parliament approves government budget, expenditure and imposition of taxes.
 Parliament vets and approves presidential appointees.
 It can altar the constitution,approve war and extension of state of emergency
 There is no law that can override any made by parliament.
 The members of parliament are immune to prosectution for whatever they say in
parliament while contributiong to the debates. This is what is known as parliamentatry
immunity.
The Speaker
  Each house has a speaker who is an ex-officio member.
 The speaker is elected by member of each house.
Functions of the Speaker.
 He or She is the spokesperson and the head of the house.
 He or She presides over the proceeding of the house.
 Speaker discpilines errants members and interpretes standing orders to the members.
 He or she interprates standing orders to the members.
 Speaker protects the dignity and authority of the house.
 Speaker represents parliament at official function outside the house.
 He or She represent parliament at official functions outside the house.
 The speaker of the national assembly is the chairperson or the parliamentary sevice
commission.
 Speaker swears in new members of parliament.
The Clerk of Parliament.
 Each house of parliament has a clerk who is appointed by the Parliamentary Service
Commission, with the approval of the relevant house.
Functions of the clerk in the parliament
 He or She is the chief administrator and acoounting officer of the house.
 He or She advices the speaker in the order of the house business and lists notices of
motion.
 He or She prepares and maintains parliamentary records of the housue proceedings in the
Hansard affairs copies of bills and submit them for presidential escort.
 He or She supervise and co-ordinate the work of the staff of the house.
 He or She maintains library for the use by members of the house.
Parliamentary Service Commission.
Composition
 The speaker of the national assembly as chairperson
 Vice chairperson elected by members,
 Seven members appointed by parliament from among its members
 One man and one woman appointed by the parliament from among persons who are
experienced in public affaires but are not members of the parliament.
 The clerk of the Senate as secretary.

Functions of the Parliamentary Services Commission.

 They provide services and facilities for efficient and effective functioning of the
parliament.
 They constitute offices in parliamentary service.
 They appoint and supervise office holders in parliamentary service.
 They prepare annual estimates of expenditure of parliamentary service and submit them
for approval by National Assembly.
 They promote the ideal of parliamentary democracy in collaboration with the relevant
organisation.
The Executive
 This is the arm of governments which implements the law and policies of government.
 It is headed by the president.
  It comprises of:
 President
 Deputy President.
 Cabinet Secretaries.
 Public Services.
Powers of the President
 President is the commander in chief of the armed forces.
 Power to exercise the exectuve authority of the republic.
 Power to uphold and safeguard the constitution and sovereignity of the republic.
 Power of mercy for example pardons persons convicted of offence.
 Power to nominate, appoint or dismiss cabinet secretary and other officials.
 Power to confer honours in the name of the people and the Republic.
 President is the chairperson of the national Security Council.
Functions of the President.
 Presidents address the openings and special seating in parliament.
 President Report’s once evey year in an address to the nations on measures taken and
progress achieved in realizing national values.
 President Chair’s cabinet meetings.
 Presidents nominate and with approval of national assembly, appoint or dismiss cabinet
secretaries, attorney-general and other seniour state officers.
 President appoints or dismises cabinet secretary, attoney general and other senior state
officers.
 President receives foreign diplomatic and consular representatives.
 President directs and co-ordinates the functions of minister and government departments.
 President confers honours in the name of the people and the republic.
 He represents Kenya in international forums.
 He or She can Declare state of emergency
 He or She can declare war with approval of parliament.
 He or She ensures the international obligations of the republic are fullfiled through the
actions of the relevant cabinet secretaries.
Functions of the Deputy President.
 He or She performs any other functions assigned by the president.
 He or She is a member of the cabinet.
 He or She is the principal assistant of the president and deputises the president in the
execution of the president’s functions.
 He or She acts as president when the president is absent or is temporarily incapacitated
and during any other period that the president decides.
 He or She assumes the position of president in the event of vacancy in the position of
president.
