FOREWORD

The provision of quality education and training is fundamental to the Government’s overall
strategy for social economic development. Quality education and training will contribute to
achievement of Kenya’s development blue print and sustainable development goals. Reforms in
education are necessary to align the sector to the provisions of the Constitution of Kenya 2010.
This triggered the formulation of the Policy Framework on “Reforming Education and Training in
Kenya” (Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2019). A key provision of this policy is the radical change in the
design, development and delivery of Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET)
which is the key to unlocking the country’s potential for industrialization. This policy requires that
training in TVET be Competency Based, Curriculum development be industry led, certification be
based on demonstration of competence and that mode of delivery allows for multiple entry and
exit in TVET programs.
The State Department for Vocational and Technical Training (VTT) has a responsibility of
facilitating the process of inculcating knowledge, skills and attitudes necessary for catapulting
the nation to a globally competitive country, hence the paradigm shift to embrace Competency
Based Education and Training (CBET) to address the mismatch between skills acquired through
training and skills needed by industry as well as increase the global competitiveness of Kenyan
labor force. The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Act No. 29 of 2013 and the
Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2019 on Reforming Education and Training in Kenya, emphasizes the
need to reform curriculum development, assessment and certification to respond to the unique
needs of the industry.

This learning guide has been developed to support the implementation of CBET curriculum in
Perioperative theatre technology and is intended to guide the trainee through the learning
process. It is my conviction that this learning guide will play a critical role towards supporting
the development of competent human resource for Health sector’s growth and sustainable
development.

PRINCIPAL SECRETARY, VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL TRAINING

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
 PREFACE

Kenya Vision 2030 is anticipated to transform the country into a newly industrializing, “middle-income
country providing a high-quality life to all its citizens by the year 2030”. The Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) number four that focuses on inclusive and equitable quality education and promotion of
lifelong learning for all, further affirm that education and training is an important driver to economic
development for any country. Kenya intends to create a globally competitive and adaptive human
resource base to meet the requirements of a rapidly industrializing economy.

TVET CDACC has a responsibility of facilitating the process of inculcating knowledge, skills and
attitudes necessary for catapulting the nation to a globally competitive country, hence the paradigm shift
to embrace Competency Based Education and Training (CBET) to address the mismatch between skills
acquired through training and skills needed by industry as well as increase the global competitiveness of
Kenyan labor force. The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Act No. 29 of 2013 and the
Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2019 on Reforming Education and Training in Kenya, emphasizes the need to
reform curriculum development, assessment and certification to respond to the unique needs of the
industry.

To effectively implement CBET curriculum in Perioperative Theatre Technology Level 6, this learning
guide has been designed and organized with clear interactive learning activities for each learning outcome
of every unit of learning. The guide further provides information sheet, self-assessment items, tools,
equipment, supplies, and materials necessary for the particular learning outcome. This is aimed at
imparting the relevant knowledge, requisite skills and the right attitude for work.

I am grateful to the trainers involved in the development of this learning guide.

CHAIRMAN,

TVET Curriculum Development, Assessment and Certification Council

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This learning guide has been designed and developed to support the implementation of
Competency Based Education and Training (CBET) curricula in Kenya. The learning guide is
intended to support learning by providing practical and theoretical learning activities, simplified
content and self-assessment items to guide the trainee in the learning process.

I recognize with appreciation the critical role of trainers in developing this learning guide and
ensuring its alignment with National Occupational Standards (OS) and CBET curriculum. I am
convinced that this learning guide will support trainees’ acquisition of knowledge, skills and right
attitude needed for work in the Biotechnology sector.

COUNCIL SECRETARY/CEO
TVET Curriculum Development, Assessment and Certification Council
 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

CBET Competency Based Education and Training

CBPR Community-based participatory research

CDACC: Curriculum Development, Assessment and Certification Council

CDC Disease Control and Prevention

CEO Chief Executive Officer

CHAs Community health assessments

CRD Crude Death Rate

EHR Electronic health record

HNA Health Needs Assessment

JSNA Joint Strategic Needs Assessment

KAP Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices

OS Occupational Standards

PFACs patient and family advisory councils

SDGs Sustainable Development Goals

TVET: Technical and Vocational Education and Training

WHO World Health Organization

A : Control version

BC: Basic Competency

CBET Competency Based Education and Training

CDACC : Curriculum Development, Assessment and Certification Council

CEO Chief Executive Officer

CM : Common Competencies

CR : Core Competency

CSSD Central Sterile Supply Department

ECG Electrocardiogram

ICT : Information Communication Technology

IP Inpatient Service (IP)

IPS Isolated Power Supply

MoH Ministry of Health

MRD Medical Record Department

MRI Magnetic Resonance Imaging

NEMA : National Environmental Management Authority

OPD Outpatient department (OPD)

OR Operating Room

OS : Occupational Standards

OS Occupational Standards
OSHA : Occupation Safety and Health Act

OSHS : Occupation Safety and Health Standards

OT Operation Theatre Complex

PPE : Personal Protective Equipment

PPEs Personal protective equipmentss

PT : Operation Theatre

PTT : Operation Theatre Technology

SDGs Sustainable Development Goals

SOP : Standard Operating Procedures

SSAC : Sector Skills Advisory Committee

TT : Theatre Technology

TVET : Technical and Vocational Education and Training

TVET: Technical and Vocational Education and Training

UPS Un-interruptible Power Supply

VCT Voluntary Counselling and Testing

VDRL Venereal Disease Research Laboratory

WHO World Health Organization

WHO : World Health Organization

TABLE OF CONTENT

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Basic Units of Learning 8

Table 2: Common Units of Learning 9

Table 3: Core Units of Learning. 9

Table 4: Human body cavities and membranes Error! Bookmark not defined.

Table 5: Hormones produced by the endocrine

system…………………………………………73

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Organizational chart of Ministry of Health structure 4

 Figure 2: Generic organogram of district hospitals in Kenya. *Medical officers here refer to
physicians while clinical officers are “non-physician” clinicians as described in 16 5

Figure 3: Organization of health services in Kenya under a devolved system. 15

Figure 4: Medical Theatre layout 18

Figure 5: Theatre layout 20

Figure 1: Feedback Loop. 17

Figure 2: Sodium and Potassium Pump 23

Figure 3: Skeletal System 40

Figure 4: The cranium…………………………………………………………………………42

Figure 5: Types of
bones…………………………………………………………………………45

Figure 6: Synovial
joint………………………………………………………………………….51

Figure 7: Types of synovial

joints……………………………………………………………….53

Figure 9: The human

heart……………………………………………………………………….58

Figure 10: Parallel distribution

organs…………………………………………………………...59

Figure 11: The lymphatic

system………………………………………………………………...60

Figure 12: The white blood

cells……………………………………………………………….,63
Figure 13:
Platelets………………………………………………………………………………64

Figure 14: Lymph

nodes…………………………………………………………………………67

Figure 15: Nervous

system………………………………………………………………………76

Figure
16:Neuron………………………………………………………………………………76

Figure 17:Components of a reflex

arc………………………………………………………….77

Figure 18: The

brain……………………………………………………………………………..79

Figure 19: Autonomic Nervous

system………………………………………………………….80

Figure 20: The digestive

system…………………………………………………………………83

Figure 21: The

stomach………………………………………………………………………….86

Figure 22: The large

intestine……………………………………………………………………87

Figure 23: The rectum and anal

canal……………………………………………………………88

Figure 24: The urinary

system…………………………………………………………………..91
Figure 25: The
kidney……………………………………………………………………………91

Figure 26: Urine

Formation…………………………………………………………………….93

Figure 27: Glomerular

Filtration……………………………………………………………….93

Figure 28: Respiratory System…………………………………………………………….96

Figure 29: The

alveoli…………………………………………………………………………..96

Figure 30: The eye……………………………………………………………………………100

Figure 32: The ear……………………………………………………..…………………..103

Figure 33: The testis…………………………………………………….……………………107

Figure 34: Male reproductive organ………………………………………………………….108

Background Information
This learning guide will enable the trainee to acquire competencies to undertake various processes
in Biotechnology. It provides practical and theoretical learning activities, simplified content,
illustrations and self-assessment items to guide the trainee in the learning process. It also provides
links and references for further reading.
Layout of the Trainee Guide
Performance standards: These are obtained from the performance criteria statements in the
related unit of competency of the Occupational Standards (OS)

Information Sheet: This section covers information relating to the specific learning outcome.

This information should include but not limited to meaning of terms, methods, processes/
procedures/ guidelines, Illustrations (photographs, pictures, videos, charts, plans, digital content
links, simulations links) and case studies. This section also provides additional information sources
relevant to the learning outcome e.g. books, web links

Learning activities: This section covers practical activities related to the Performance Criteria
statements, Knowledge in relation to Performance Criteria as given under content in the curriculum
Special instructions related to learning activities

Self-Assessment: This section must be related to the Performance Criteria, Required Knowledge
and Skills in the Occupational Standards. This section requires the trainee to evaluate their
acquisition of skills, knowledge and attitude in relation to the learning outcome. A variety of
assessment items such as written and practical tests which emphasizes on the application of
knowledge, skills and attitude is recommended. The self-assessment items should be valid,
relevant and comprehensive to the level of qualification in the learning outcome.

Tools, equipment, materials and supplies: This section should provide for the requirements of
the learning outcome in terms of tools, equipment, supplies and materials. The section should be
adequate, relevant and comprehensive for the learning outcome.

References: Information sources should be quoted and presented as required in the APA format

The units of learning covered in this learning guide are as presented in the table below:
 Table 1: BASIC UNITS OF COMPETENCY
UNIT OF COMPETENCE UNIT OF COMPETENCE TITLE
CODE
HE/OS/TT/BC/01/6/A Demonstrate communication skills
HE/OS/TT/BC/02/6/A Demonstrate numeracy skills
HE/OS/TT/BC/03/6/A Demonstrate digital literacy
HE/OS/TT/BC/04/6/A Demonstrate entrepreneurial skills
HE/OS/TT/BC/05/6/A Demonstrate employability skills
HE/OS/TT/BC/06/6/A Demonstrate environmental literacy

Table 2: COMMON UNITS OF COMPETENCY

UNIT OF COMPETENCE UNIT OF COMPETENCE TITLE
CODE
HE/OS/TT/CC/01/6/A Demonstrate The Knowledge Of Human Anatomy And
Physiology
HE/OS/TT/CC/02/6/A Apply Basic Hospital Procedures
HE/OS/TT/CC/03/6/A Demonstrate The Knowledge Of Common Diseases
HE/OS/TT/CC/04/6/A Provide First Aid Services
HE/OS/TT/CC/05/6/A Apply Medical-Legal Ethics
HE/OS/TT/CC/06/6/A Provide Health Education And Promotion Services
HE/OS/TT/CC/07/6/A Provide Psychosocial Health Support

Table 3: CORE UNITS OF COMPETENCY

UNIT OF COMPETENCE UNIT OF COMPETENCE TITLE
CODE
HE/OS/TT/CR/01/6/A Provide Operation Theatre Safety Precautions
HE/OS/TT/CR/02/6/A Prevent Nosocomial Infections
HE/OS/TT/CR/03/6/A Maintain Operation Theatre Instruments and Apparatus
HE/OS/TT/CR/04/6/A Provide Operation Theatre Technical Services
HE/OS/TT/CR/05/6/A Execute Operation Theatre Administrative Services
HE/OS/TT/CR/06/6/A Participate in Operation Theatre Clinical Services
HE/OS/TT/CR/07/6/A Manage Operation Theatre Clinical Services
 CHAPTER ONE

HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Unit of learning code: HE/OS/TT/CC/01/6/A

Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Demonstrate Knowledge of Human

Anatomy and Physiology

Introduction to the unit of learning

This unit specifies the competencies required to demonstrate the knowledge of human anatomy
and physiology. It involves demonstrating the knowledge of organization of the human body,
body fluids and their functions, body tissues and membranes and their functions, body cavities,
human skeletal system, major muscles of the body and their functions, body joints, circulatory
system, lymphatic system, endocrine system and its functions, nervous system and its function,
digestive system and its function, urinary system and its function respiratory system and its
function, special senses and their functions, reproductive system and its functions.

Summary of Learning Outcomes

1. Demonstrate knowledge of organization of the human body
2. Demonstrate knowledge of body fluids and their functions
3. Demonstrate knowledge of body tissues and membranes and their functions
4. Demonstrate knowledge of body cavities
5. Demonstrate knowledge of the human skeletal system
6. Demonstrate knowledge of the major muscles of the body and their functions
7. Demonstrate knowledge of the body joints
8. Demonstrate knowledge of circulatory system
9. Demonstrate knowledge of the lymphatic system
10. Demonstrate knowledge of the endocrine system and its functions
11. Demonstrate knowledge of the nervous system and its function
12. Demonstrate knowledge of the digestive system and its function
13. Demonstrate knowledge of the urinary system and its function
14. Demonstrate knowledge of the respiratory system and its function
 15. Demonstrate knowledge of the special senses and their functions
16. Demonstrate knowledge of the reproductive system and its functions

Learning outcome 1; Demonstrate knowledge of organization of the human body

Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the content of competencies required to identify anatomical
structures, outline anatomical position, planes and directions, and identify levels of human body
organization, describe functions of the human body, human cell structure components are
identified, human cell cycle outlined and homeostasis described.
Performance Standard
1.1 Anatomical structures are identified
1.2 Anatomical position, planes and directions are outlined
1.3 Levels of human body organization are identified
1.4 Functions of the human body are described
1.5 Human cell structure components are identified
1.6 Human cell cycle outlined
1.7 Homeostasis is described

Information Sheet

Definition of terms

Anatomical position is the description of any region or part of the body in a specific stance. In
the anatomical position, the body is upright, directly facing the observer, feet flat and directed
forward. The upper limbs are at the body’s sides with the palms facing forward.

Anterior (or ventral) describes the front or direction toward the front of the body. The toes are
anterior to the foot.

Posterior (or dorsal) Describes the back or direction toward the back of the body. The popliteus
is posterior to the patella.
Superior (or cranial) describes a position above or higher than another part of the body proper.
The orbits are superior to the oris.

Inferior (or caudal) describes a position below or lower than another part of the body proper;
near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column). The pelvis
is inferior to the abdomen.

Lateral describes the side or direction toward the side of the body. The thumb (pollex) is lateral
to the digits.

Medial describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the body. The hallux is the medial
toe.

Proximal describes a position in a limb that is nearer to the point of attachment or the trunk of
the body. The brachium is proximal to the ante brachium.

Distal describes a position in a limb that is farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of
the body. The crus is distal to the femur.

Superficial describes a position closer to the surface of the body. The skin is superficial to the
bones.

Deep describes a position farther from the surface of the body. The brain is deep to the skull.

Branches of human anatomy

Gross Anatomy - the study of large body structures visible to the naked eye

Regional Anatomy - the study of all structures (blood vessels, nerves, muscles) located in a
particular region of the body

Systemic Anatomy - the gross anatomy of the body studied system by system

Surface Anatomy - the study of internal body structures as they relate to the overlying skin.
Microscopic Anatomy - the study of structures too small to be seen without the aid of a
microscope

Cellular Anatomy - the study of cells of the body

Histology - the study of the microscopic structure of tissues

Developmental Anatomy - the study of changes in an individual from conception to old age

Specialized Branches of Anatomy

• Pathological anatomy - the study structural changes in cells, tissues, and organs caused by
disease

• Radiographic anatomy - the study of internal body structures by means of x-rays and imaging
techniques

• Functional morphology- the study of functional properties of body structures and efficiency of
design.

Organization of the human body

Chemical Level

• At the chemical level atoms combine to form small molecules (CO2 and H2O) and larger
macromolecules.

•Macromolecules of four classes are found in the body

• These macro molecules include carbohydrates (sugars), lipids (fats), proteins and nucleic acids

(DNA, RNA).

Cellular Level

• The smallest units of living tissue.

• Cells and their functional subunits called cellular organelles.

Tissue Level

• Consists of groups of similar cells that have a characteristic function

 • Epithelium

•Muscle

• Connective

• Nervous

Organ Level

• A structure composed of at least two tissue types (with four the most common) that performs
a specific physiological process or function.

Organ System Level

• Organs that cooperate with one another to perform a common function

• For example:- Cardiovascular system.

Functions of the human body

Metabolism

The first law of thermodynamics holds that energy can neither be created nor destroyed—it can
only change form. Your basic function as an organism is to consume (ingest) energy and
molecules in the foods you eat, convert some of it into fuel for movement, sustain your body
functions, and build and maintain your body structures. There are two types of reactions that
accomplish this: anabolism and catabolism.

