States of Matter

Learning outcomes
You should be able to:
• State the distinguishing properties of solids, liquids and gases
• Describe the structures of solids, liquids and gases in terms of particle separation,
arrangement and motion
• Describe changes of state
• Describe the effects of temperature and pressure on the volume of a gas
• Use kinetic particle theory to explain changes of state
Solids, liquids and gases
What is matter?
This word is used to cover all the substances and materials from which the physical universe is
composed. There are many millions of different substances known, and all of them can be
categorised as solids, liquids or gases. These are what we call the three states of matter.

Matter: Anything that occupies space

and has mass.

Fluid: a gas or a liquid: they are able

to flow.
Solids, liquids and gases
Solids Liquids
A solid, at a given temperature; A liquid, at a given temperature;
• has a fixed volume and will take up the shape of
• has a fixed volume and shape which may be
affected by changes in temperature any container into which it is poured.
• Like a solid, a liquid’s volume is slightly affected
• Solids usually increase slightly in size when by changes in temperature
heated, called expansion
• usually decrease in size if cooled, called
contraction
Gases
A gas, at a given temperature;
• has neither a definite shape nor a definite volume
Liquids and gases, unlike solids, are • It spreads out to fill its container
compressible. This means that their • It is much lighter than the same volume of solid or
volume can be reduced by the application liquid.
of pressure. Gases are much more • Unlike solids and liquids, the volumes of gases are
compressible than liquids affected greatly by changes in temperature.
Kinetic particle theory of matter
The kinetic particle theory helps to explain the way that matter behaves.
• It is based on the idea that all matter is made up of tiny particles.
• This theory explains the physical properties of matter in terms of the movement of the particles
from which it is made.
The main points of the theory are:
➢ All matter is made up of tiny, moving particles, invisible to your eye. Different substances have
different types of particles (atoms, molecules or ions) of varying sizes.
➢ The particles move all the time. The higher the temperature, the faster they move on average.
➢ Heavier particles move more slowly than lighter ones at a given temperature.
➢ The pressure of a gas is produced by the atoms or molecules of the gas hitting the walls of the
container. The more often the particles collide with the walls, the greater the pressure.

The kinetic particle theory can be used as a scientific model to explain how the arrangement of particles relates to the
properties of the three states of matter.
Explaining the states of matter
Solid
In a solid, the particles attract one another. There are (strong)
attractive forces between the particles which hold them
close together.
The particles have little freedom of movement and can only
vibrate about a fixed position.
They are arranged in a regular manner, which explains
why many solids form crystals (or lattice).

A modern X-ray crystallography

instrument used for studying
crystal structure
 Explaining the states of matter
Solid
Explaining the states of matter
Liquid
In a liquid, the particles are still close together but they move around in a random way and often
collide with one another.
The forces of attraction between the particles in a liquid are weaker than those in a solid.
Particles in the liquid form of a substance have more energy on average than the particles in
the solid form of the same substance.
Explaining the states of matter
Gas
In a gas, the particles are relatively far apart.
They are free to move anywhere within the container in which they are held. They move randomly at
very high velocities, much more rapidly than those in a liquid.
They collide with each other, but less often than in a liquid, and they also collide with the walls of the
container.
They exert virtually no forces of attraction on each other because they are relatively far apart.
Explaining the states of matter
Question
When a metal (such as copper) is heated, it expands. Explain what happens to the
metal particles as the solid metal expands.
Changing state
Melting
When a solid is heated, its particles get more energy and vibrate more. This makes the solid expand.
At the melting point, the particles vibrate so much that they break away from their positions.
i.e. The regular pattern of the structure breaks down, and the particles can now move around
each other. The solid turns liquid.
Melting point: The temperature at which a given solid material changes from a solid state to a liquid,
or melts.
Changing state
Boiling
When a liquid is heated, its particles get more energy and move faster. They bump into each other
more often, and bounce further apart. This makes the liquid expand. At the boiling point, the
particles get enough energy to overcome the forces between them. They break away to form a
gas.
Boiling point: The temperature at which a liquid boils, at the boiling point, the pressure of the gas
created above the liquid equals that of the air, which is atmospheric pressure.
Changing state
Evaporation
If a liquid is heated, the average energy of the particles increases and the particles will move around
even faster. Some particles at the surface of the liquid have enough energy to overcome the forces. of
attraction between themselves and the other particles in the liquid and they escape to form a gas. The
liquid begins to evaporate as a gas is formed.

Evaporation Boiling
In Evaporation the temperature does Boiling happens when the
not need to reach to boiling point temperature reaches to the boiling
point.
Bubbles do not form in evaporation Bubble formation is visible
Most of the time energy for Usually external source of energy is
evaporation is supplied by the needed for boiling to happen.
atmosphere or surrounding.
Slow process compared to boiling Rapid Process
Occurs only on the surface Occurs in large mass
Changing state
How much heat is needed?

The amount of heat needed to melt or boil a

substance is different for every substance.
That’s because the particles in each substance
are different, with different forces between
them.

The stronger the forces, the more heat

energy is needed to overcome them. So the
higher the melting and boiling points will
be.
Changing state
Reversing the changes
Look at this diagram:
Condensation and Freezing
The processes taking place during condensation and freezing are:
• As the particles come closer together, new forces of interaction take place
• This means that energy is given out during these changes
• Therefore, the temperature remains unchanged until the liquid or solid is totally
formed.
Heating and cooling curves

• In ice, the particles of water are close

together and are attracted to one another.