The Cabinet
Composition
 The cabinet secretaries are not members of parliament.
 They are nominated and appointed by the president with approval of the national
assembly.
Composition of the cabinet.
 President
  The deputy president
 The Attorney General
 Cabinet secretaries who are not less that 14 and not more then 22.
Functions of the Cabinet.
 They appear before a committee of the national assembly or the senate when required by
the committee and answer questions pertaining various ministries.
 They provide parliament with full and regular reporters concerning matters under their
control.
 They assists and advices the president on day to day running of the government.
 They chart out and lay down guidelines on Kenya domestic and foreign policy.
 They discuss matters of national and international importance.
 They expound government policy.
 They ensure governement policy is implemented by the civil servants.
Secretary to the cabinet.
 There is the office of the secretary to the cabinet.
 The holder of the office is a public servant nominated and appointed by the president
with the approval of the national assembly.
Functions of secretary to the cabinet.
 Takes change of the cabinet office.
 Arranges the business of the cabinet.
 Keeps the minutes of the cabinet to the appropriate person or authority.
 Conveys the decision of the cabinet to the appropriate persons or authorities.
The Principal Secretary (PS)
 Each State department is headed by a principal secretary.
 The office of the principal secretary is an office in the public service.
 They are nominated by the president from among persons recommended by Public
Service Commission (PSC).
 Their appointement must be approved by the parliament.
Functions of the PS (Principal Secretaries).
 They administer state departments.
 They are the accounting officers in the state departments
 They formulate and implement governemtn policy.
 They advise cabinet secretaries on matters of policy.
 They assist in drawing up the budgets and development programmes of their deparments.
 They act as a link between the cabinet secretary and staff of the department.
Functions of the Attorney-General.
 The Attorney General is nominated and appointed by the President with the approval of
the National Assembly.
Functions of the Attorney General.
 He or She is the principal legal advisor to the government.
 Attorney General represents the national government incourt or in any other legal
proceeding.
 Attorney General promotes and upholds the rule of law.
 Attorney General defends public interest.
 Attorney General appears as a friend of the court in any civil proceeding to which the
government is not a party.
  He or She takes part in the drafting of government bills before they are tabled in
parliament.
The Director of Public Prosecutions (DPP)
 The DPP is nominated and with the approval of the National Assembly, appointed by the
president.
 The DPP hold office for a term of eight years and is not eligible for re-apointment.
Functions of the DPP.
 Institute and undertake criminal proceedings against any person before any court other
than a court martial.
 Takes over and continue any criminal proceedings commenced in any court other than a
court marital.
 Can discountinues at any stage before judgment is delivered any crimininal proceedings
commenced in any court.
 Supervises and co-ordinates the work of state.
 Directs the Inspector-General of the National police service to investigate allegations of
criminal conduct.
 Safeguards public interest and the interest of administration of justice to prvent abuse of
the legal process.
 Exercise state powers of prosecution.
 Delegates powers to subordinate prosecution officers.
The Public Service (PS)
 This is the non-political section of the executive arm of the government which
implements policies and carries out the day-to-day task.
Composition.
 It’s headed by the principal secretary in the office of the president.
 Members of public servies are appointed by the public service commission.
Functions of the Public Service
 They provide services to the people especially service ministries like health and
education.
 They implements government policies and programme.
 They interpretes government policies to the people so that they can willingly participate
in their implementation.
 They maintain governement records.
 They advise cabinet secretary on matters of policy.
 They ensure continuity in governement operations since the public service is permanent
while politician come and go.
 They collect government revenue through licenses.
Public Service Commission
Composition
 Chairperson.
 Vice chairperson.
 Seven other members appointed by the president.
 Secretary appointed by the commission who is the chief executive.
Functions of Public Services Commission.
 Establishing and abolishing offices in the public service.
 Appointing persons to hold officing in the public services
  Disciplining and removing from office public services officers.
 Promoting and providing renumeration to public service officers.