 Anabolism is the process whereby smaller, simpler molecules are combined into larger,
more complex substances. Your body can assemble, by utilizing energy, the complex
chemicals it needs by combining small molecules derived from the foods you eat
 Catabolism is the process by which larger more complex substances are broken down into
smaller simpler molecules. Catabolism releases energy. The complex molecules found in
foods are broken down so the body can use their parts to assemble the structures and
substances needed for life.
Responsiveness
Responsiveness is the ability of an organism to adjust to changes in its internal and

external environments. An example of responsiveness to external stimuli could include moving

toward sources of food and water and away from perceived dangers.

Changes in an organism’s internal environment, such as increased body temperature, can cause
the responses of sweating and the dilation of blood vessels in the skin in order to decrease body
temperature.

Movement

Human movement includes not only actions at the joints of the body, but also the motion of
individual organs and even individual cells. As you read these words, red and white blood cells
are moving throughout your body, muscle cells are contracting and relaxing to maintain your
posture and to focus your vision, and glands are secreting chemicals to regulate body functions.
Your body is coordinating the action of entire muscle groups to enable you to move air into and
out of your lungs, to push blood throughout your body, and to propel the food you have eaten
through your digestive tract. Consciously, of course, you contract your skeletal muscles to move
the bones of your skeleton to get from one place to another and to carry out all of the activities
of your daily life.

Development, Growth and Reproduction

Development is all of the changes the body goes through in life. Development includes the
process of differentiation, in which unspecialized cells become specialized in structure and
function to perform certain tasks in the body. Development also includes the processes of growth
and repair, both of which involve cell differentiation.

Growth is the increase in body size. Humans, like all multicellular organisms, grow by
increasing the number of existing cells, increasing the amount of non-cellular material around
cells (such as mineral deposits in bone), and, within very narrow limits, increasing the size of
existing cells.
Reproduction is the formation of a new organism from parent organisms. In humans,
reproduction is carried out by the male and female reproductive systems. Because death will
come to all complex organisms, without reproduction, the line of organisms would end.

The cell

All the tissues and organs of the body originate from a microscopic structure (the fertilized
ovum), which consists of a soft jelly-like material enclosed in a membrane and containing a
vesicle or small spherical body inside which are one or more denser spots. This may be regarded
as a complete cell. All the solid tissues consist largely of cells essentially similar to it in nature
but differing in external form.

Nucleolus, are not essential to the type cell, and in fact In the higher organisms a cell may be
defined as “a nucleated mass of protoplasm of microscopic size.” Its two essentials, therefore,
are: a soft jelly-like material, similar to that found in the ovum, and usually styled cytoplasm,
and a small spherical body imbedded in it, and termed a nucleus. Some of the unicellular

protozoa contain no nuclei but granular particles which, like true nuclei, stain with basic dyes.
The other constituents of the ovum, viz., its limiting membrane and the denser spot contained in
the nucleus, called the many cells exist without them.

A typical animal cell comprises the following cell organelles:

Cell Membrane – a thin semi permeable membrane layer of protein and fats surrounding the
cell. Its primary role is to protect the cell from its surrounding. Also, it controls the entry and
exit of nutrients and other microscopic entities into the cell.

Nuclear Membrane - is a double-membrane structure that surrounds the nucleus. It is also

referred to as the nuclear envelope.

Nucleus - It is an organelle that contains several other sub-organelles such as nucleolus,

nucleosomes and chromatins. It also contains DNA and other genetic materials.

Centrosome - is a small organelle found near to the nucleus which has a thick centre with
radiating tubules. The centrosomes are where microtubules are produced.

Lysosome (Cell Vesicles) - They are round organelles surrounded by a membrane and
comprising digestive enzymes which help in digestion, excretion and in the cell renewal process.

Cytoplasm - a jelly-like material which contains all the cell organelles, enclosed within the cell
membrane. The substance found within the cell nucleus, contained by the nuclear membrane is
called the nucleoplasm.

Golgi apparatus – is a flat, smooth layered, sac-like organelle which is located near the nucleus
and involved in manufacturing, storing, packing and transporting the particles throughout the
cell.

Mitochondrion - they are spherical or rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. They
are the powerhouse of a cell as they play an important role in releasing energy.

Ribosome - they are small organelles made up of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules, and they are
the sites of protein synthesis.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - This cellular organelle is composed of a thin, winding network
of membranous sacs originating from the nucleus.

Vacuole – a membrane-bound organelle present inside a cell involved in maintaining shape and
storing water, food, wastes, etc.
Nucleopore - they are tiny holes present in the nuclear membrane which are involved in the
movement of nucleic acids and proteins within the cell.

Cell cycle

The cell cycle is an ordered series of events involving cell growth and cell division that produces
two new daughter cells. Cells on the path to cell division proceed through a series of precisely
timed and carefully regulated stages of growth, DNA replication, and division that produces two
identical (clone) cells.
Fig: The cell cycle

The cell cycle has two major phases: interphase and the mitotic phase. During interphase, the
cell grows and DNA is replicated. During the mitotic phase, the replicated DNA and cytoplasmic
contents are separated, and the cell divides.

Interphase
During interphase, the cell undergoes normal growth processes while also preparing for cell
division. In order for a cell to move from interphase into the mitotic phase, many internal and
external conditions must be met. The three stages of interphase are called G1, S, and G2.

G1 Phase (First Gap)

The first stage of interphase is called the G1 phase (first gap) because, from a microscopic
aspect, little change is visible. However, during the G1 stage, the cell is quite active at the
biochemical level. The cell is accumulating the building blocks of chromosomal DNA and the
associated proteins as well as accumulating sufficient energy reserves to complete the task of
replicating each chromosome in the nucleus.

S Phase (Synthesis of DNA)

Throughout interphase, nuclear DNA remains in a semi-condensed chromatin configuration. In

the S phase, DNA replication can proceed through the mechanisms that result in the formation
of identical pairs of DNA molecules—sister chromatids—that are firmly attached to the
centromeric region. The centrosome is duplicated during the S phase. The two centrosomes will
give rise to the mitotic spindle, the apparatus that orchestrates the movement of chromosomes
during mitosis. At the center of each animal cell, the centrosomes of animal cells are associated
with a pair of rod-like objects, the centrioles, which are at right angles to each other. Centrioles
help organize cell division. Centrioles are not present in the centrosomes of other eukaryotic
species, such as plants and most fungi.

G2 Phase (Second Gap)

In the G2 phase, the cell replenishes its energy stores and synthesizes proteins necessary for
chromosome manipulation. Some cell organelles are duplicated, and the cytoskeleton is
dismantled to provide resources for the mitotic phase. There may be additional cell growth
during G2. The final preparations for the mitotic phase must be completed before the cell is able
to enter the first stage of mitosis.

The Mitotic Phase

The mitotic phase is a multistep processes during which the duplicated chromosomes are
aligned, separated, and move into two new, identical daughter cells. The first portion of the
mitotic phase is called karyokinesis, or nuclear division. The second portion of the mitotic phase,
called cytokinesis, is the physical separation of the cytoplasmic components into the two
daughter cells.

Karyokinesis (Mitosis)

Karyokinesis, also known as mitosis, is divided into a series of phases—prophase,

prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase—that result in the division of the cell
nucleus (Figure 2). Karyokinesis is also called mitosis.

During prophase, the “first phase,” the nuclear envelope starts to dissociate into small vesicles,
and the membranous organelles (such as the Golgi complex or Golgi apparatus, and endoplasmic
reticulum), fragment and disperse toward the periphery of the cell. The nucleolus disappears
(disperses). The centrosomes begin to move to opposite poles of the cell. Microtubules that will
form the mitotic spindle extend between the centrosomes, pushing them farther apart as the
microtubule fibers lengthen. The sister chromatids begin to coil more tightly with the aid of
condensin proteins and become visible under a light microscope.

During prometaphase, the “first change phase,” many processes that were begun in prophase
continue to advance. The remnants of the nuclear envelope fragment. The mitotic spindle
continues to develop as more microtubules assemble and stretch across the length of the former
nuclear area. Chromosomes become more condensed and discrete. Each sister chromatid
develops a protein structure called a kinetochore in the centromeric region. The proteins of the
kinetochore attract and bind mitotic spindle microtubules. As the spindle microtubules extend
from the centrosomes, some of these microtubules come into contact with and firmly bind to the
kinetochores. Once a mitotic fiber attaches to a chromosome, the chromosome will be oriented
until the kinetochores of sister chromatids face the opposite poles. Eventually, all the sister
chromatids will be attached via their kinetochores to microtubules from opposing poles. Spindle
microtubules that do not engage the chromosomes are called polar microtubules. These
microtubules overlap each other midway between the two poles and contribute to cell
elongation. Astral microtubules are located near the poles, aid in spindle orientation, and are
required for the regulation of mitosis.
During metaphase, the “change phase,” all the chromosomes are aligned in a plane called the
metaphase plate, or the equatorial plane, midway between the two poles of the cell. The sister
chromatids are still tightly attached to each other by cohesin proteins. At this time, the
chromosomes are maximally condensed.

During anaphase, the “upward phase,” the cohesin proteins degrade, and the sister chromatids
separate at the centromere. Each chromatid, now called a chromosome, is pulled rapidly toward
the centrosome to which its microtubule is attached. The cell becomes visibly elongated (oval
shaped) as the polar microtubules slide against each other at the metaphase plate where they
overlap.

During telophase, the “distance phase,” the chromosomes reach the opposite poles and begin to
decondense (unravel), relaxing into a chromatin configuration. The mitotic spindles are
depolymerized into tubulin monomers that will be used to assemble cytoskeletal components
for each daughter cell. Nuclear envelopes form around the chromosomes, and nucleosomes
appear within the nuclear area.

Homeostasis

Introduction to Homeostasis

Homeostasis refers to the body’s ability to maintain a stable internal environment (regulating
hormones, body temp., water balance, etc.). Maintaining homeostasis requires that the body
continuously monitors its internal conditions. From body temperature to blood pressure to levels
of certain nutrients, each physiological condition has a particular set point. A set point is the
physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates. A normal range is the restricted
set of values that is optimally healthful and stable. For example, the set point for normal human
body temperature is approximately 37°C (98.6°F) Physiological parameters, such as body
temperature and blood pressure, tend to fluctuate within a normal range a few degrees above
and below that point. Control centers in the brain play roles in regulating physiological
parameters and keeping them within the normal range. As the body works to maintain
homeostasis, any significant deviation from the normal range will be resisted and homeostasis
restored through a process called a feedback loop.

A feedback loop has three basic components (Figure 1.10a). A sensor, also known as a receptor,
is a component of a feedback system that monitors a physiological value. It is responsible for
detecting a change in the environment. This value is reported to the control center. The control
center is the component in a feedback system that compares the value to the normal range. If
the value deviates too much from the set point, then the control center activates an effector. An
effector is the component in a feedback system that causes a change to reverse the situation and
return the value to the normal range. Effectors are muscles and glands.

Two Types of Feedback Loops: Negative and Positive

Negative feedback is a mechanism in which the effect of the response to the stimulus is to shut
off the original stimulus or reduce its intensity. Negative feedback loops are the body’s most
common mechanisms used to maintain homeostasis.

The maintenance of homeostasis by negative feedback goes on throughout the body at all times,
and an understanding of negative feedback is thus fundamental to an understanding of human
physiology.

Figure 1: Feedback loop

In order to set the system in motion, a stimulus change an internal environment beyond its
normal range (that is, beyond homeostasis). This stimulus is detected by a specific receptor. For
example, in the control of blood glucose, specific endocrine cells in the pancreas detect excess
glucose (the stimulus) in the bloodstream. These pancreatic beta cells respond to the increased
level of blood glucose by releasing the hormone insulin into the bloodstream. The insulin signals
skeletal muscle fibers, fat cells (adipocytes), and liver cells to take up the excess glucose,
removing it from the bloodstream. As glucose concentration in the bloodstream drops, the
decrease in concentration—the actual negative feedback—is detected by pancreatic alpha cells,
and insulin release stops. This prevents blood sugar levels from continuing to drop below the
normal range.

Humans have a similar temperature regulation feedback system that works by promoting either
heat loss or heat gain. When the brain’s temperature regulation center receives data from the
sensors indicating that the body’s temperature exceeds its normal range, it stimulates a cluster
of brain cells referred to as the “heat-loss center.” This stimulation has three major effects:

Blood vessels in the skin begin to dilate allowing more blood from the body core to flow to the
surface of the skin allowing the heat to radiate into the environment.

As blood flow to the skin increases, sweat glands are activated to increase their output. As the
sweat evaporates from the skin surface into the surrounding air, it takes heat with it.

The depth of respiration increases, and a person may breathe through an open mouth instead of
through the nasal passageways. This further increases heat loss from the lungs.

In contrast, activation of the brain’s heat-gain center by exposure to cold reduces blood flow to
the skin, and blood returning from the limbs is diverted into a network of deep veins. This
arrangement traps heat closer to the body core and restricts heat loss. If heat loss is severe, the
brain triggers an increase in random signals to skeletal muscles, causing them to contract and
producing shivering. The muscle contractions of shivering release heat while using up ATP. The
brain triggers the thyroid gland in the endocrine system to release thyroid hormone, which
increases metabolic activity and heat production in cells throughout the body. The brain also
signals the adrenal glands to release epinephrine (adrenaline), a hormone that causes the
breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which can be used as an energy source. The breakdown of
glycogen into glucose also results in increased metabolism and heat production.

Positive feedback intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather than
reversing it. A deviation from the normal range results in more change, and the system moves
farther away from the normal range. Positive feedback in the body is normal only when there is
a definite end point. Childbirth and the body’s response to blood loss are two examples of
positive feedback loops that are normal but are activated only when needed.

Childbirth at full term is an example of a situation in which the maintenance of the existing body
state is not desired. Enormous changes in the mother’s body are required to expel the baby at
the end of pregnancy. And the events of childbirth, once begun, must progress rapidly to a
conclusion or the life of the mother and the baby are at risk. The extreme muscular work of labor
and delivery are the result of a positive feedback system.

The first contractions of labor (the stimulus) push the baby toward the cervix (the lowest part of
the uterus). The cervix contains stretch-sensitive nerve cells that monitor the degree of stretching
(the sensors). These nerve cells send messages to the brain, which in turn causes the pituitary
gland at the base of the brain to release the hormone oxytocin into the bloodstream. Oxytocin
causes stronger contractions of the smooth muscles in of the uterus (the effectors), pushing the
baby further down the birth canal. This causes even greater stretching of the cervix. The cycle
of stretching, oxytocin release, and increasingly more forceful contractions stops only when the
baby is born. At this point, the stretching of the cervix halts, stopping the release of oxytocin.

A second example of positive feedback centers on reversing extreme damage to the body.
Following a penetrating wound, the most immediate threat is excessive blood loss. Less blood
circulating means reduced blood pressure and reduced perfusion (penetration of blood) to the
brain and other vital organs. If perfusion is severely reduced, vital organs will shut down and
the person will die. The body responds to this potential catastrophe by releasing substances in
the injured blood vessel wall that begin the process of blood clotting. As each step of clotting
occurs, it stimulates the release of more clotting substances. This accelerates the processes of
clotting and sealing off the damaged area. Clotting is contained in a local area based on the
tightly controlled availability of clotting proteins. This is an adaptive, life-saving cascade of
events.

Learning activities

Practical activity

Choose one volunteer to complete jumping jacks at a pace that can be maintained for eight
minutes. Make sure the volunteer is inactive for a few minutes before the experiment begins.

Measure the heart rate by taking his or her pulse; you can do this one of two ways:

Radial Pulse

Carotid Pulse

Multiply the number of beats in 15 seconds by 4 to calculate the beats per minute. Record the
data in the table below the 0 minutes box.

Measure the person’s perspiration level from 0 to 5: (0 = none; 5 = droplets dripping down the
face). Note this observation in the table.

Have the volunteer do jumping jacks for 2 minutes. After 2 minutes, measure the heart rate,
breathing rate, and perspiration level (refer to steps 2 through 5), and record the data. Measure
the pulse, breathing and perspiration levels as quickly as you can so that the volunteer can
resume exercise. Do not have volunteer wait while you do the calculations and enter the data.

Repeat step 6 three more times (remember, 2 minutes each at a time, totaling 8 minutes) and
record your data at each point.

After the final recording of the dependent variables, wait one minute with the volunteer at reset.
Then measure all of the variables again. Record this data under the “9 Time (Min.)