• For ice to melt, the particles must obtain

sufficient energy to overcome the forces of
attraction between the water particles, so
that relative movement can take place.

• The heat energy is being used to overcome

these forces.

• The temperature will begin to rise again

only after all the ice has melted.
Heating and cooling curves
Cooling curve
Pure substances
• A pure substance consists of only one substance without any “contaminating” impurities.
• The values for the melting point and boiling point of a pure substance are precise and
predictable. This means that we can use them to test the purity of a sample.
✓ These values can also be used to check the identity of an unknown substance.
• A substance’s melting and boiling points in relation to room temperature (standard taken as
25℃) determine whether it is usually seen as a solid, a liquid or a gas.
✓ For example, if the melting point is below 25℃ and boiling point is above 25℃ , the substance will be a liquid at room
temperature.

This is water. It has only water This water has particles of

particles in it, and nothing other substances mixed
else. So it is 100% pure. with it. So it is not pure.
Pure substances
Effects of impurities
➢Impurities often affect the value of the melting or boiling point of a substance.
➢An impure substance sometimes melts or boils over a range of temperatures, not at the precise
point of the pure substance.
➢Sea water freezes at a temperature below the freezing point of pure water (0℃) and boils at a
temperature above the boiling point of pure water (100℃).
Find the melting point of a substance
You can find the melting point of a substance using
the apparatus shown on the right.
• The addition or presence of impurities lowers the
melting point.
• A mixture of substances also has a lower melting
point than a pure substance, and the melting point
will be over a range of temperatures and not sharp.
• In the same way, if you want to boil a liquid, such
as water, you have to give it some extra energy.
• Solids and liquids can be identified from their
characteristic melting and boiling points.
• The reverse processes of condensing and freezing
occur when a substance is cooled. Energy is given
out when the gas condenses to the liquid and the
liquid freezes to give the solid.
The effects of temperature and pressure
on the volume of a gas
What do you think has caused the difference between the
balloons ?
At a higher temperature
An increase in the temperature of a gas produces an
increase in volume.
➢ This is due to the gas particles having more energy
and therefore moving around faster, which results in
the particles striking the inside surface of the balloon
more frequently.
➢ Since the balloon is made from an elastic material, it
stretches and the volume increases. An increase in volume
of a gas with increased temperature is a property of all
gases.

Decrease in temperature
A decrease in temperature produces a contraction of the volume
of a gas.
The effects of temperature and pressure on the
volume of a gas Changing the external pressure on a sample of a
gas produces a change in volume that can easily
be seen.

• An increase in external pressure produces a

contraction in volume. The gas is
compressed.

• A decrease in external pressure produces an

increase in volume. The gas expands.

In addition, as the molecules are forced

closer to one another, intermolecular bonds
form.
Questions
1. Why do gases expand more than solids for the same increase in temperature?
2. Ice on a car windscreen will disappear as you drive along, even without the heater on. Explain
why this happens.
3. When salt is placed on ice, the ice melts. Explain why this happens.
4. Draw and label a graph of water at 100°C being allowed to cool to −5°C.
Mixtures of substances and diffusion
The chemical world is very complex, owing to the vast range of pure substances available and to the variety of
ways in which these pure substances can mix with each other.
Mixture:
Two or more substances mixed together but not chemically combined – the substances can be separated by
physical means.

Solution:
Is formed when a substance (solute) dissolves into another substance (solvent).

Suspension:
A mixture containing small particles of an insoluble solid, or droplets of an insoluble liquid spread
(suspended) throughout a liquid.

Precipitation reaction:
A reaction in which an insoluble solid is prepared from solutions of two soluble substances.
Diffusion
Some of the earliest evidence for the kinetic model of
the states of matter came from observations on
diffusion, where particles spread to fill the space
available to them.
The main ideas involved in diffusion are:
• Particles move from a region of higher concentration
towards a region of lower concentration; eventually
the particles are evenly spread.
• The rate of diffusion in liquids is much slower than
in gases.
• Diffusion does not take place in solids as the
particles cannot move from place to place.
Diffusion
Gases diffuse at different rates. The rate of diffusion of a gas depends on;
• Relative molecular mass (or mass of particles)
Ammonia (NH3) has a relative molecular mass
of 17 g
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) has a relative
molecular mass of 36.5 g

NH3 diffuses more quickly due to its lower

relative molecular mass.

The lower its relative molecular mass,

• Cotton wool soaked in ammonia solution is put into one end of a long tube the faster a gas will diffuse.
(at A). It gives off ammonia gas.
• At the same time, cotton wool soaked in hydrochloric acid is put into the
other end of the tube (at B). It gives off hydrogen chloride gas.
• The gases diffuse along the tube. White smoke forms where they meet
• The white smoke (ammonium chloride) forms closer to B. So the ammonia
particles have travelled further than the hydrogen chloride particles – which
means they have travelled faster.
Diffusion
• The temperature
When a gas is heated, its particles take in heat energy, and move faster. They collide with more
energy, and bounce further away. So the gas diffuses faster. The higher the temperature, the faster a
gas will diffuse.

Diffusion also takes place in liquids but it is a much

slower process than in gases. This is because the
particles of a liquid move much more slowly.