 Developing human resources in the public service.
 Ensuring efficient and effective prosivion of service by public service officers.
 Hearing and determining appeals in respect of country govenmeent public service.
National Security Organs.
 They are government bodies which provide internal security or protect the country from
external attack,
 They help in maintenance of law and order
 Help to promote the rule of law
Composition of National Security Organ.
 The Defence Forces
 National intelligence service
 National police service
Kenya Defence Forces (KDF)
It consists of:
 The Kenya Army’s
 The Kenya Air force.
 The Kenya Navy
Functions of the K.D.F
 To defend Kenya from external aggression
 The Kenya Navy has the responsibility of patrolling Kenya’s territorial waters and
defending Kenya against seaborne invasions.
 The navy also is responsible for dealing with illegal docking and departures and
unautrhorised fishing in Kenyan waters by foreign vessels’. The Kenya Air Force secures
Kenya’s airspace against potential forces.
 They also assist the police in maitaning have and order.
 Participating in development projects within the country e.g road construction, floods
control.
 Participating in international peace-keeping activities under United Nations.
 Assisting victims during national disasters e.g floods.
 Mounting parades during national holidays.
National Intelligence Services.
 This is the body which collects and gathers intelligence reports which are important to the
state security.
 It’s headed by the Director General who is a member of the National security.
Functions of the National intelligence Service.
 They collect intelligence information on threats to state security.
 They keep the state informed on the feeling of people towards the government and the
government policy.
 They gather information on external threats to the nation.
National Police Service
 It consists of:
 Kenya Police Service.
 The Administration Police Service.
 It’s headed by the Inspector General of the National Police Service.
  The Kenya police service and administration police service are each headed by a Deputy
Inspector General.
 Recruitment into the services is done by the National Police Services Commission
(NPSC).
 Kenya Police Services has several units which include.
 The Criminal Investigation Department (CID).
 Traffic Police.
 Police Airway.
 Anti- Narcotics unit.
 General Services Unit.
 Anti-Stock Theft Unit.
Functions of the National Police Service.
 They maintain law and order by preventing and detecting crime.
 They arrest suspected criminals and taking them to a court of law.
 They collect and evaluating intelligence information and documents for fighting
crime.
 They direct traffic and inspection of motor vehicles.
 They monitor the incoming and outgoing traffic at border posts and entry points.
 They collaborate with Interpol in fighting international crime.
 They provide security to senior government officers and buildings.
 They prevent corruption and promote practice of transparency and accountability.
 Conduct driving tests to trainee drivers.
 Investigate suspected criminal activities.
 They train staff to highest possible standards of competend and integrity.
National Police Service Commision.
 The constitution established a National Police Service Commission.
Composition of the National Police Service Commission.
 A person qualified to be appointed as high court judge who is appointed by the president.
 Two retired seniour police officers, each appointed by the President.
 Three appointees of the presidents who are of high intergrity and have served the public
with distincion.
 The Inspector-General of the National Police Service.
 Both Deputy Inspectors-General of the National Police Service.
Functution of the National Police Service Commision.
 Recruits and appoints person to hold or act in offices in the service.
 Confirms appointment and determines promotion
 Determines transfers within the servie.
 Exercises disciplinary control over officers.
 Removing persons holding or acting in offices with the service.
Challenges Facing the National Security Organs.
 Porous boundaries especially the borders of Kenya and Ethiopia, Kenya and
Somalia.These has made it difficult for the security organs to monitor the illegal entry of
foreigners and smuggling of weapons.
 Rising crime rates due to swelling population and unemployment has overwhelmed the
security organs.
  Increased cases of sophisticated crimes such as cyber crime, terrosism, money laundering
and drug trafficking.The security organs have inadequate facilities to cope with these
sophisticstion.
 Poor infrastructure e.g poor and communication network makes it difficulut for security
organs to access certain parts of the country.