Self-Assessment
a). Define the following terms

Anterior

Posterior

Lateral

Medial

b).Which are the two main types of reactions that accomplish metabolism?

c).What is the G1 Phase of the cell cycle?

d).What is positive feedback?

e).What events precede the onset of first labor pains?

Model answers

a). Define the following terms

Anterior - (or ventral) describes the front or direction toward the front of the body. The toes
are anterior to the foot.

Posterior - (or dorsal) Describes the back or direction toward the back of the body. The
popliteus is posterior to the patella.

Lateral - describes the side or direction toward the side of the body. The thumb (pollex) is
lateral to the digits

Medial - describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the body. The hallux is the
medial toe.

b). What are the two main types of reactions that accomplish metabolism.
Anabolism is the process whereby smaller, simpler molecules are combined into larger, more
complex substances. Your body can assemble, by utilizing energy, the complex chemicals it
needs by combining small molecules derived from the foods you eat

Catabolism is the process by which larger more complex substances are broken down into
smaller simpler molecules. Catabolism releases energy. The complex molecules found in foods
are broken down so the body can use their parts to assemble the structures and substances needed
for life.

c). Highlight the G1 Phase of the cell cycle.

The first stage of interphase is called the G1 phase (first gap) because, from a microscopic
aspect, little change is visible. However, during the G1 stage, the cell is quite active at the
biochemical level. The cell is accumulating the building blocks of chromosomal DNA and the
associated proteins as well as accumulating sufficient energy reserves to complete the task of
replicating each chromosome in the nucleus.

d).Describe positive feedback

Intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather than reversing it. A deviation
from the normal range results in more change, and the system moves farther away from the
normal range. Positive feedback in the body is normal only when there is a definite end point.
Childbirth and the body’s response to blood loss are two examples of positive feedback loops
that are normal but are activated only when needed.

e). What events precede the onset of first labor pains?

The first contractions of labor (the stimulus) push the baby toward the cervix (the lowest part of
the uterus). The cervix contains stretch-sensitive nerve cells that monitor the degree of stretching
(the sensors). These nerve cells send messages to the brain, which in turn causes the pituitary
gland at the base of the brain to release the hormone oxytocin into the bloodstream. Oxytocin
causes stronger contractions of the smooth muscles in of the uterus (the effectors), pushing the
baby further down the birth canal. This causes even greater stretching of the cervix. The cycle
of stretching, oxytocin release, and increasingly more forceful contractions stops only when the
baby is born. At this point, the stretching of the cervix halts, stopping the release of oxytocin.
Practical activity

Data and Observations:

Table 1: Effect of Exercise

Total Time Heart Rate Breathing Rate Perspiration Level

(Minutes) (Beats per (Breaths per (Scale of 0 to 5)

Minute) Minute)
0 – Prior to 84 36 0
Exercise
2 Minutes 128 52 0
6 Minutes 96 36 1
8 Minutes 120 40 2
9 Minutes 144 44 2

Table 1: shows the heart rate, breathing rate and perspiration level of exercisers over nine
minutes

Table 2: Effects of Exercise: Class Averages

Grou Grou Grou Grou Grou
p p p p p
Variables Measured Average
1 2 3 4 5 s:
Heart Start: 68 104 104 98 84 73
Finish 38 152 120 120 144 115
Rate :
Breathing Start: 20 60 60 16 36 38
Rate Finish 68 68 68 32 44 56
:
Perspiratio Start: 0 0 0 0 0 0
n Finish 1 3 0 0 2 1
:
Level
Table 2: shows the averages of the entire group’s heart rate, breathing rate and perspiration
levels at the start and finish of exercising

Graph 1: Effects of Exercise

Analysis:

There is an increase effect of exercise over time on the circulatory and respiratory systems, as
shown in both Table 1 and Table 2. As the students began their exercise in two-minute intervals,
their heart rates increased on average from 73 beats per minute to 115 beats per minute. Shawn’s
individual heart rate began at 84 beats per minute, and after lifting 5-pound weights for 8
minutes, his heart rate increased to 114 beats per minute. Also, his breathing rate showed an
increase from 36 breaths per minute to 44 breaths per minute. Based on this data shown, the
amount that you exercise does effect the circulatory and respiratory systems by causing a, on
average, dramatic increase in beats/breath per minute in the measured variables.

Conclusion:
According to the data collected, the hypothesis that was developed at the beginning of the
experiment: “If effects of exercise and exercise are related, then exercising will increase heart
rate, breathing rate, and perspiration levels”; was accepted. Based on the data shown our
individual group charts and the class averages, the effect that exercise has on the respiratory and
circulatory systems is that it develops an increase in heart rate (Start: 73/ Finish: 115), breathing
rate (Start: 38/ Finish: 56), and perspiration levels (Start: 0/ Finish: 1).

Another process that could have been used to measure the external and internal effects of
exercise on the body could be to also measure the body temperature before and after the exercise
is preformed. This could be a good variable to measure because often the amount of perspiration
found on a body is a result of the internal and external body temperature. The relationship
between the perspiration level and the body temperature is that they are both negative feedback.
After exercise, the body tries to return to homeostasis; so when the body temperature increases
due to exercise, the body perspires to cool off and return to its regular temperature, which is
considered negative feedback.

Tools, equipment, supplies and materials

The following resources are provided;

A functional anatomy laboratory.

Stopwatches

Stethoscope

References

Rotimi, Booktionary. "Anatomy". Archived from the original on 1 August 2017. Retrieved 18
June 2017.

^ "Anatomy of the Human Body". Henry Gray. 20th edition. 1918". Archived from the original
on 16 March 2007. Retrieved 19 March2007.

^ Arráez-Aybar; et al. (2014). "Relevance of human anatomy in daily clinical practice". Annals
of Anatomy-Anatomischer Anzeiger. 192 (6): 341–348.
^ O.D.E. 2nd edition 2015

Bozman, E. F., ed. (2015). Everyman's Encyclopedia: Anatomy. J. M. Dent & Sons. p. 272.
2.1 Learning outcome 2; Demonstrate knowledge of human body fluids and their functions

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to identify Components of

extracellular and intracellular fluids. Importance of body fluids is also explained.

Performance standard
i. Components of extracellular fluid are outlined
ii. Components of intracellular fluid are outlined
iii. Importance of body electrolytes is described

Information Sheet

Introduction

The chemical reactions of life take place in aqueous solutions. The dissolved substances in a
solution are called solutes. In the human body, solutes vary in different parts of the body, but
may include proteins—including those that transport lipids, carbohydrates, and, very
importantly, electrolytes. Often in medicine, an electrolyte is referred to as a mineral dissociated
from a salt that carries an electrical charge (an ion). For instance, sodium ions (Na+) and chloride
ions (Cl–) are often referred to as electrolytes.

In the body, water moves through semi-permeable membranes of cells and from one
compartment of the body to another by a process called osmosis. Osmosis is basically the
diffusion of water from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration, along
an osmotic gradient across a semi-permeable membrane. As a result, water will move into and
out of cells and tissues, depending on the relative concentrations of the water and solutes found
there. An appropriate balance of solutes inside and outside of cells must be maintained to ensure
normal function.

Body Water Content

Human beings are mostly water, ranging from about 75 percent of body mass in infants to about
50–60 percent in adult men and women, to as low as 45 percent in old age. The percent of body
water changes with development, because the proportions of the body given over to each organ
and to muscles, fat, bone, and other tissues change from infancy to adulthood. Your brain and
kidneys have the highest proportions of water, which composes 80–85 percent of their masses.
In contrast, teeth have the lowest proportion of water, at 8–10 percent.

Fluid Compartments

Body fluids can be discussed in terms of their specific fluid compartment, a location that is
largely separate from another compartment by some form of a physical barrier. The intracellular
fluid (ICF) compartment is the system that includes all fluid enclosed in cells by their plasma
membranes. Extracellular fluid (ECF) surrounds all cells in the body. Extracellular fluid has two
primary constituents: the fluid component of the blood (called plasma) and the interstitial fluid
(IF) that surrounds all cells not in the blood.

Intracellular Fluid

The ICF lies within cells and is the principal component of the cytosol/cytoplasm. The ICF
makes up about 60 percent of the total water in the human body, and in an average-size adult
male, the ICF accounts for about 25 liters (seven gallons) of fluid. This fluid volume tends to be
very stable, because the amount of water in living cells is closely regulated. If the amount of
water inside a cell falls to a value that is too low, the cytosol becomes too concentrated with
solutes to carry on normal cellular activities; if too much water enters a cell, the cell may burst
and be destroyed.

Extracellular Fluid
The ECF accounts for the other one-third of the body’s water content. Approximately 20 percent
of the ECF is found in plasma. Plasma travels through the body in blood vessels and transports
a range of materials, including blood cells, proteins (including clotting factors and antibodies),
electrolytes, nutrients, gases, and wastes. Gases, nutrients, and waste materials travel between
capillaries and cells through the IF. Cells are separated from the IF by a selectively permeable
cell membrane that helps regulate the passage of materials between the IF and the interior of the
cell.

The body has other water-based ECF. These include the cerebrospinal fluid that bathes the brain
and spinal cord, lymph, the synovial fluid in joints, the pleural fluid in the pleural cavities, the
pericardial fluid in the cardiac sac, the peritoneal fluid in the peritoneal cavity, and the aqueous
humor of the eye. Because these fluids are outside of cells, these fluids are also considered
components of the ECF compartment.

Composition of Body Fluids

The compositions of the two components of the ECF—plasma and IF—are more similar to each
other than either is to the ICF. Blood plasma has high concentrations of sodium, chloride,
bicarbonate, and protein. The IF has high concentrations of sodium, chloride, and bicarbonate,
but a relatively lower concentration of protein. In contrast, the ICF has elevated amounts of
potassium, phosphate, magnesium, and protein. Overall, the ICF contains high concentrations
of potassium and phosphate (HPO42−HPO42−), whereas both plasma and the ECF contain high
concentrations of sodium and chloride.

Most body fluids are neutral in charge. Thus, cations, or positively charged ions, and anions, or
negatively charged ions, are balanced in fluids. As seen in the previous graph, sodium (Na+)
ions and chloride (Cl–) ions are concentrated in the ECF of the body, whereas potassium (K+)
ions are concentrated inside cells. Although sodium and potassium can “leak” through “pores”
into and out of cells, respectively, the high levels of potassium and low levels of sodium in the
ICF are maintained by sodium-potassium pumps in the cell membranes. These pumps use the
energy supplied by ATP to pump sodium out of the cell and potassium into the cell.

Figure 2” Sodium potassium pump

Examples of body fluids;

Amniotic fluid - is the protective liquid contained by the amniotic sac of a gravid amniote. This
fluid serves as a cushion for the growing fetus, but also serves to facilitate the exchange of
nutrients, water, and biochemical products between mother and fetus.

Aqueous humour - is the fluid produced by the eye. It provides nutrition to the eye, as well as
maintains the eye in a pressurized state.

Bile - is a fluid that is made and released by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. Bile helps
with digestion. It breaks down fats into fatty acids, which can be taken into the body by the
digestive tract.

Blood plasma - is a yellowish liquid component of blood that holds the blood cells of whole
blood in suspension. It is the liquid part of the blood that carries cells and proteins throughout
the body. It makes up about 55% of the body's total blood volume.
Breast milk - is milk produced by mammary glands, located in the breast of a human female.
Breast milk is the primary source of nutrition for newborns, containing fat, protein,
carbohydrates and variable minerals and vitamins.

Cerebrospinal fluid - is a clear fluid that surrounds the brain and spinal cord. It cushions the
brain and spinal cord from injury and also serves as a nutrient delivery and waste removal system
for the brain.

Cerumen - Earwax, also known by the medical term cerumen, is a brown, orange, red, yellowish
or gray waxy substance secreted in the ear canal of humans and other mammals. It protects the
skin of the human ear canal, assists in cleaning and lubrication, and provides protection against
bacteria, fungi, and water.

Chyle - Chyle is a milky bodily fluid consisting of lymph and emulsified fats, or free fatty acids.
It is formed in the small intestine during digestion of fatty foods, and taken up by lymph vessels
specifically known as lacteals. The lipids in the chyle are colloidally suspended in chylomicrons.

Exudates - is any fluid that filters from the circulatory system into lesions or areas of
inflammation. It can be a pus-like or clear fluid. When an injury occurs, leaving skin exposed,
it leaks out of the blood vessels and into nearby tissues. The fluid is composed of serum, fibrin,
and leukocytes.

Gastric juice - is a unique combination of hydrochloric acid (HCl), lipase, and pepsin. Its main
function is to inactivate swallowed microorganisms, thereby inhibiting infectious agents from
reaching the intestine.

lymph - is the fluid that flows through the lymphatic system, a system composed of lymph
vessels (channels) and intervening lymph nodes whose function, like the venous system, is to
return fluid from the tissues to the central circulation.

Mucus - is a normal, slippery and stringy fluid substance produced by many lining tissues in the
body. It is essential for body function and acts as a protective and moisturizing layer to keep
critical organs from drying out. Mucus also acts as a trap for irritants like dust, smoke, or
bacteria.
Pericardial fluid - is the serous fluid secreted by the serous layer of the pericardium into the
pericardial cavity. The pericardium consists of two layers, an outer fibrous layer and the inner
serous layer.

Peritoneal fluid - is a serous fluid made by the peritoneum in the abdominal cavity which
lubricates the surface of tissue that lines the abdominal wall and pelvic cavity. It covers most of
the organs in the abdomen. An increased volume of peritoneal fluid is called ascites.

Pleural fluid - pleural effusion, sometimes referred to as “water on the lungs,” is the build-up
of excess fluid between the layers of the pleura outside the lungs. The pleura are thin membranes
that line the lungs and the inside of the chest cavity and act to lubricate and facilitate breathing.

Pus - a thick yellowish or greenish opaque liquid produced in infected tissue, consisting of dead
white blood cells and bacteria with tissue debris and serum.

Saliva - is the watery and usually somewhat frothy substance produced in the mouths of some
animals, including humans. Produced in salivary glands, saliva is 98% water, but it contains
many important substances, including electrolytes, mucus, antibacterial compounds and various
enzymes.

Sebum - is an oily, waxy substance produced by your body's sebaceous glands. It coats,
moisturizes, and protects your skin. It's also the main ingredient in what you might think of as
your body's natural oils.

Serous fluid - is any of various body fluids resembling serum, that are typically pale yellow and
transparent and of a benign nature. The fluid fills the inside of body cavities.

Semen - also known as seminal fluid, is an organic fluid created to contain spermatozoa. It is
secreted by the gonads (sexual glands) and other sexual organs of male or hermaphroditic
animals and can fertilize the female ovum.

Sputum - a mixture of saliva and mucus coughed up from the respiratory tract, typically as a
result of infection or other disease and often examined microscopically to aid medical diagnosis.
Synovial fluid - also called synovia, is a viscous, non-Newtonian fluid found in the cavities of
synovial joints. With its egg white–like consistency, the principal role of synovial fluid is to
reduce friction between the articular cartilage of synovial joints during movement.

Sweat - moisture exuded through the pores of the skin, typically in profuse quantities as a
reaction to heat, physical exertion, fever, or fear.

Tears - are a clear liquid secreted by the lacrimal glands found in the eyes of all land mammals.
Their functions include lubricating the eyes, removing irritants, and aiding the immune system.
Tears also occur as a part of the body's natural pain response.

Urine - is a liquid by-product of metabolism in humans and in many other animals. Urine flows
from the kidneys through the ureters to the urinary bladder. Urination results in urine being
excreted from the body through the urethra.

Vomit - matter vomited from the stomach.

Electrolytes in the human body

Electrolytes are elements and compounds that occur naturally in the body. They control
important physiologic functions.

Examples of electrolytes include:

calcium

chloride

magnesium

phosphate

potassium

sodium
These substances are present in your blood, bodily fluids, and urine. They’re also ingested with
food, drinks, and supplements.

An electrolyte disorder occurs when the levels of electrolytes in your body are either too high
or too low. Electrolytes need to be maintained in an even balance for your body to function
properly. Otherwise, vital body systems can be affected.

Severe electrolyte imbalances can cause serious problems such as coma, seizures, and cardiac
arrest.

Symptoms of electrolyte disorders

Mild forms of electrolyte disorders may not cause any symptoms. Such disorders can go
undetected until they’re discovered during a routine blood test. Symptoms usually start to appear
once a particular disorder becomes more severe.

Not all electrolyte imbalances cause the same symptoms, but many share similar symptoms.

Common symptoms of an electrolyte disorder include:

irregular heartbeat

fast heart rate

fatigue

lethargy

convulsions or seizures

nausea

vomiting

diarrhea or constipation

abdominal cramping
muscle cramping

muscle weakness

irritability

confusion

headaches

numbness and tingling

Call your doctor right away if you’re experiencing any of these symptoms and suspect you might
have an electrolyte disorder. Electrolyte disturbances can become life-threatening if left
untreated.

Causes of electrolyte disorders

Electrolyte disorders are most often caused by a loss of bodily fluids through prolonged
vomiting, diarrhea, or sweating. They may also develop due to fluid loss related to burns.

Certain medications can cause electrolyte disorders as well. In some cases, underlying diseases,
such as acute or chronic kidney disease, are to blame.

The exact cause may vary depending on the specific type of electrolyte disorder.

Types of electrolyte disorders

Elevated levels of an electrolyte are indicated with the prefix “hyper-.” Depleted levels of an
electrolyte are indicated with “hypo-.”

Conditions caused by electrolyte level imbalances include:

calcium: hypercalcemia and hypocalcemia

chloride: hyperchloremia and hypochloremia

magnesium: hypomagnesaemia and hypomagnesemia

phosphate: hyperphosphatemia or hypophosphatemia

potassium: hyperkalemia and hypokalemia

sodium: hypernatremia and hyponatremia

Calcium

Calcium is a vital mineral that your body uses to stabilize blood pressure and control skeletal
muscle contraction. It’s also used to build strong bones and teeth.

Hypercalcemia occurs when you have too much calcium in the blood. This is usually caused by:

kidney disease

thyroid disorders, including hyperparathyroidism

lung diseases, such as tuberculosis or sarcoidosis

certain types of cancer, including lung and breast cancers

excessive use of antacids and calcium or vitamin D supplements

medications such as lithium, theophylline, or certain water pills

Hypocalcemia occurs due to a lack of adequate calcium in the bloodstream. Causes can include:

kidney failure

hypoparathyroidism

vitamin D deficiency

pancreatitis
prostate cancer

malabsorption

certain medications, including heparin, osteoporosis drugs, and antiepileptic drugs

Chloride

Chloride is necessary for maintaining the proper balance of bodily fluids.

Hyperchloremia occurs when there’s too much chloride in the body. It can happen as a result of:

severe dehydration

kidney failure

dialysis

Hypochloremia develops when there’s too little chloride in the body. It’s often caused by sodium
or potassium problems.

Other causes can include:

cystic fibrosis

eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa

scorpion stings

acute kidney failure

Magnesium
Magnesium is a critical mineral that regulates many important functions, such as:

muscle contraction

heart rhythm

nerve function

Hypermagnesemia means excess amounts of magnesium. This disorder primarily affects people
with Addison’s disease and end-stage kidney disease.

Hypomagnesemia means having too little magnesium in the body. Common causes include:

alcohol use disorder

malnutrition

malabsorption

chronic diarrhea

excessive sweating

heart failure

certain medications, including some diuretics and antibiotics

Potassium

Potassium is particularly important for regulating heart function. It also helps maintain healthy
nerves and muscles.

Hyperkalemia may develop due to high levels of potassium. This condition can be fatal if left
undiagnosed and untreated. It’s typically triggered by:
severe dehydration

kidney failure

severe acidosis, including diabetic ketoacidosis

certain medications, including some blood pressure medications and diuretics

adrenal insufficiency, which is when your cortisol levels are too low

Hypokalemia occurs when potassium levels are too low. This often happens as a result of:

eating disorders

severe vomiting or diarrhea

dehydration

certain medications, including laxatives, diuretics, and corticosteroids.

Phosphate

The kidneys, bones, and intestines work to balance phosphate levels in the body. Phosphate is
necessary for a wide variety of functions and interacts closely with calcium.

Hyperphosphatemia can occur due to:

low calcium levels

chronic kidney disease

severe breathing difficulties

underactive parathyroid glands

severe muscle injury

tumor lysis syndrome, a complication of cancer treatment

excessive use of phosphate-containing laxatives

Low levels of phosphate, or hypophosphatemia, can be seen in:

acute alcohol abuse

severe burns

starvation

vitamin D deficiency

overactive parathyroid glands

certain medications, such as intravenous (IV) iron treatment, niacin (Niacor, Niaspan), and some
antacids

Sodium

Sodium is necessary for the body to maintain fluid balance and is critical for normal body
function. It also helps to regulate nerve function and muscle contraction.

Hypernatremia occurs when there’s too much sodium in the blood. Abnormally high levels of
sodium may be caused by:

inadequate water consumption

severe dehydration

excessive loss of bodily fluids as a result of prolonged vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, or

respiratory illness
certain medications, including corticosteroids

Hyponatremia develops when there’s too little sodium. Common causes of low sodium levels
include:

excessive fluid loss through the skin from sweating or burns

vomiting or diarrhea

poor nutrition

alcohol use disorder

overhydration

thyroid, hypothalamic, or adrenal disorders

liver, heart, or kidney failure

certain medications, including diuretics and seizure medications

syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (SIADH)

Practical Activity

Using a black marker pen on a white manila paper, draw a well labeled diagram to illustrate the
functioning of the sodium pump.

Self Assessment

a). High four causes of abnormally high sodium levels

b). Highlight five symptoms of electrolyte disorder.

c). Highlight five causes of hypercalcemia.

d). Highlight five causes of hypomagnesia

Responses

a). High four causes of abnormally high sodium levels

inadequate water consumption

severe dehydration

excessive loss of bodily fluids as a result of prolonged vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, or

respiratory illness

certain medications, including corticosteroids

b). Highlight five symptoms of electrolyte disorder.

irregular heartbeat

fast heart rate

fatigue

lethargy

convulsions or seizures

nausea

vomiting

diarrhea or constipation

abdominal cramping

muscle cramping

c). Highlight five causes of hypercalcemia.

kidney disease
thyroid disorders, including hyperparathyroidism

lung diseases, such as tuberculosis or sarcoidosis

certain types of cancer, including lung and breast cancers

excessive use of antacids and calcium or vitamin D supplements

d). Highlight five causes of hypomagnesia

alcohol use disorder

malnutrition

malabsorption

chronic diarrhea

excessive sweating

heart failure

certain medications, including some diuretics and antibiotics

1.2.2.5: Tools, equipment, supplies and materials

Black marker pen

White Manila paper

Anatomy lab

References

Ruppert, Edward E.; Fox, Richard, S.; Barnes, Robert D. (2014). Invertebrate Zoology, 7th
edition. Cengage Learning. pp. 59–60.
 Dorland's (2012). Illustrated Medical Dictionary. Elsevier Saunders. p. 203.

Dorland's (2012). Illustrated Medical Dictionary. Elsevier Saunders. p. 1002.

McGrath, J.A.; Eady, R.A.; Pope, F.M. (2014). Rook's Textbook of Dermatology (7th ed.).
Blackwell Publishing. pp. 3.1–3.6.

Learning Outcome 3: Demonstrate knowledge of body tissues and membranes and their
functions

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the knowledge and competencies required to describe type of
tissues as well as their functions.

Performance standard

Types and structure of tissues are described

Functions of tissues are described

Information Sheet

Introduction

The term tissue is used to describe a group of cells that are similar in structure and perform a
specific function. Histology is the field of study that involves the microscopic examination of
tissue appearance, organization, and function.
Tissues are organized into four broad categories based on structural and functional similarities.
These categories are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous. The primary tissue types
work together to contribute to the overall health and maintenance of the human body. Thus,
any disruption in the structure of a tissue can lead to injury or disease.

Types of tissues

Epithelial tissue refers to groups of cells that cover the exterior surfaces of the body, line
internal cavities and passageways, and form certain glands.

Connective tissue, as its name implies, binds the cells and organs of the body together.

Muscle tissue contracts forcefully when excited, providing movement.

Nervous tissue is also excitable, allowing for the generation and propagation of electrochemical
signals in the form of nerve impulses that communicate between different regions of the body.
Fig: tissues

Connective Tissue Membranes

A connective tissue membrane is built entirely of connective tissue. This type of membrane
may be found encapsulating an organ, such as the kidney, or lining the cavity of a freely movable
joint (e.g., shoulder). When lining a joint, this membrane is referred to as a synovial
membrane. Cells in the inner layer of the synovial membrane release synovial fluid, a natural
lubricant that enables the bones of a joint to move freely against one another with reduced
friction.

Epithelial Membranes

An epithelial membrane is composed of an epithelial layer attached to a layer of connective

tissue. A mucous membrane, sometimes called a mucosa, lines a body cavity or hollow
passageway that is open to the external environment. This type of membrane can be found
lining portions of the digestive, respiratory, excretory, and reproductive tracts. Mucus, produced
by uniglandular cells and glandular tissue, coats the epithelial layer. The underlying connective
tissue, called the lamina propria (literally “own layer”), helps support the epithelial layer.

A serous membrane lines the cavities of the body that do not open to the external environment.
Serous fluid secreted by the cells of the epithelium lubricates the membrane and reduces
abrasion and friction between organs. Serous membranes are identified according to location.
Three serous membranes are found lining the thoracic cavity; two membranes that cover the
lungs (pleura) and one membrane that covers the heart (pericardium). A fourth serous
membrane, the peritoneum, lines the peritoneal cavity, covering the abdominal organs and
forming double sheets of mesenteries that suspend many of the digestive organs.

A cutaneous membrane is a multi-layered membrane composed of epithelial and connective

tissues. The apical surface of this membrane exposed to the external environment and is covered
with dead, keratinized cells that help protect the body from desiccation and pathogens. The skin
is an example of a cutaneous membrane.

Muscle Tissue

Muscle tissue is a soft tissue that composes muscles in animal bodies, and gives rise to muscles'
ability to contract. It is also referred to as myopropulsive tissue. This is opposed to other
components or tissues in muscle such as tendons or perimysium. It is formed during embryonic
development through a process known as myogenesis. Muscle tissue consists of elongated cells
also called as muscle fibers. This tissue is responsible for movements in our body. Muscles
contain special proteins called contractile protein which contract and relax to cause movement.

Nervous tissue

Nervous tissue, also called neural tissue, is the main tissue component of the nervous system.
The nervous system regulates and controls bodily functions and activity and consists of two
parts: the central nervous system (CNS) comprising the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral
nervous system (PNS) comprising the branching peripheral nerves. It is composed of neurons,
also known as nerve cells, which receive and transmit impulses, and neuroglia, also known as
glial cells or glia, which assist the propagation of the nerve impulse as well as provide nutrients
to the neurons.

Nervous tissue is made up of different types of neurons, all have an axon. An axon is the long
stem-like part of the cell that sends action potentials to the next cell. Bundles of axons make up
the nerves in the PNS and tracts in the CNS.

Functions of the nervous system are sensory input, integration, control of muscles and glands,
homeostasis, and mental activity.

Practical Activity

Using the anatomy mannequin provided in the skills lab, identify the various muscles and tissues
in the human body.

Self assessment

a). Highlight four types of tissues

b). Describe the muscle tissue

c).What is a cutaneous membrane?

d). What is a serous membrane?

Model Answers

a). Highlight four types of tissues

Epithelial tissue refers to groups of cells that cover the exterior surfaces of the body, line
internal cavities and passageways, and form certain glands.

Connective tissue, as its name implies, binds the cells and organs of the body together.

Muscle tissue contracts forcefully when excited, providing movement.

Nervous tissue is also excitable, allowing for the generation and propagation of electrochemical
signals in the form of nerve impulses that communicate between different regions of the body.

b). Describe the muscle tissue

Muscle tissue is a soft tissue that composes muscles in animal bodies, and gives rise to muscles'
ability to contract. It is also referred to as myopropulsive tissue. This is opposed to other
components or tissues in muscle such as tendons or perimysium. It is formed during embryonic
development through a process known as myogenesis. Muscle tissue consists of elongated cells
also called as muscle fibers. This tissue is responsible for movements in our body. Muscles
contain special proteins called contractile protein which contract and relax to cause movement.

c). what is a cutaneous membrane?

This is a multi-layered membrane composed of epithelial and connective tissues. The apical
surface of this membrane exposed to the external environment and is covered with dead,
keratinized cells that help protect the body from desiccation and pathogens. The skin is an
example of a cutaneous membrane.

d). What is a serous membrane?

A serous membrane lines the cavities of the body that do not open to the external environment.
Serous fluid secreted by the cells of the epithelium lubricates the membrane and reduces
abrasion and friction between organs.

Tools, equipment, supplies and materials

Anatomy and physiology laboratory

 Well labeled charts

Magnifying lens

Anatomy mannequins

References

Moore, K.; Agur, A.; Dalley, A. F. (2015). "Essesntial Clinical Anatomy". Nervous System (4th
ed.). Inkling.

Waggoner, Ben. "Vertebrates: More on Morphology". UCMP. Retrieved 13 July 2011.

Romer, Alfred Sherwood (1985). The Vertebrate Body. Holt Rinehart & Winston.

Liem, Karel F.; Warren Franklin Walker (2015). Functional anatomy of the vertebrates: an
evolutionary perspective. Harcourt College Publishers. p. 277.

Learning outcome 4: Demonstrate knowledge of body cavities

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the knowledge and competencies required to identify body
cavities and describe their contents

Performance standard

Body cavities are identified

Contents of body cavities are described

Information Sheet

Introduction
A body cavity is any space or compartment, or potential space in the animal body. Cavities
accommodate organs and other structures; cavities as potential spaces contain fluid.

The two largest human body cavities are the ventral body cavity, and the dorsal body cavity. In
the dorsal body cavity the brain and spinal cord are located.

The membranes that surround the central nervous system organs (the brain and the spinal cord,
in the cranial and spinal cavities are the three meninges. The differently lined spaces contain
different types of fluid. In the meninges for example the fluid is cerebrospinal fluid; in the
abdominal cavity the fluid contained in the peritoneum is a serous fluid.

In amniotes and some invertebrates the peritoneum lines their largest body cavity called the
coelom.

Human body cavities

Fig: Human body cavities

The dorsal (posterior) cavity and the ventral (anterior) cavity are the largest body compartments.

The dorsal body cavity includes the cranial cavity, enclosed by the skull and contains the brain,
and the spinal cavity, enclosed by the spine and contains the spinal cord.The ventral body cavity
includes the thoracic cavity, enclosed by the ribcage and contains the lungs and heart; and the
abdominopelvic cavity. The abdominopelvic cavity can be divided into the abdominal cavity,
enclosed by the ribcage and pelvis and contains the kidneys, ureters, stomach, intestines, liver,
gallbladder, and pancreas; and the pelvic cavity, enclosed by the pelvis and contains bladder,
anus and reproductive system.

Table 4
Human body cavities and membranes
Membranous
Name of cavity Principal contents
lining
Dorsal Cranial cavity Brain Meninges
body
cavity Vertebral canal Spinal cord Meninges

Pericardium
Thoracic cavity Heart, Lungs
Pleural cavity
Ventral
Abdominal Digestive
body Peritoneum
Abdominopelvic cavity organs, spleen, kidneys
cavity
cavity Pelvic Bladder, reproductive
Peritoneum
cavity organs

Table 4: Human body cavities and membranes

Ventral body cavity

The thoracic cavity consists of three cavities that fill the interior area of the chest.

The two pleural cavities are situated on both sides of the body, anterior to the spine and lateral
to the breastbone.

The superior mediastinum is a wedge-shaped cavity located between the superior regions of the
two thoracic cavities.

The pericardial cavity within the mediastinum is located at the center of the chest below the
superior mediastinum. The pericardial cavity roughly outlines the shape of the heart.
The diaphragm divides the thoracic and the abdominal cavities. The abdominal cavity occupies
the entire lower half of the trunk, anterior to the spine. Just under the abdominal cavity, anterior
to the buttocks, is the pelvic cavity. The pelvic cavity is funnel shaped and is located inferior
and anterior to the abdominal cavity.

Together the abdominal and pelvic cavity can be referred to as the abdominopelvic cavity while
the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities together can be referred to as the ventral body cavity.
Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) and Anterior (Ventral) Cavities The anterior (ventral)
cavity has two main subdivisions: the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity. The
thoracic cavity is the more superior subdivision of the anterior cavity, and it is enclosed by the
rib cage.

The thoracic cavity contains the lungs and the heart, which is located in the mediastinum. The
diaphragm forms the floor of the thoracic cavity and separates it from the more inferior
abdominopelvic cavity. The abdominopelvic cavity is the largest cavity in the body. Although
no membrane physically divides the abdominopelvic cavity, it can be useful to distinguish
between the abdominal cavity, the division that houses the digestive organs, and the pelvic
cavity, the division that houses the organs of reproduction.