 High incidents of corruption and related vices like nepotism and favourism has hampered
service delivery to the public.
 High influx of refugees from war torn countries like Somalia and Sudan has led to
smuggling of arms in the contry, posing a security risk.
 The emergences of organized criminal gangs in the name of vigilance groups have caused
insecurity in many areas.
 Negative attitude from members of the public who withhold useful information.
 Political interferences in their operations.
 Betrayal by some officers who collude with criminals to commit crime.
 Inadequate training which affects their operations and services delivery.
 Acts of terrorism which has complicated the fight against crime.
 Poor renumeration demoralises the officers.
Possible Solutions.
 Employing more police officers to improve on the overall police to population ratio.
 Reviewing of the security organs training curriculum to incorporate skills for combating
emerging crimes.
 Increase the duration of training of security officers to make them more efficient in
fighting crime.
 Providing modern equipment such as communication gadgets, forensic laboratory and
arms.
 Increasing funding to security organs for purchase of motor vehicles for their daily
operations.
 Improving the conditions and terms of service of police officers.
 Increase surveillance along international boundaries by opening patrol bases and
deploying more personnel to curb illegal entry into the country.
 Streamlining the recruitment of personnel into the security organs to reflect the diversity
of the Kenyan people.

Corretional Service
 It falls under National Police Service.
 They are measures taken to punish and rehabilitate offenders so as reintergrate them into
the society.
 The correctional services are mainly by the Kenya Prisons Services.
 The prisons services have various categories of institutions which help to prevent
contamination of the minor offenders by worse ones.
Correctional services department.
i.Principal institution.
 These confine offenders convicted of serious crime for example those sentenced to life
imprisonment.
 They are also called maximum security prisons.
Examples
  Kamiti in Nairobi.
 Kingongo in Nyeri.
ii.District I and II prisons
 These hold offenders convicted of serious crime but which are not capital offences.
 They are also reffred as medium security prisons.
 Are found in most counties.
iii.Youth institutions.
 These are used to confine young offender of between ages 15 and 21.
 They offer vocational training and give them opportunities to continue with education.
Examples are:
 Shimo la Tewa in Mombasa County.
 Sikusa in Kakamega County
Other correctional service include
i.Extra – mural panel employment scheme.
 This involves convicts residing in their homes but working on government projects or
public works for the entire period of their sentence.
ii.Probation Department
 This is where convicts are placed under the observation of a probation officer. The
officer provides counseling service and monitors change in behaviour andconduct of the
convict.
Functions of correctional services
 They punishconvicted offenders as directed by a court of law.
 They rehabilitate convicted offenders.This is done through counselling and providing
training to equip the convicts with skills that would make them useful members of the
society in post-prison life.
 They confine convicted prisoners.It is meant to separate them from law-abiding citizens
and keep a watchful eye on them.
 They detere those who might be thinking of committing crimes.
 They offer welfare services to convicts, this include medical care, spiritual nourishment
and education.
 They confine remandees as they wait to appear in court.

Challenges facing correctional services

 There is congestion in prisons which is caused by high incidents of crime. This has led to
poor living conditions as the prisons facilites are overstretched.
 High incidents of disease outbreaks such as a cholera and typhoid fever. This has led to
death of many inmates.
 Shortage of funds to maintain the prisoners. The correctional services have inadequate
part to rehabilitate convicts through counseling.for example, against alcohol and drug
addiction.
 Poor living conditions of prison warders like low renumeration and poor housing.
 Rising cases or corruption, leading to smuggling of legal goods into prisons and prison
breaks.
Possible Solutions.
  There has been introduction of community service for petty offenders to decongest
prisons.
 Improving the living conditions for prisoners by providing medical services, clothing and
bedding and also better diet.
 Realease of petty offenders to ease congestion.
 Employing and training more personel e.g counsellors to assist in the rehabilitation of
convicts.
 Improving the living conditions for prison warders by constructing better houses and
improving terms of services.