Dorsal body cavity

The cranial cavity is a large, bean-shaped cavity filling most of the upper skull where the brain
is located. The spinal cavity is a very narrow, thread-like cavity running from the cranial cavity
down the entire length of the spinal cord.

Together the cranial cavity and spinal (or vertebral) cavity can be referred to as the dorsal body
cavity. In the posterior (dorsal) cavity, the cranial cavity houses the brain, and the spinal cavity
encloses the spinal cord. Just as the brain and spinal cord make up a continuous, uninterrupted
structure, the cranial and spinal cavities that house them are also continuous. The brain and
spinal cord are protected by the bones of the skull and vertebral column and by cerebrospinal
fluid, a colorless fluid produced by the brain, which cushions the brain and spinal cord within
the posterior (dorsal) cavity.

Development

At the end of the third week, the neural tube, which is a fold of one of the layers of the trilaminar
germ disc, called the ectoderm, appears. This layer elevates and closes dorsally, while the gut
tube rolls up and closes ventrally to create a “tube on top of a tube.” The mesoderm, which is
another layer of the trilaminar germ disc, holds the tubes together and the lateral plate mesoderm,
the middle layer of the germ disc, splits to form a visceral layer associated with the gut and a
parietal layer, which along with the overlying ectoderm, forms the lateral body wall. The space
between the visceral and parietal layers of lateral plate mesoderm is the primitive body cavity.
When the lateral body wall folds, it moves ventrally and fuses at the midline. The body cavity
closes, except in the region of the connecting stalk. Here, the gut tube maintains an attachment
to the yolk sac. The yolk sac is a membranous sac attached to the embryo, which provides
nutrients and functions as the circulatory system of the very early embryo.

The lateral body wall folds, pulling the amnion in with it so that the amnion surrounds the
embryo and extends over the connecting stalk, which becomes the umbilical cord, which
connects the fetus with the placenta. If the ventral body wall fails to close, ventral body wall
defects can result, such as ectopia cordis, a congenital malformation in which the heart is
abnormally located outside the thorax. Another defect is gastroschisis, a congenital defect in the
anterior abdominal wall through which the abdominal contents freely protrude. Another
possibility is bladder exstrophy, in which part of the urinary bladder is present outside the body.
In normal circumstances, the parietal mesoderm will form the parietal layer of serous
membranes lining the outside (walls) of the peritoneal, pleural, and pericardial cavities. The
visceral layer will form the visceral layer of the serous membranes covering the lungs, heart,
and abdominal organs. These layers are continuous at the root of each organ as the organs lie in
their respective cavities. The peritoneum, a serum membrane that forms the lining of the
abdominal cavity, forms in the gut layers and in places mesenteries extend from the gut as double
layers of peritoneum. Mesenteries provide a pathway for vessels, nerves, and lymphatics to the
organs. Initially, the gut tube from the caudal end of the foregut to the end of the hindgut is
suspended from the dorsal body wall by dorsal mesentery. Ventral mesentery, derived from the
septum transversum, exists only in the region of the terminal part of the esophagus, the stomach,
and the upper portion of the duodenum.

Function

These cavities contain and protect delicate internal organs, and the ventral cavity allows for
significant changes in the size and shape of the organs as they perform their functions.

Anatomical structures are often described in terms of the cavity in which they reside. The body
maintains its internal organization by means of membranes, sheaths, and other structures that
separate compartments.

The lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, for example, can expand and contract without
distorting other tissues or disrupting the activity of nearby organs. The ventral cavity includes
the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities and their subdivisions. The dorsal cavity includes the
cranial and spinal cavities.

Practical activity

Using the mannequin provided, identify the various cavities in the human body.

Self Assessment

a). Highlight three components of the thoracic cavity.

b). Describe the dorsal cavity.

c). Highlight the functions of the body cavities.

d). what is the function of the peritoneum?

Model Answers

a). Highlight three components of the thoracic cavity.

The two pleural cavities are situated on both sides of the body, anterior to the spine and lateral
to the breastbone.

The superior mediastinum is a wedge-shaped cavity located between the superior regions of the
two thoracic cavities.

The pericardial cavity within the mediastinum is located at the center of the chest below the
superior mediastinum. The pericardial cavity roughly outlines the shape of the heart.

b). Describe the dorsal cavity.

The cranial cavity is a large, bean-shaped cavity filling most of the upper skull where the brain
is located. The spinal cavity is a very narrow, thread-like cavity running from the cranial cavity
down the entire length of the spinal cord.

Together the cranial cavity and spinal (or vertebral) cavity can be referred to as the dorsal body
cavity. In the posterior (dorsal) cavity, the cranial cavity houses the brain, and the spinal cavity

encloses the spinal cord. Just as the brain and spinal cord make up a continuous, uninterrupted
structure, the cranial and spinal cavities that house them are also continuous. The brain and
spinal cord are protected by the bones of the skull and vertebral column and by cerebrospinal
fluid, a colorless fluid produced by the brain, which cushions the brain and spinal cord within
the posterior (dorsal) cavity.

c). Highlight the functions of the body cavities.

These cavities contain and protect delicate internal organs, and the ventral cavity allows for
significant changes in the size and shape of the organs as they perform their functions.
Anatomical structures are often described in terms of the cavity in which they reside. The body
maintains its internal organization by means of membranes, sheaths, and other structures that
separate compartments.

The lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, for example, can expand and contract without
distorting other tissues or disrupting the activity of nearby organs. The ventral cavity includes
the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities and their subdivisions. The dorsal cavity includes the
cranial and spinal cavities.

d). what is the function of the peritoneum?

The peritoneum, a serum membrane that forms the lining of the abdominal cavity, forms in the
gut layers and in places mesenteries extend from the gut as double layers of peritoneum.

Tools, equipment, supplies and materials

Anatomy and physiology lab

Anatomical models and mannequins

Magnifying lens

References

Fell, C.; Griffith Pearson, F. (November 2017). "Thoracic Surgery Clinics: Historical
Perspectives of Thoracic Anatomy". Thorac Surg Clin. 17 (4):

Newman, Tim (2014) . "Introduction to Physiology: History And Scope". Medicine News
Today.

Zimmer, Carl (2014). "Soul Made Flesh: The Discovery of the Brain – and How It Changed the
World".

Feder, Martin E. (2017). New directions in ecological physiology. New York: Cambridge
University Press.
 Garland, Jr, Theodore; Carter, P. A. (2014). "Evolutionary physiology" (PDF). Annual Review
of Physiology. 56 (1): 579–621.

Learning Outcome 5: Demonstrate knowledge of the human skeletal system

Introduction to the learning outcome.

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to identify divisions of the human
skeleton, outline components of the axial skeleton as well as describe components of the
appendicular skeleton. Types of bones are also described.

Performance Standard
i. Divisions of the human skeleton outlined
ii. Components of the axial skeleton are described
iii. Components of the appendicular skeleton are described
iv. Types of bones are described

Information Sheet

Introduction

Human skeleton, the internal skeleton that serves as a framework for the body. This framework
consists of many individual bones and cartilages. There also are bands of fibrous connective
tissue the ligaments and the tendons in intimate relationship with the parts of the skeleton. This
article is concerned primarily with the gross structure and the function of the skeleton of the
normal human adult.

Functions of the skeletal System

The primary organs of the human skeletal system – bones -lie buried within the muscles and
other soft tissues. Bones are living organs and have the ability to grow.
The six main functions of the skeletal system

Support – Bones form the body's supporting framework. All of the softer tissues of the body
hang from the skeletal system.

Protection – Hard, bony “boxes” protect delicate structures enclosed within them. For example,

our skull protects our brain. Our breastbone and ribs protect our heart and lungs. Our pelvis
protects our intestines and bladder and, in females, our uterus and during pregnancy the
developing foetus.

Movement - Muscles are anchored firmly to bones. As muscles contract and shorten, they pull
on bones and thereby move them.

Mineral storage – Bones act as reserves of minerals important for our body, most notably

calcium and phosphorus. Bones maintain homeostasis of blood calcium.

Growth factor storage - Bones store important growth factors, for example fibroblast growth
factor, which acts on the kidney to reduce phosphate reabsorption. In this function, our bones
are an endocrine organ.

Hemopoiesis – This is the process of blood formation. Blood cells are formed in red bone
marrow.
Figure 3: Skeletal system

The human skeleton, like that of other vertebrates, consists of two principal subdivisions, each
with origins distinct from the others and each presenting certain individual features.

These are

(1) the axial, comprising the vertebral column the spine and much of the skull, and (2)the
appendicular, to which the pelvic (hip) and pectoral (shoulder) girdles and the bones and
cartilages of the limbs belong. Discussed in this article as part of the axial skeleton is a third
subdivision, the visceral, comprising the lower jaw, some elements of the upper jaw, and the
branchial arches, including the hyoid bone.

When one considers the relation of these subdivisions of the skeleton to the soft parts of the
human body such as the nervous system, the digestive system, the respiratory system, the
cardiovascular system, and the voluntary muscles of the muscle system it is clear that the
functions of the skeleton are of three different types: support, protection, and motion. Of these
functions, support is the most primitive and the oldest; likewise, the axial part of the skeleton
was the first to evolve. The vertebral column, corresponding to the notochord in lower
organisms, is the main support of the trunk.
The central nervous system lies largely within the axial skeleton, the brain being well protected
by the cranium and the spinal cord by the vertebral column, by means of the bony neural arches
(the arches of bone that encircle the spinal cord) and the intervening ligaments.

Protection of the heart, lungs, and other organs and structures in the chest creates a problem
somewhat different from that of the central nervous system. These organs, the function of which
involves motion, expansion, and contraction, must have a flexible and elastic protective
covering. Such a covering is provided by the bony thoracic basket, or rib cage, which forms the
skeleton of the wall of the chest, or thorax. The connection of the ribs to the breastbone the
sternum is in all cases a secondary one, brought about by the relatively pliable rib (costal)
cartilages. The small joints between the ribs and the vertebrae permit a gliding motion of the
ribs on the vertebrae during breathing and other activities. The motion is limited by the
ligamentous attachments between ribs and vertebrae.

The third general function of the skeleton is that of motion. The great majority of the skeletal
muscles are firmly anchored to the skeleton, usually to at least two bones and in some cases to
many bones. Thus, the motions of the body and its parts, all the way from the lunge of the
football player to the delicate manipulations of a handicraft artist or of the use of complicated
instruments by a scientist, are made possible by separate and individual engineering
arrangements between muscle and bone.

In this article the parts of the skeleton are described in terms of their sharing in these functions.
The disorders and injuries that can affect the human skeleton are described in the article bone
disease.

Axial And Visceral Skeleton

The cranium

The cranium is the part of the skull that encloses the brain is sometimes called the braincase, but
its intimate relation to the sense organs for sight, sound, smell, and taste and to other structures
makes such a designation somewhat misleading.
Figure 4: The cranium

Development of cranial bones

The cranium is formed of bones of two different types of developmental origin—the

cartilaginous, or substitution, bones, which replace cartilages preformed in the general shape of
the bone; and membrane bones, which are laid down within layers of connective tissue. For the
most part, the substitution bones form the floor of the cranium, while membrane bones form the
sides and roof.

The range in the capacity of the cranial cavity is wide but is not directly proportional to the size
of the skull, because there are variations also in the thickness of the bones and in the size of the
air pockets, or sinuses. The cranial cavity has a rough, uneven floor, but its landmarks and details
of structure generally are consistent from one skull to another.

The cranium forms all the upper portion of the skull, with the bones of the face situated beneath
its forward part. It consists of a relatively few large bones, the frontal bone, the sphenoid bone,
two temporal bones, two parietal bones, and the occipital bone. The frontal bone underlies the
forehead region and extends back to the coronal suture, an arching line that separates the frontal
bone from the two parietal bones, on the sides of the cranium. In front, the frontal bone forms a
joint with the two small bones of the bridge of the nose and with the zygomatic bone (which
forms part of the cheekbone; The facial bones and their complex functions), the sphenoid, and
the maxillary bones. Between the nasal and zygomatic bones, the horizontal portion of the
frontal bone extends back to form a part of the roof of the eye socket, or orbit; it thus serves an
important protective function for the eye and its accessory structures.

Each parietal bone has a generally four-sided outline. Together they form a large portion of the
side walls of the cranium. Each adjoins the frontal, the sphenoid, the temporal, and the occipital
bones and its fellow of the opposite side. They are almost exclusively cranial bones, having less
relation to other structures than the other bones that help to form the cranium.

Interior of the cranium

The interior of the cranium shows a multitude of details, reflecting the shapes of the softer
structures that are in contact with the bones.

The internal surface of the vault is relatively uncomplicated. In the midline front to back, along
the sagittal suture, the seam between the two parietal bones, is a shallow depression—the groove
for the superior longitudinal venous sinus, a large channel for venous blood. A number of
depressions on either side of it mark the sites of the pacchionian bodies, structures that permit
the venous system to absorb cerebrospinal fluid. The large thin-walled venous sinuses all lie
within the cranial cavity. While they are thus protected by the cranium, in many places they are
so close beneath the bones that a fracture or a penetrating wound may tear the sinus wall and
lead to bleeding. The blood frequently is trapped beneath the outermost and toughest brain
covering, the dura mater, in a mass called a subdural hematoma.

Conspicuous markings on the internal surface of the projection of the sphenoid, called the
greater wing, and on the internal surfaces of the parietal and temporal bones are formed by the
middle meningeal artery and its branches, which supply blood to the brain coverings. Injury to
these vessels may lead to extradural hematoma, a mass of blood between the dura mater and the
bone.
In contrast to the vault and sides of the cranium, the base presents an extremely complicated
aspect. It is divided into three major depressions, or fossae, in a descending stair-step
arrangement from front to back. The fossae are divided strictly according to the borders of the
bones of the cranium but are related to major portions of the brain. The anterior cranial fossa
serves as the bed in which rest the frontal lobes of the cerebrum, the large forward part of the
brain. The middle cranial fossa, sharply divided into two lateral halves by a central eminence of
bone, contains the temporal lobes of the cerebrum. The posterior cranial fossa serves as a bed
for the hemispheres of the cerebellum (a mass of brain tissue behind the brain stem and beneath
the rear portion of the cerebrum) and for the front and middle portion of the brain stem. Major
portions of the brain are thus partially enfolded by the bones of the cranial wall.

There are openings in the three fossae for the passage of nerves and blood vessels, and the
markings on the internal surface of the bones are from the attachments of the brain coverings—
the meninges—and venous sinuses and other blood vessels.

Appendicular skeleton

The appendicular skeleton is the portion of the skeleton of vertebrates consisting of the bones
that support the appendages. There are 126 bones. The appendicular skeleton includes the
skeletal elements within the limbs, as well as supporting shoulder girdle pectoral and pelvic
girdle. The word appendicular is the adjective of the noun appendage, which itself means a part
that is joined to something larger.
Of the 206 bones in the human skeleton, the appendicular skeleton comprises 126. Functionally
it is involved in locomotion (lower limbs) of the axial skeleton and manipulation of objects in
the environment (upper limbs).

The appendicular skeleton forms during development from cartilage, by the process of
endochondral ossification.

The appendicular skeleton is divided into six major regions:

Shoulder girdles (4 bones) - Left and right clavicle (2) and scapula (2).

Arms and forearms (6 bones) - Left and right humerus (2) (arm), ulna (2) and radius (2)
(forearm).

Hands (54 bones) - Left and right carpals (16) (wrist), metacarpals (10), proximal phalanges
(10), intermediate phalanges (8) and distal phalanges (10).

Pelvis (2 bones) - left hip bone and right hip bone (2).

Thighs and legs (8 bones) - Left and right femur (2) (thigh), patella (2) (knee), tibia (2) and
fibula (2) (leg).
Feet and ankles (52 bones) - Left and right tarsals (14) (ankle), metatarsals (10), proximal
phalanges (10), intermediate phalanges (8) and distal phalanges (10).

It is important to realize that through anatomical variation it is common for the skeleton to have
many accessory bones (sutural bones in the skull, cervical ribs, lumbar ribs and even extra
lumbar vertebrae).

The appendicular skeleton of 126 bones and the axial skeleton of 80 bones together form the
complete skeleton of 206 bones in the human body. Unlike the axial skeleton, the appendicular
skeleton is unfused. This allows for a much greater range of motion.

Types of bones

Bone, or osseous tissue, is a connective tissue that constitutes the endoskeleton. It contains
specialized cells and a matrix of mineral salts and collagen fibers.

The mineral salts primarily include hydroxyapatite, a mineral formed from calcium phosphate.
Calcification is the process of deposition of mineral salts on the collagen fiber matrix that
crystallizes and hardens the tissue. The process of calcification only occurs in the presence of
collagen fibers.

The bones of the human skeleton are classified by their shape: long bones, short bones, flat
bones, sutural bones, sesamoid bones, and irregular bones.
Figure 5:Types of bones

Long bones are longer than they are wide and have a shaft and two ends. The diaphysis, or
central shaft, contains bone marrow in a marrow cavity. The rounded ends, the epiphyses, are
covered with articular cartilage and are filled with red bone marrow, which produces blood cells.
Most of the limb bones are long bones—for example, the femur, tibia, ulna, and radius.
Exceptions to this include the patella and the bones of the wrist and ankle.

Short bones, or cuboidal bones, are bones that are the same width and length, giving them a
cube-like shape. For example, the bones of the wrist (carpals) and ankle (tarsals) are short bones.

Flat bones are thin and relatively broad bones that are found where extensive protection of
organs is required or where broad surfaces of muscle attachment are required. Examples of flat
bones are the sternum (breast bone), ribs, scapulae (shoulder blades), and the roof of the skull.

Irregular bones are bones with complex shapes. These bones may have short, flat, notched, or
ridged surfaces. Examples of irregular bones are the vertebrae, hip bones, and several skull
bones.
Sesamoid bones are small, flat bones and are shaped similarly to a sesame seed. The patellae
are sesamoid bones. Sesamoid bones develop inside tendons and may be found near joints at the
knees, hands, and feet.

Sutural bones are small, flat, irregularly shaped bones. They may be found between the flat
bones of the skull. They vary in number, shape, size, and position.

1.2.5.4: Practical Activity

Using the skeletal model provided in the anatomy lab, describe the various components of the
human skeletal system.

1.2.5.5: Self Assessment

a). Highlight types of bones

b). Highlight the six major regions of the appendicular skeleton

c). What are the six functions of the skeletal system?

Model Answers

a). Highlight types of bones.

Long bones are longer than they are wide and have a shaft and two ends. The diaphysis, or
central shaft, contains bone marrow in a marrow cavity. The rounded ends, the epiphyses, are
covered with articular cartilage and are filled with red bone marrow, which produces blood cells.
Most of the limb bones are long bones—for example, the femur, tibia, ulna, and radius.
Exception sto this include the patella and the bones of the wrist and ankle.

Short bones, or cuboidal bones, are bones that are the same width and length, giving them a
cube-like shape. For example, the bones of the wrist (carpals) and ankle (tarsals) are short bones.
Flat bones are thin and relatively broad bones that are found where extensive protection of
organs is required or where broad surfaces of muscle attachment are required. Examples of flat
bones are the sternum (breast bone), ribs, scapulae (shoulder blades), and the roof of the skull.

Irregular bones are bones with complex shapes. These bones may have short, flat, notched, or
ridged surfaces. Examples of irregular bones are the vertebrae, hip bones, and several skull
bones.

Sesamoid bones are small, flat bones and are shaped similarly to a sesame seed. The patellae
are sesamoid bones. Sesamoid bones develop inside tendons and may be found near joints at the
knees, hands, and feet.

Sutural bones are small, flat, irregularly shaped bones. They may be found between the flat
bones of the skull. They vary in number, shape, size, and position.

b). Highlight the six major regions of the appendicular skeleton

Shoulder girdles (4 bones) - Left and right clavicle (2) and scapula (2).

Arms and forearms (6 bones) - Left and right humerus (2) (arm), ulna (2) and radius (2)
(forearm).

Hands (54 bones) - Left and right carpals (16) (wrist), metacarpals (10), proximal phalanges
(10), intermediate phalanges (8) and distal phalanges (10).

Pelvis (2 bones) - left hip bone and right hip bone (2).

Thighs and legs (8 bones) - Left and right femur (2) (thigh), patella (2) (knee), tibia (2) and
fibula (2) (leg).

Feet and ankles (52 bones) - Left and right tarsals (14) (ankle), metatarsals (10), proximal
phalanges (10), intermediate phalanges (8) and distal phalanges (10).

c). what are the six functions of the skeletal system?

Support – Bones form the body's supporting framework. All of the softer tissues of the body
hang from the skeletal system.

Protection – Hard, bony “boxes” protect delicate structures enclosed within them. For example,

our skull protects our brain. Our breastbone and ribs protect our heart and lungs. Our pelvis
protects our intestines and bladder and, in females, our uterus and during pregnancy the
developing foetus.

Movement - Muscles are anchored firmly to bones. As muscles contract and shorten, they pull
on bones and thereby move them.

Mineral storage – Bones act as reserves of minerals important for our body, most notably

calcium and phosphorus. Bones maintain homeostasis of blood calcium.

Growth factor storage - Bones store important growth factors, for example fibroblast growth
factor, which acts on the kidney to reduce phosphate reabsorption. In this function, our bones
are an endocrine organ.

Hemopoiesis – This is the process of blood formation. Blood cells are formed in red bone
marrow.

References

Gray, Henry (2014). "Anatomy of the Human Body". Bartleby. Retrieved 4 September2016.

Jump up to:a b "What is Physiology?". Understanding Life. Archived from the original on 19
August 2017. Retrieved 4 September 2016.

"Introduction page, "Anatomy of the Human Body". Henry Gray. 20th edition. 1918". Retrieved
27 March 2007.

Publisher's page for Gray's Anatomy. 39th edition (UK). 2014. ISBN 0-443-07168-3. Retrieved
27 March 2017.
Publisher's page for Gray's Anatomy (39th (US) ed.). 2004. ISBN 0-443-07168-3. Archived from
the original on 9 February 2007. Retrieved 27 March 2017.

Learning outcome 6: Demonstrate knowledge of the major muscles of the body and their
functions

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to identify the structure of muscles
their types and functions.

Performance Standards
i. Structure of a muscle outlined
ii. Types of muscles outlined
iii. Functions of muscles are listed

Information Sheet

The muscular system is an organ system consisting of skeletal, smooth and cardiac muscles. It
permits movement of the body, maintains posture and circulates blood throughout the body. The
muscular systems in vertebrates are controlled through the nervous system although some
muscles (such as the cardiac muscle) can be completely autonomous. Together with the skeletal
system, it forms the musculoskeletal system, which is responsible for movement of the human
body.

Muscles
There are three distinct types of muscles: skeletal muscles, cardiac or heart muscles, and smooth
(non-striated) muscles. Muscles provide strength, balance, posture, movement and heat for the
body to keep warm.

Fig: Muscle structure under the microscope

Skeletal Muscle

Skeletal muscles, like other striated muscles, are composed of myocytes, or muscle fibers,
which are in turn composed of myofibrils, which are composed of sarcomeres, the basic building
block of striated muscle tissue. Upon stimulation by an action potential, skeletal muscles
perform a coordinated contraction by shortening each sarcomere. The best proposed model for
understanding contraction is the sliding filament model of muscle contraction. Within the
sarcomere, actin and myosin fibers overlap in a contractile motion towards each other. Myosin
filaments have club-shaped heads that project toward the actin filaments.

Skeletal muscle

Larger structures along the myosin filament called myosin heads are used to provide attachment
points on binding sites for the actin filaments. The myosin heads move in a coordinated style;
they swivel toward the center of the sarcomere, detach and then reattach to the nearest active
site of the actin filament. This is called a ratchet type drive system

This process consumes large amounts of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the energy source of the
cell. ATP binds to the cross bridges between myosin heads and actin filaments. The release of
energy powers the swiveling of the myosin head. When ATP is used, it becomes adenosine
diphosphate (ADP), and since muscles store little ATP, they must continuously replace the
discharged ADP with ATP. Muscle tissue also contains a stored supply of a fast acting recharge
chemical, creatine phosphate, which when necessary can assist with the rapid regeneration of
ADP into ATP.

Calcium ions are required for each cycle of the sarcomere. Calcium is released from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum into the sarcomere when a muscle is stimulated to contract. This calcium
uncovers the actin binding sites. When the muscle no longer needs to contract, the calcium ions
are pumped from the sarcomere and back into storage in the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

There are approximately 639 skeletal muscles in the human body.

Cardiac muscle
Heart muscles are distinct from skeletal muscles because the muscle fibers are laterally
connected to each other. Furthermore, just as with smooth muscles, their movement is
involuntary. Heart muscles are controlled by the sinus node influenced by the autonomic
nervous system.

Smooth muscle

Smooth muscles are controlled directly by the autonomic nervous system and are involuntary,
meaning that they are incapable of being moved by conscious thought. Functions such as
heartbeat and lungs (which are capable of being willingly controlled, be it to a limited extent)
are involuntary muscles but are not smooth muscles.

Physiology

Contraction

Neuromuscular junctions are the focal point where a motor neuron attaches to a muscle.
Acetylcholine, (a neurotransmitter used in skeletal muscle contraction) is released from the axon
terminal of the nerve cell when an action potential reaches the microscopic junction called a
synapse.

A group of chemical messengers cross the synapse and stimulate the formation of electrical
changes, which are produced in the muscle cell when the acetylcholine binds to receptors on its
surface. Calcium is released from its storage area in the cell's sarcoplasmic reticulum. An
impulse from a nerve cell causes calcium release and brings about a single, short muscle
contraction called a muscle twitch. If there is a problem at the neuromuscular junction, a very
prolonged contraction may occur, such as the muscle contractions that result from tetanus. Also,
a loss of function at the junction can produce paralysis.

Skeletal muscles are organized into hundreds of motor units, each of which involves a motor
neuron, attached by a series of thin finger-like structures called axon terminals. These attach to
and control discrete bundles of muscle fibers. A coordinated and fine tuned response to a specific
circumstance will involve controlling the precise number of motor units used. While individual
muscle units contract as a unit, the entire muscle can contract on a predetermined basis due to
the structure of the motor unit.
Motor unit coordination, balance, and control frequently come under the direction of the
cerebellum of the brain. This allows for complex muscular coordination with little conscious
effort, such as when one drives a car without thinking about the process.

Tendon

A tendon is a piece of connective tissue that connects a muscle to a bone. When a muscle
contracts, it pulls against the skeleton to create movement. A tendon connects this muscle to a
bone, making this function possible.

Aerobic and anaerobic muscle activity

At rest, the body produces the majority of its ATP aerobically in the mitochondria without
producing lactic acid or other fatiguing byproducts. During exercise, the method of ATP
production varies depending on the fitness of the individual as well as the duration and intensity
of exercise. At lower activity levels, when exercise continues for a long duration (several
minutes or longer), energy is produced aerobically by combining oxygen with carbohydrates
and fats stored in the body.

During activity that is higher in intensity, with possible duration decreasing as intensity
increases, ATP production can switch to anaerobic pathways, such as the use of the creatine
phosphate and the phosphagen system or anaerobic glycolysis. Aerobic ATP production is
biochemically much slower and can only be used for long-duration, low-intensity exercise, but
produces no fatiguing waste products that can not be removed immediately from the sarcomere
and the body, and it results in a much greater number of ATP molecules per fat or carbohydrate
molecule. Aerobic training allows the oxygen delivery system to be more efficient, allowing
aerobic metabolism to begin quicker.

Anaerobic ATP production produces ATP much faster and allows near-maximal intensity
exercise, but also produces significant amounts of lactic acid which renders high-intensity
exercise unsustainable for more than several minutes. The phosphagen system is also anaerobic.
It allows for the highest levels of exercise intensity, but intramuscular stores of phosphocreatine
are very limited and can only provide energy for exercises lasting up to ten seconds. Recovery
is very quick, with full creatine stores regenerated within five minutes.

Practical Activity

By use of a microscope oberve three pre-prepared slides containing skeletal, smooth and cardiac
muscle cells. Draw well labeled diagrams to illustrate them.

Self Assessment

a). Highlight aerobic and anaerobic muscle activity

b).Describe the cardiac muscle

Model answers

a). Highlight aerobic and anaerobic muscle activity

At rest, the body produces the majority of its ATP aerobically in the mitochondria without
producing lactic acid or other fatiguing byproducts. During exercise, the method of ATP
production varies depending on the fitness of the individual as well as the duration and intensity
of exercise. At lower activity levels, when exercise continues for a long duration (several
minutes or longer), energy is produced aerobically by combining oxygen with carbohydrates
and fats stored in the body.

During activity that is higher in intensity, with possible duration decreasing as intensity
increases, ATP production can switch to anaerobic pathways, such as the use of the creatine
phosphate and the phosphagen system or anaerobic glycolysis. Aerobic ATP production is
biochemically much slower and can only be used for long-duration, low-intensity exercise, but
produces no fatiguing waste products that cannot be removed immediately from the sarcomere
and the body, and it results in a much greater number of ATP molecules per fat or carbohydrate
molecule. Aerobic training allows the oxygen delivery system to be more efficient, allowing
aerobic metabolism to begin quicker.
Anaerobic ATP production produces ATP much faster and allows near-maximal intensity
exercise, but also produces significant amounts of lactic acid which renders high-intensity
exercise unsustainable for more than several minutes. The phosphagen system is also anaerobic.
It allows for the highest levels of exercise intensity, but intramuscular stores of phosphocreatine
are very limited and can only provide energy for exercises lasting up to ten seconds. Recovery
is very quick, with full creatine stores regenerated within five minutes.

b). Describe the cardiac muscle

Heart muscles are distinct from skeletal muscles because the muscle fibers are laterally
connected to each other. Furthermore, just as with smooth muscles, their movement is
involuntary. Heart muscles are controlled by the sinus node influenced by the autonomic
nervous system.

References

Gray, Henry (1918). "Anatomy of the Human Body". Bartleby. Retrieved 4 September2016.

^ Jump up to:a b "What is Physiology?". Understanding Life. Archived from the original on 19
August 2017. Retrieved 4 September 2016.

^ "Introduction page, "Anatomy of the Human Body". Henry Gray. 20th edition. 1918".
Retrieved 27 March 2007.

^ Publisher's page for Gray's Anatomy. 39th edition (UK). 2004. ISBN 0-443-07168-3.
Retrieved 27 March 2007.

^ Publisher's page for Gray's Anatomy (39th (US) ed.). 2004. ISBN 0-443-07168-3. Archived
from the original on 9 February 2007. Retrieved 27 March 2007.
Learning outcome 7: Demonstrate knowledge of the body joints

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to identify the structure of joints,
their types and functions.

Performance standards
i. Structure of joints outlined
ii. Types of joints outlined
iii. Functions of joints are described

Information Sheet

Introduction
The point at which two or more bones meet is called a joint, or articulation. Joints are responsible
for movement, such as the movement of limbs, and stability, such as the stability found in the
bones of the skull.

There are two ways to classify joints: on the basis of their structure or on the basis of their
function. The structural classification divides joints into bony, fibrous, cartilaginous, and
synovial joints depending on the material composing the joint and the presence or absence of a
cavity in the joint.

Fibrous Joints

The bones of fibrous joints are held together by fibrous connective tissue. There is no cavity,
or space, present between the bones and so most fibrous joints do not move at all, or are only
capable of minor movements. There are three types of fibrous joints: sutures, syndesmoses, and
gomphoses. Sutures are found only in the skull and possess short fibers of connective tissue
that hold the skull bones tightly in place.

Syndesmoses are joints in which the bones are connected by a band of connective tissue,
allowing for more movement than in a suture. An example of a syndesmosis is the joint of the
tibia and fibula in the ankle. The amount of movement in these types of joints is determined by
the length of the connective tissue fibers. Gomphoses occur between teeth and their sockets;

the term refers to the way the tooth fits into the socket like a peg. The tooth is connected to the
socket by a connective tissue referred to as the periodontal ligament.

Cartilaginous Joints
Figure 6. Synovial joints

Cartilaginous joints are joints in which the bones are connected by cartilage. There are two
types of cartilaginous joints: synchondroses and symphyses. In a synchondrosis, the bones are
joined by hyaline cartilage. Synchondroses are found in the epiphyseal plates of growing bones
in children. In symphyses, hyaline cartilage covers the end of the bone but the connection
between bones occurs through fibrocartilage. Symphyses are found at the joints between
vertebrae. Either type of cartilaginous joint allows for very little movement.

Synovial Joints

Synovial joints are the only joints that have a space between the adjoining bones. This space is
referred to as the synovial (or joint) cavity and is filled with synovial fluid. Synovial fluid
lubricates the joint, reducing friction between the bones and allowing for greater movement.
The ends of the bones are covered with articular cartilage, a hyaline cartilage, and the entire
joint is surrounded by an articular capsule composed of connective tissue that allows movement
of the joint while resisting dislocation. Articular capsules may also possess ligaments that hold
the bones together. Synovial joints are capable of the greatest movement of the three structural
joint types; however, the more mobile a joint, the weaker the joint. Knees, elbows, and shoulders
are examples of synovial joints.