 Allocating more funds to the correctional services to enable provision of more facilities
to the convicts.
Judiciary
 This is the branch of government which co-ordinates the administration of justice through
a system courts in accordance with the law.
 It comprises:
 Chief Justice.
 Deputy Chief Justice.
 Judges and Magistrates.
Judiaciary authority.
 Judiciary authority is power to administer justice which is vested in the courts and
tribunals.
 The authority is derived from the constitutions in exercising judicial authority.
Principals guiding courts and tribunals.
 Justice shall be done to all irrespective of status.
 Justice shall not be delayed.
 Alternative forms of dispute resolution mechanism, for example, mediation shall be
promoted.
 Justice shall be administered without undue regard to technicalties of court procedures.
 The purpose and principles of the constitution shall be protected and promoted.

Legal sytem.
 The legal sytem refers to the method through which justice is dispensed.
 The legal system is based on the Kenyan laws.

Source of Kenyan Law.

 African traditions and customary laws, for examples, marriage and inheritances.
 Religion, for example, the laws used in Kadhi courts.
 English common law which is the commonly applied.
 Statutory law which is legislated through acts of parliament.
 Judicial precedents which are rulings of the superior courts.
 The Kenyan constitution which is the fundamental laws of the land.
In Kenya, the judiciary administers justice through a sytem of courts.
Independent of the judiciary.
 This means that in the exercise of judicial authority, the judiciary is not subject to any other
person or authorities.
 The independence of the judiciary in Kenya is guaranteed in the following ways:
  The office of a judge of a superior court can’t be abolished while the holder is still in
office.
 The remuneration and benefit of judges is drawn directly from the consolidated fund.
 The Judicial act protects judges and magistrates from any form of victimization.
 The renumeration and benefits of a serving or retired judge cannot be changed to their
disadvantage.
 The judiciary has a separate system or command, headed by the Chief justice and
delinked from other organsof governments.
 Judges and magistrate take Oath of allegiance to perform their duties without fear or
favour.
 Judges cannot be dismissed at will by the executive and their retirement age is fixed at 70
years.
 Appointment of magistrates is done by the Judicial Service Commission which is
independent.
Structure and functions of the court system in Kenya.
The court system in Kenya is heirachical, that’s it is arranged from highest to the lower court
system of courts in Kenya is made up of
 Supreme courts.
 Subordinate court.
i.Superior Courts.
Supreme Court
↓
Court of appeal
↓
High court
↓
ii.Subordinates Courts.
Magistrates’ courts.
↓
Kadhi courts.
↓
Court martial.
↓
Tribunals.

The superior courts are;

 The Supreme Court
 The Court of Appeal
 The High Court
The Supreme Court
 This is the highest court in the land.
 Supreme Court is made up of:
 Chief justice
 Deputy Chief justice
 Five other judges
Functions of the Supreme Court
  Has exclusive original jurisdication to hear and determine disputes relating to the election
to the office of the president.
 Hears and determines appeals from the court of appeal and any other court or tribunal.
 Give advisory opinion at the request of the National government, any state organ or any
county government with respects to any matter concerning that government.
 Make decisions which are binding to all other courts.
 Makes rules for the exercise of its jurisdication.
The Court of Appeal
 This is the second highest court in the country.
 It has only appellate jurisdication.
 It is composed of:
 The president who is elected from among its judges
 Not less than twelve judges.
Functions of the Court of Appeal.
 Hears appeals from the high court.
 Hears appeals form other court s or tribunals.
 May order a retrial of a case by a lower court
The High Court
 This is the third highest court
 It consist of:
 Principal Judge elected by judges of the high court from among themselves.
 A number of judges prescribed by an act of parliamnent
Functions of the High Court.
 Has unlimited original jurisdiction in criminal and civil matters.
 Protects the rights of fundamental freedoms in the Bill of rights.
 Hears appeals from tribunals appointed by the court to consider removal of a person
from office other than the president.