Classification of Joints on the Basis of Function

The functional classification divides joints into three categories: synarthroses, amphiarthroses,
and diarthroses:

Synarthroses are a joints that are immovable. This includes sutures, gomphoses, and
synchondroses.

Amphiarthroses are joints that allow slight movement, including syndesmoses and symphyses.

Diarthroses are joints that allow for free movement of the joint, as in synovial joints.

Types of Synovial Joints

Synovial joints are further classified into six different categories on the basis of the shape and
structure of the joint. The shape of the joint affects the type of movement permitted by the joint.
These joints can be described as planar, hinge, pivot, condyloid, saddle, or ball-and-socket
joints.
Figure 7: types of synovial joints

Planar Joints

Planar joints have bones with articulating surfaces that are flat or slightly curved faces. These
joints allow for gliding movements, and so the joints are sometimes referred to as gliding joints.
The range of motion is limited in these joints and does not involve rotation. Planar joints are
found in the carpal bones in the hand and the tarsal bones of the foot, as well as between
vertebrae.

Hinge Joints

In hinge joints, the slightly rounded end of one bone fits into the slightly hollow end of the other
bone. In this way, one bone moves while the other remains stationary, like the hinge of a door.
The elbow is an example of a hinge joint. The knee is sometimes classified as a modified hinge
joint

Pivot joints

Consist of the rounded end of one bone fitting into a ring formed by the other bone. This structure
allows rotational movement, as the rounded bone moves around its own axis. An example of a
pivot joint is the joint of the first and second vertebrae of the neck that allows the head to move
back and forth. The joint of the wrist that allows the palm of the hand to be turned up and down
is also a pivot joint.

Condyloid Joints

Condyloid joints consist of an oval-shaped end of one bone fitting into a similarly oval-shaped
hollow of another bone. This is also sometimes called an ellipsoidal joint. This type of joint
allows angular movement along two axes, as seen in the joints of the wrist and fingers, which
can move both side to side and up and down.

Saddle Joints

Saddle joints are so named because the ends of each bone resemble a saddle, with concave and
convex portions that fit together. Saddle joints allow angular movements similar to condyloid
joints but with a greater range of motion. An example of a saddle joint is the thumb joint, which
can move back and forth and up and down, but more freely than the wrist or fingers.

Ball-and-Socket Joints

Ball-and-socket joints possess a rounded, ball-like end of one bone fitting into a cuplike socket
of another bone. This organization allows the greatest range of motion, as all movement types
are possible in all directions. Examples of ball-and-socket joints are the shoulder and hip joints

Movement at Synovial Joints

The wide range of movement allowed by synovial joints produces different types of movements.
The movement of synovial joints can be classified as one of four different types: gliding,
angular, rotational, or special movement.
Gliding Movement

Gliding movements occur as relatively flat bone surfaces move past each other. Gliding
movements produce very little rotation or angular movement of the bones. The joints of the
carpal and tarsal bones are examples of joints that produce gliding movements.

Angular Movement

Angular movements are produced when the angle between the bones of a joint changes. There
are several different types of angular movements, including flexion, extension, hyperextension,
abduction, adduction, and circumduction. Flexion, or bending, occurs when the angle between
the bones decreases. Moving the forearm upward at the elbow or moving the wrist to move the
hand toward the forearm are examples of flexion. Extension is the opposite of flexion in that the
angle between the bones of a joint increases. Straightening a limb after flexion is an example of
extension. Extension past the regular anatomical position is referred to as hyperextension. This
includes moving the neck back to look upward, or bending the wrist so that the hand moves
away from the forearm.

Abduction occurs when a bone moves away from the midline of the body. Examples of
abduction are moving the arms or legs laterally to lift them straight out to the side. Adduction
is the movement of a bone toward the midline of the body. Movement of the limbs inward after
abduction is an example of adduction. Circumduction is the movement of a limb in a circular
motion, as in moving the arm in a circular motion.

Rotational Movement

Rotational movement is the movement of a bone as it rotates around its longitudinal axis.
Rotation can be toward the midline of the body, which is referred to as medial rotation, or away
from the midline of the body, which is referred to as lateral rotation. Movement of the head
from side to side is an example of rotation.

Special Movements

Some movements that cannot be classified as gliding, angular, or rotational are called special
movements. Inversion involves the soles of the feet moving inward, toward the midline of the
body. Eversion is the opposite of inversion, movement of the sole of the foot outward, away
from the midline of the body. Protraction is the anterior movement of a bone in the horizontal
plane. Retraction occurs as a joint moves back into position after protraction. Protraction and
retraction can be seen in the movement of the mandible as the jaw is thrust outwards and then
back inwards. Elevation is the movement of a bone upward, such as when the shoulders are
shrugged, lifting the scapulae. Depression is the opposite of elevation—movement downward
of a bone, such as after the shoulders are shrugged and the scapulae return to their normal
position from an elevated position. Dorsiflexion is a bending at the ankle such that the toes are
lifted toward the knee. Plantar flexion is a bending at the ankle when the heel is lifted, such as
when standing on the toes. Supination is the movement of the radius and ulna bones of the
forearm so that the palm faces forward. Pronation is the opposite movement, in which the palm
faces backward. Opposition is the movement of the thumb toward the fingers of the same hand,
making it possible to grasp and hold objects.

Self Assessment

a). Highlight four types of special movements.

b). Highlight four types of joints

Model Answers

a). Highlight four types of special movements.

. Eversion is the opposite of inversion, movement of the sole of the foot outward, away from
the midline of the body. Protraction is the anterior movement of a bone in the horizontal plane.
Retraction occurs as a joint moves back into position after protraction. Protraction and
retraction can be seen in the movement of the mandible as the jaw is thrust outwards and then
back inwards. Elevation is the movement of a bone upward, such as when the shoulders are
shrugged, lifting the scapulae.

b).Highlight four types of joints.

Hinge Joints
In hinge joints, the slightly rounded end of one bone fits into the slightly hollow end of the other
bone. In this way, one bone moves while the other remains stationary, like the hinge of a door.
The elbow is an example of a hinge joint. The knee is sometimes classified as a modified hinge
joint

Pivot joints

Consist of the rounded end of one bone fitting into a ring formed by the other bone. This structure
allows rotational movement, as the rounded bone moves around its own axis. An example of a
pivot joint is the joint of the first and second vertebrae of the neck that allows the head to move
back and forth. The joint of the wrist that allows the palm of the hand to be turned up and down
is also a pivot joint.

Condyloid Joints

Condyloid joints consist of an oval-shaped end of one bone fitting into a similarly oval-shaped
hollow of another bone. This is also sometimes called an ellipsoidal joint. This type of joint
allows angular movement along two axes, as seen in the joints of the wrist and fingers, which
can move both side to side and up and down.

Saddle Joints

Saddle joints are so named because the ends of each bone resemble a saddle, with concave and
convex portions that fit together. Saddle joints allow angular movements similar to condyloid
joints but with a greater range of motion. An example of a saddle joint is the thumb joint, which
can move back and forth and up and down, but more freely than the wrist or fingers.
References

Principles of Anatomy & Physiology, 12th Edition, Tortora & Derrickson, Pub: Wiley & Sons

"Introduction to Joints (3) – Joints – Classification by Tissue Joining Bones".

anatomy.med.umich.edu.

Saladin, Ken. Anatomy & Physiology. 7th ed. McGraw-Hill Connect. Web. p.274

Learning outcome 8: Demonstrate knowledge of circulatory system

Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to outline components of circulatory
system, describe systemic and pulmonary circulation, describe the structure and function of
blood, describe the structure and function of the heart and describe the structure and function of
the blood vessels.

Performance Standards

i. Components of circulatory system are outlined

ii. Systemic and pulmonary circulation are described
 iii. Structure and function of the blood is described
iv. Structure and function of the heart is described
v. Structure and function of the blood vessels is described

Information Sheet

Circulatory System - (Cardiovascular & Lymphatic System)

Functions of the Cardiovascular System

i. Distributes nutrients (e.g. glucose) and oxygen to all body cells

ii. Collects waste products (e.g. urea) and carbon dioxide for excretion
iii. Controls blood flow to the skin and extremities to increase or decrease heat loss to the
environment
iv. Distributes hormones to target sites of action
v. Aids in body defence mechanisms by delivering antibodies, platelets and leukocytes to
affected areas of the body

Components of the Cardiovascular System

The heart provides the driving force for the cardiovascular system.

The arteries, which carry blood away from the heart, serve as distribution channels to the organs.

The microcirculation (arterioles, capillaries and venules), which includes the capillaries, serve
as the exchange region.

The veins serve as blood reservoirs and collect the blood to return it to the heart.

The Heart as a Pump

The heart is two pumps in series (right and left sides) that are connected by the pulmonary and
systemic circulations.

Each side of the heart is composed of two chambers: an atrium and a ventricle.
The right atrium receives blood from tissues and organs, and the right ventricle pumps blood at
low pressures through the pulmonary circulation. Blood flows from the right heart, through the
pulmonary artery, to the lungs.

The left atrium receives blood from the lungs via pulmonary veins, and the left ventricle pumps
blood through the systemic circulation. Blood flows from the left heart, through the aorta, to the
systemic organs except the lungs.

Figure 9: The human heart

Parallel Distribution to the Organs

Although the right and left sides of the heart are connected in series, the various organs receive
blood flow through parallel distribution channels.

The parallel arrangement supplies organs with blood that has the same arterial composition
(e.g. same oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations, pH, glucose, electrolytes like sodium,
potassium and calcium) and essentially the same arterial pressure.

The parallel arrangement also allows for independent regulation of blood flow through
different tissues as their metabolic activities change.

The systemic and pulmonary circulations

Figure 10: Parallel distribution of organs

Forces for blood flow

For fluid flowing through a tube, flow can be represented as the average velocity of movement
(cm/sec) times the cross-sectional area of the tube (cm2).

Blood Flow is defined as the volume of blood moving through a vessel per unit of time.

Blood moves by bulk flow, from a region of high pressure to one of low pressure.

Flow = Δ P (Pressure difference) divided by R (Resistance)

Flow: Blood Flow; R: Arteriolar Resistance

Capillary Exchange of Fluid

The movement of fluids through capillaries results from the pressure (known as hydrostatic
pressure) of the blood pushing against the walls of the capillaries.

When the hydrostatic pressure inside the capillaries (capillary hydrostatic pressure) is greater
than the pressure in the surrounding interstitial space (interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure),
fluid inside the capillaries is forced out into the interstitial space. This process is also known as
filtration.

When the capillary hydrostatic pressure is less than the interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure,
fluid moves back into the capillaries.

The reabsorption process prevents too much fluid from leaving the capillaries.

When fluid filters through the capillaries, the protein albumin remains behind in the decreasing
volume of water. Albumin is a large molecule that normally cannot pass through the capillary
membranes.

As the concentration of albumin inside the capillaries increases, fluid begins to move back into
the capillaries through osmosis.

The osmotic (pulling) force of albumin in the intravascular space is called the plasma oncotic
pressure.
In normal conditions, capillary hydrostatic pressure exceeds plasma oncotic pressure in the
arteriole end and falls below it in the venule end.

As a result, capillary filtration occurs along the first half of the vessel and reabsorption occurs
along the second half.

Net filtration of fluid out of the capillaries usually exceeds net reabsorption of fluid into the
capillaries by a slight margin, and this leads to the formation of lymph.

Lymph is a combination of excess filtered fluid, filtered proteins and macromolecules (e.g. fat).
The lymphatic system provides a route for lymph to flow from the interstitial space back into
the circulatory system.

Figure 11: The lymphatic system

Lymph Vessels
The lymph vessels of the lymphatic system return albumin and other interstitial macromolecules
to the circulatory system.

The lymph vessels possess an extensive system of one-way valves that maintain flow toward
the heart.

The lymph collected from the peripheral tissues is returned to the cardiovascular system via the
thoracic duct, which empties into the left subclavian vein.

The GI (gastrointestinal) tract and the liver produce the majority of the lymph.

Veins

The venous system is a low-resistance, low pressure, highly distensible part of the vascular
system.

At normal pressures, the veins are about 20 times more distensible (compliant) than the arteries.
In comparable vessels, the veins provide a larger cross-sectional area than do the arteries.

Therefore, the resistance to flow and the velocity of flow are less in the veins than in the arteries.

The veins of the dependent parts of the body are equipped with valves that prevent the backflow
of venous blood. These valves also support the column of blood so that increases in capillary
pressure in the dependent parts of the body (caused by hydrostatic pressure) are minimized.

Functions of the Venous System

Reservoirs

The veins serve as a fluid reservoir with about 70% of the circulating blood volume is in the
veins at any one time.
Conduits

The systemic veins carry blood from the tissues to the right atrium. The pulmonary veins collect
blood from the lungs and return it to the left atrium.

Factors that enhance venous return

Venoconstriction

Skeletal muscle pump

Contraction of skeletal muscle aids in venous return by compressing the veins between the
contracting skeletal muscles. Competent venous valves prevent backflow during relaxation of
the skeletal muscles.

Respiration

Factors that impede venous return

Peripheral pooling of blood results when an individual rises from a supine to an erect position.
Peripheral pooling of blood decreases venous return (consequently lowering cardiac output and,
possibly, arterial blood pressure as well), but a reflex increase of sympathetic tone to the veins
and heart usually compensates for the lowered arterial blood pressure.

Positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) generated by mechanical ventilation can impede

venous return.

Structure and Function of Blood

Describe the structure and function of blood in the body

Blood is important for regulation of the body’s pH, temperature, osmotic pressure, the
circulation of nutrients and removal of waste, the distribution of hormones from endocrine
glands, and the elimination of excess heat; it also contains components for blood clotting. Blood
is made of of several components, including red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and the
plasma, which contains coagulation factors and serum.

The Role of Blood in the Body

Blood, like the human blood is important for regulation of the body’s systems and homeostasis.
Blood helps maintain homeostasis by stabilizing pH, temperature, osmotic pressure, and by
eliminating excess heat. Blood supports growth by distributing nutrients and hormones, and by
removing waste. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin, which binds oxygen. These cells deliver
oxygen to the cells and remove carbon dioxide.

Blood plays a protective role by transporting clotting factors and platelets to prevent blood loss
after injury. Blood also transports the disease-fighting agents white blood cells to sites of
infection. These cells—including neutrophils, monocytes, lymphocytes, eosinophils, and
basophils—are involved in the immune response.

Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells, or erythrocytes (erythro– = “red”; –cyte = “cell”), are specialized cells that
circulate through the body delivering oxygen to cells; they are formed from stem cells in the
bone marrow. In mammals, red blood cells are small biconcave cells that at maturity do not
contain a nucleus or mitochondria and are only 7–8 µm in size. In birds and non-avian reptiles,
a nucleus is still maintained in red blood cells.

The red coloring of blood comes from the iron-containing protein hemoglobin. The principal
job of this protein is to carry oxygen, but it also transports carbon dioxide as well. Hemoglobin
is packed into red blood cells at a rate of about 250 million molecules of hemoglobin per cell.
Each hemoglobin molecule binds four oxygen molecules so that each red blood cell carries one
billion molecules of oxygen. There are approximately 25 trillion red blood cells in the five liters
of blood in the human body, which could carry up to 25 sextillion (25 × 1021) molecules of
oxygen in the body at any time. In mammals, the lack of organelles in erythrocytes leaves more
room for the hemoglobin molecules, and the lack of mitochondria also prevents use of the
oxygen for metabolic respiration. Only mammals have anucleated red blood cells, and some
mammals (camels, for instance) even have nucleated red blood cells. The advantage of nucleated
red blood cells is that these cells can undergo mitosis. Anucleated red blood cells metabolize
anaerobically (without oxygen), making use of a primitive metabolic pathway to produce ATP
and increase the efficiency of oxygen transport.

The small size and large surface area of red blood cells allows for rapid diffusion of oxygen and
carbon dioxide across the plasma membrane. In the lungs, carbon dioxide is released and oxygen
is taken in by the blood. In the tissues, oxygen is released from the blood and carbon dioxide is
bound for transport back to the lungs. Studies have found that hemoglobin also binds nitrous
oxide (NO). NO is a vasodilator that relaxes the blood vessels and capillaries and may help with
gas exchange and the passage of red blood cells through narrow vessels. Nitroglycerin, a heart
medication for angina and heart attacks, is converted to NO to help relax the blood vessels and
increase oxygen flow through the body.