 Hears questions on the interpretation of the constitution.
 Supervises the subordinate courts.
 Hears appeals from the subordinate courts.
 Parliament has also established courts which are equivalent to the high court and handle
specific cases.
 An example is the industrial court which determines disputes related to employment and
labour relations.
Subordinate Courts
They are lower courts. They have limited jurisdication over criminal and civil cases.
They include the magistrate courts
 The Kadhi courts
 The Court Martial
 Tribunals
The magistrate courts
 These are headed by a magistrate who is appointed by the Judicial Service Commission.
 Magistrate courts are found throughout the counties.
 They operate under certain levels.
 These are:-
 Chief magistrate courts.
  Senior principal magistrates’ court
 Principal magistrates court
 Senior resident magistrate’s court.
 Resident magistrate’s court.
 The chief magistrate courts have administrative powers over all the lower courts within
the region.
 Seniour resident magistrate courts and those above can hear a case whose sentences
carries a death penalty befor referring them to the high court..
 Their hierarchy of the magistate courts determines the nature of case handled and the jail
sentence given or fine imposed.
Kadhi courts
 These are Islamic court.
 They handle disputes where both parties are Muslim.
 They are headed by chief Kadhi who supervise the other Kadhi courts.
Functions of Kadhi Courts.
 The deals with cases involving muslims against muslims on matters like
 Divorce.
 Marriage.
 Inheritance.
 Personal status.
Tribunals
 It’s a special court established by an Act of parliament to handle matters relating to
specific fields.
 Examples of tribunal in Kenya are
 The rent restriction tribunal
 The business premises rent tribunal
 Commissions of inquiry
The Judicial Service Commission
 This is a body established by the constitution to promote and facilitate the independence
and accountability of the judiciary.
 It composed of: -
 The Chief Justice – Chairperson
 One Supreme Court judge
 One Court of Appeal judge.
 One High Court judge
 One Magistrate
 The Attorney-General
 Two advocates one woman and one man elected by the Law Society of Kenya.
 One person nominated by the Public Service Commission.
 One woman and one man to represent the public appointed by the President with
the approval of the National Assembly.
 The Chief Registrar of the Judiciary-Secretary
Functions of the Judicial Service Commission
 The Commission recommends to the President persons for appointment as judges.
 The Commission reviews and makes recommendations on the conditions of service of
judges, judicial officers and the staff of the judiciary.
  The Commission appoints, receives complaints against, investigates and removes from
office or disciplines the registrars, magistrates, other judicial officers and staff of the
judiciary.
 The Commission prepares and implements programmes for the continuing education and
training of judges and judicial officers
 The Commission advices the national government on improving the efficiency of the
administration of justice.
The Chief Justice
 Chief Justice Head of the Judiciary arm of government
 He is appointed by the president following the recommendations of the Judicial Service
Commission and subject to the approval of the national assembly.
 He holds office for one term of 10 years.
 The Chief Justice is assisted by the Deputy Chief Justice
Qualification for one to be appointed as a Chief Justice.
 At least 15 years of experience as a Supreme Court judge.
 At least 15 years experience as a distinguished academic judicial officer, or legal
practitioner.
 Hold a law degree from a recognized university or be an advocate of the High court.
 Have a high moral character, integrity and impartiality.
Functions of the Chief Justice
 He or She is the Head of the judiciary.
 He or She is the President of the Supreme Court
 He or She is the Chairperson of the judicial service commission.
 He or She swears into the office the President, Deputy President and Cabinet secretaries.
 He or She assigns duties to the judges of the Supreme Court.

Rule of law.
 This means that alll people are treated equally by the courts.
 The law therefore must not discriminate against any one on the basis of race, tribe, sex,
religion or status in society.
 The law therefore is considered to be colour blind.
Ways the rule of law is upheld in Kenya.
The Kenya government upholds the rules of law in various ways.These are:
 By ensuring the independence of the judiciary
 By apprehending and taking suspects to court of law for trial.
 By allowing convicts to appeal for a retrial.
 By guaranteeing legal representative to the accused person.
 By subjecting all persons to the law
Challenges facing the judiciary.
 Inadequate personnel, leading to delays in the administration of justice and a backlog of
cases.
 External Interference in the judicial process by the executive and other influential
personalities.
 Corruption in the court of law which results into unfair rulings.
 Low level of public awareness on their rights and legal procedures.
 High court fees which limit public access to the courts.
  Poor terms of service and working conditions of some members of the judiciary makes it
difficult for them to administer justice.
 The use of outdate laws, for example, the penal code, leading to miscarriage of justice..
 Shortage of equipment and facilitaties e.g computer and office space hinder the efficient
administration of justice.
Solutions.
 Employment of more personnel for example, judges and magistrates to help clear the
backlog of cases.
 Improving on the terms of service and remuneration of judges and magistrates.
 Increase funding to the judiciary to enable it acquires modern equipment, technology and
built more courts.
 Providing legal education to the public to enable them understand their legal rights and
courts procedures.
 Making courts more independent to free them from external interference.
 Making courts corruption free zones by creating awareness on the ills of corruption.
 Lowering court fees to make them affordable to ordinary citizens.
 Reviewing the penal code to make it relevant and responsive to changing times.
The concept of natural justice.
 This means while resolving disputes, the courts adhere to basic standards of fair decision
making.
 Natural justice ensures that the procedure before the court is fair to both parties involved.
Ways in which the concept of natural justice is held.
The concept of natural justice is applied in Kenya in the following ways:
 The accuses person are given the right to a fair and impartial trial.
 Suspects are presumed innocent until proved guilty before a court of law.
 Mob justice is discouraged and those who practise it are liable to prosecution.
 Every accused person has the right to legal representation by a lawyer.
 All suspected persons have achance to defend themselves in a court of law and call
witness to prove their cases.
 All judges and magistrates perform their judicial services without external interference.
 Any accused person is informed in advance of the impending trial and the nature of
charges.
 Where a judge or magistrates has interest in a case he or she must disqualify himself and
herself.
 Justice must be done and be seen to have been done.
 All judicial judgements are made based on the law.
 Judicial decisions are communicated to all parties in the cases and reasons given for the
decision.
 No judge or magistrates can be judge over one’s own cases.
Factors undermining administration of justice in Kenya.
 Corrupt practices in courts of law may lead to unfair decisions.
 Political interference may influence judgement made in court.
 Confining suspects in remand for longer periods without presenting them in court of law
for prosecution.
 Lack of impartiality during trials may lead to unfair judgement.
 Inability by police to carry out thorough investigations on suspected criminal activities.
  Inability of ordinary people to meet the costs of prolonged court cases.
 Lacks of knowledge regarding legal procedures hence find themselves implicated
unfairly.
 Inadequate legal officers to handle the many cases.
 Lack of modern technology.
 Lack of one common law derails the effective administration of justice.
Functions of the National Governement.
 Developing and implementing foreign affairs and foreign policy.
 Handling matters concerning trade between Kenya and other countries.
 Controls the use of international waters and resources.
 Handling matters pertaining to immigration and citizenship.
 Defending the country from external aggression by putting in place and maintaining a
national defence force.
 Providing and maintaining higher education policies and institutions through
developmment of curricular and examinations.
 Providing health care through formulation of policy and construction and maitanance of
national referral hospitals.
 Protecting the environment and national resources.
 Protecting the rights of workers by maintaining labour, standard and managing industrial
relations.
 Admistering justice by establishing and maintaining an idependent judiciary
 Maintaining internal security through the Kenya police service. This ensures there is no
breakdown of law and order.
 Formulates national economic policy and planning for national development.
 Developing transport and communications infrastructure through construction and
maintenance of roads, railways, ports, airports and telecommunication facilities.