A characteristic of red blood cells is their glycolipid and glycoprotein coating; these are lipids
and proteins that have carbohydrate molecules attached. In humans, the surface glycoproteins
and glycolipids on red blood cells vary between individuals, producing the different blood types,
such as A, B, and O. Red blood cells have an average life span of 120 days, at which time they
are broken down and recycled in the liver and spleen by phagocytic macrophages, a type of
white blood cell.

White Blood Cells

White blood cells, also called leukocytes (leuko = white), make up approximately one percent
by volume of the cells in blood. The role of white blood cells is very different than that of red
blood cells: they are primarily involved in the immune response to identify and target pathogens,
such as invading bacteria, viruses, and other foreign organisms. White blood cells are formed
continually; some only live for hours or days, but some live for years.

The morphology of white blood cells differs significantly from red blood cells. They have nuclei
and do not contain hemoglobin. The different types of white blood cells are identified by their
microscopic appearance after histologic staining, and each has a different specialized function.
The two main groups, both illustrated in are the granulocytes, which include the neutrophils,
eosinophils, and basophils, and the agranulocytes, which include the monocytes and
lymphocytes.

Figure 12: The white blood cells

Granulocytes contain granules in their cytoplasm; the agranulocytes are so named because of
the lack of granules in their cytoplasm. Some leukocytes become macrophages that either stay
at the same site or move through the blood stream and gather at sites of infection or inflammation
where they are attracted by chemical signals from foreign particles and damaged cells.
Lymphocytes are the primary cells of the immune system and include B cells, T cells, and natural
killer cells. B cells destroy bacteria and inactivate their toxins. They also produce antibodies. T
cells attack viruses, fungi, some bacteria, transplanted cells, and cancer cells. T cells attack
viruses by releasing toxins that kill the viruses. Natural killer cells attack a variety of infectious
microbes and certain tumor cells.

Components of Blood

Hemoglobin is responsible for distributing oxygen, and to a lesser extent, carbon dioxide,
throughout the circulatory systems of humans, vertebrates, and many invertebrates. The blood
is more than the proteins, though. Blood is actually a term used to describe the liquid that moves
through the vessels and includes plasma (the liquid portion, which contains water, proteins,
salts, lipids, and glucose) and the cells (red and white cells) and cell fragments called platelets.
Blood plasma is actually the dominant component of blood and contains the water, proteins,
electrolytes, lipids, and glucose. The cells are responsible for carrying the gases (red cells) and
immune the response (white). The platelets are responsible for blood clotting. Interstitial fluid
that surrounds cells is separate from the blood, but in hemolymph, they are combined. In
humans, cellular components make up approximately 45 percent of the blood and the liquid
plasma 55 percent. Blood is 20 percent of a person’s extracellular fluid and eight percent of
weight.

Platelets and Coagulation Factors

Blood must clot to heal wounds and prevent excess blood loss. Small cell fragments called
platelets (thrombocytes) are attracted to the wound site where they adhere by extending many
projections and releasing their contents. These contents activate other platelets and also interact
with other coagulation factors, which convert fibrinogen, a water-soluble protein present in
blood serum into fibrin (a non-water soluble protein), causing the blood to clot. Many of the
clotting factors require vitamin K to work, and vitamin K deficiency can lead to problems with
blood clotting. Many platelets converge and stick together at the wound site forming a platelet
plug (also called a fibrin clot), as illustrated in Figure 4b. The plug or clot lasts for a number of
days and stops the loss of blood. Platelets are formed from the disintegration of larger cells
called megakaryocytes, like that shown in Figure 4a. For each megakaryocyte, 2000–3000
platelets are formed with 150,000 to 400,000 platelets present in each cubic millimeter of blood.
Each platelet is disc shaped and 2–4 μm in diameter. They contain many small vesicles but do
not contain a nucleus.

Figure 13:Platelets

Plasma and Serum

The liquid component of blood is called plasma, and it is separated by spinning or centrifuging
the blood at high rotations (3000 rpm or higher). The blood cells and platelets are separated by
centrifugal forces to the bottom of a specimen tube. The upper liquid layer, the plasma, consists
of 90 percent water along with various substances required for maintaining the body’s pH,
osmotic load, and for protecting the body. The plasma also contains the coagulation factors and
antibodies.

The plasma component of blood without the coagulation factors is called the serum. Serum is
similar to interstitial fluid in which the correct composition of key ions acting as electrolytes is
essential for normal functioning of muscles and nerves. Other components in the serum include
proteins that assist with maintaining pH and osmotic balance while giving viscosity to the blood.
The serum also contains antibodies, specialized proteins that are important for defense against
viruses and bacteria. Lipids, including cholesterol, are also transported in the serum, along with
various other substances including nutrients, hormones, metabolic waste, plus external
substances, such as, drugs, viruses, and bacteria.

Human serum albumin is the most abundant protein in human blood plasma and is synthesized
in the liver. Albumin, which constitutes about half of the blood serum protein, transports
hormones and fatty acids, buffers pH, and maintains osmotic pressures. Immunoglobin is a
protein antibody produced in the mucosal lining and plays an important role in antibody
mediated immunity.

Self Assessment

a). Highlight factors that inhibit venous return

b).Highlight platelet and coagulation factors

Responses

a). Highlight factors that inhibit venous return

Peripheral pooling of blood results when an individual rises from a supine to an erect position.
Peripheral pooling of blood decreases venous return (consequently lowering cardiac output and,
possibly, arterial blood pressure as well), but a reflex increase of sympathetic tone to the veins
and heart usually compensates for the lowered arterial blood pressure.

Positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP) generated by mechanical ventilation can impede

venous return.

b). Highlight platelet and coagulation factors

Blood must clot to heal wounds and prevent excess blood loss. Small cell fragments called
platelets (thrombocytes) are attracted to the wound site where they adhere by extending many
projections and releasing their contents. These contents activate other platelets and also interact
with other coagulation factors, which convert fibrinogen, a water-soluble protein present in
blood serum into fibrin (a non-water soluble protein), causing the blood to clot. Many of the
clotting factors require vitamin K to work, and vitamin K deficiency can lead to problems with
blood clotting. Many platelets converge and stick together at the wound site forming a platelet
plug (also called a fibrin clot), as illustrated in Figure 4b. The plug or clot lasts for a number of
days and stops the loss of blood. Platelets are formed from the disintegration of larger cells
called megakaryocytes, like that shown in Figure 4a. For each megakaryocyte, 2000–3000
platelets are formed with 150,000 to 400,000 platelets present in each cubic millimeter of blood.
Each platelet is disc shaped and 2–4 μm in diameter. They contain many small vesicles but do
not contain a nucleus

References

Gray's Anatomy 2008, p. 27.

^ "organ | Definition, meaning & more". www.collinsdictionary.com. Collins Dictionary.

Retrieved 17 September 2016.

^ "Cardiovascular System". U.S. National Cancer Institute. Archived from the originalon 2
February 2007. Retrieved 16 September 2008.
^ Human Biology and Health. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. 1993. ISBN 0-
13-981176-1.

^ "The Cardiovascular System". State University of New York Downstate Medical Center. 8
March 2008.
 Learning outcome 9: Demonstrate knowledge of the lymphatic system

Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to identify components of the
lymphatic system and describe their functions.

Performance standards
i. Components of lymphatic system are identified
ii. Functions of the components are described

Information Sheet

Lymphatic system, a subsystem of the circulatory system in the vertebrate body that consists
of a complex network of vessels, tissues, and organs. The lymphatic system helps maintain fluid
balance in the body by collecting excess fluid and particulate matter from tissues and depositing
them in the bloodstream. It also helps defend the body against infection by supplying disease
fighting cells called lymphocytes. This article focuses on the human lymphatic system.

Lymphatic Circulation

The lymphatic system can be thought of as a drainage system needed because, as blood circulates
through the body, blood plasma leaks into tissues through the thin walls of the capillaries. The
portion of blood plasma that escapes is called interstitial or extracellular fluid, and it contains
oxygen, glucose, amino acids, and other nutrients needed by tissue cells. Although most of this
fluid seeps immediately back into the bloodstream, a percentage of it, along with the particulate
matter, is left behind. The lymphatic system removes this fluid and these materials from tissues,
returning them via the lymphatic vessels to the bloodstream, and thus prevents a fluid imbalance
that would result in the organism’s death.
Figure: 14; Lymph nodes

The fluid and proteins within the tissues begin their journey back to the bloodstream by passing
into tiny lymphatic capillaries that infuse almost every tissue of the body. Only a few regions,
including the epidermis of the skin, the mucous membranes, the bone marrow, and the central
nervous system, are free of lymphatic capillaries, whereas regions such as the lungs, gut,
genitourinary system, and dermis of the skin are densely packed with these vessels. Once within
the lymphatic system, the extracellular fluid, which is now called lymph, drains into larger
vessels called the lymphatics. These vessels converge to form one of two large vessels called
lymphatic trunks, which are connected to veins at the base of the neck. One of these trunks, the
right lymphatic duct, drains the upper right portion of the body, returning lymph to the
bloodstream via the right subclavian vein. The other trunk, the thoracic duct, drains the rest of
the body into the left subclavian vein. Lymph is transported along the system of vessels by
muscle contractions, and valves prevent lymph from flowing backward. The lymphatic vessels
are punctuated at intervals by small masses of lymph tissue, called lymph nodes, that remove
foreign materials such as infectious microorganisms from the lymph filtering through them.

Role in immunity

In addition to serving as a drainage network, the lymphatic system helps protect the body against
infection by producing white blood cells called lymphocytes, which help rid the body of disease-
causing microorganisms. The organs and tissues of the lymphatic system are the major sites of
production, differentiation, and proliferation of two types of lymphocytes—the T lymphocytes
and B lymphocytes, also called T cells and B cells. Although lymphocytes are distributed
throughout the body, it is within the lymphatic system that they are most likely to encounter
foreign microorganisms.

Lymphoid Organs

The lymphatic system is commonly divided into the primary lymphoid organs, which are the
sites of B and T cell maturation, and the secondary lymphoid organs, in which further
differentiation of lymphocytes occurs. Primary lymphoid organs include the thymus, bone
marrow, fetal liver, and, in birds, a structure called the bursa of Fabricius. In humans the thymus
and bone marrow are the key players in immune function. All lymphocytes derive from stem
cells in the bone marrow. Stem cells destined to become B lymphocytes remain in the bone
marrow as they mature, while prospective T cells migrate to the thymus to undergo further
growth. Mature B and T lymphocytes exit the primary lymphoid organs and are transported via
the bloodstream to the secondary lymphoid organs, where they become activated by contact
with foreign materials, such as particulate matter and infectious agents, called antigens in this
context.

Thymus

The thymus is located just behind the sternum in the upper part of the chest. It is a bilobed organ
that consists of an outer, lymphocyte-rich cortex and an inner medulla. The differentiation of T
cells occurs in the cortex of the thymus. In humans the thymus appears early in fetal
development and continues to grow until puberty, after which it begins to shrink. The decline of
the thymus is thought to be the reason T-cell production decreases with age.

In the cortex of the thymus, developing T cells, called thymocytes, come to distinguish between
the body’s own components, referred to as “self,” and those substances foreign to the body,
called “nonself.” This occurs when the thymocytes undergo a process called positive selection,
in which they are exposed to self molecules that belong to the major histocompatibility complex
(MHC). Those cells capable of recognizing the body’s MHC molecules are preserved, while
those that cannot bind these molecules are destroyed. The thymocytes then move to the medulla
of the thymus, where further differentiation occurs. There thymocytes that have the ability to
attack the body’s own tissues are destroyed in a process called negative selection.

Positive and negative selection destroy a great number of thymocytes; only about 5 to 10 percent
survive to exit the thymus. Those that survive leave the thymus through specialized passages
called efferent (outgoing) lymphatics, which drain to the blood and secondary lymphoid organs.
The thymus has no afferent (incoming) lymphatics, which supports the idea that the thymus is a
T-cell factory rather than a rest stop for circulating lymphocytes.

Bone marrow

In birds B cells mature in the bursa of Fabricius. (The process of B-cell maturation was
elucidated in birds hence B for bursa.) In mammals the primary organ for B-lymphocyte
development is the bone marrow, although the prenatal site of B-cell differentiation is the fetal
liver. Unlike the thymus, the bone marrow does not atrophy at puberty, and therefore there is no
concomitant decrease in the production of B lymphocytes with age.

Secondary lymphoid organs

Secondary lymphoid organs include the lymph nodes, spleen, and small masses of lymph tissue
such as Peyer’s patches, the appendix, tonsils, and selected regions of the body’s mucosal
surfaces (areas of the body lined with mucous membranes). The secondary lymphoid organs
serve two basic functions: they are a site of further lymphocyte maturation, and they efficiently
trap antigens for exposure to T and B cells.

Lymph nodes
The lymph nodes, or lymph glands, are small, encapsulated bean-shaped structures composed
of lymphatic tissue. Thousands of lymph nodes are found throughout the body along the
lymphatic routes, and they are especially prevalent in areas around the armpits (axillary nodes),
groin (inguinal nodes), neck (cervical nodes), and knees (popliteal nodes). The nodes contain
lymphocytes, which enter from the bloodstream via specialized vessels called the high
endothelial venules. T cells congregate in the inner cortex (paracortex), and B cells are organized
in germinal centres in the outer cortex. Lymph, along with antigens, drains into the node through
afferent (incoming) lymphatic vessels and percolates through the lymph node, where it comes
in contact with and activates lymphocytes. Activated lymphocytes, carried in the lymph, exit the
node through the efferent (outgoing) vessels and eventually enter the bloodstream, which
distributes them throughout the body.

Spleen

The spleen is found in the abdominal cavity behind the stomach. Although structurally similar
to a lymph node, the spleen filters blood rather than lymph. One of its main functions is to bring
blood into contact with lymphocytes. The functional tissue of the spleen is made up of two types
of cells: the red pulp, which contains cells called macrophages that remove bacteria, old blood
cells, and debris from the circulation; and surrounding regions of white pulp, which contain
great numbers of lymphocytes. The splenic artery enters the red pulp through a web of small
blood vessels, and blood-borne microorganisms are trapped in this loose collection of cells until
they are gradually washed out through the splenic vein. The white pulp contains both B and T
lymphocytes. T cells congregate around the tiny arterioles that enter the spleen, while B cells
are located in regions called germinal centres, where the lymphocytes are exposed to antigens
and induced to differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells.

Mucosa-associated tissues

Another group of important secondary lymphoid structures is the mucosa-associated lymphoid

tissues. These tissues are associated with mucosal surfaces of almost any organ, but especially
those of the digestive, genitourinary, and respiratory tracts, which are constantly exposed to a
wide variety of potentially harmful microorganisms and therefore require their own system of
antigen capture and presentation to lymphocytes. For example, Peyer’s patches, which are
mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues of the small intestine, sample passing antigens and expose
them to underlying B and T cells. Other, less-organized regions of the gut also play a role as
secondary lymphoid tissue.

Self Assessment

a). Highlight the role of the lymphatic system in immunity

b). Define the lymphatic system

c). Describe the thymus

Responses

a). Highlight the role of the lymphatic system in immunity

In addition to serving as a drainage network, the lymphatic system helps protect the body against
infection by producing white blood cells called lymphocytes, which help rid the body of disease-
causing microorganisms. The organs and tissues of the lymphatic system are the major sites of
production, differentiation, and proliferation of two types of lymphocytes—the T lymphocytes
and B lymphocytes, also called T cells and B cells. Although lymphocytes are distributed
throughout the body, it is within the lymphatic system that they are most likely to encounter
foreign microorganisms.

b). Define the lymphatic system

Lymphatic system, a subsystem of the circulatory system in the vertebrate body that consists
of a complex network of vessels, tissues, and organs. The lymphatic system helps maintain fluid
balance in the body by collecting excess fluid and particulate matter from tissues and depositing
them in the bloodstream. It also helps defend the body against infection by supplying disease
fighting cells called lymphocytes. This article focuses on the human lymphatic system.
c). Describe the thymus

The thymus is located just behind the sternum in the upper part of the chest. It is a bilobed organ
that consists of an outer, lymphocyte-rich cortex and an inner medulla. The differentiation of T
cells occurs in the cortex of the thymus. In humans the thymus appears early in fetal
development and continues to grow until puberty, after which it begins to shrink. The decline of
the thymus is thought to be the reason T-cell production decreases with age.

In the cortex of the thymus, developing T cells, called thymocytes, come to distinguish between
the body’s own components, referred to as “self,” and those substances foreign to the body,
called “nonself.” This occurs when the thymocytes undergo a process called positive selection,
in which they are exposed to self molecules that belong to the major histocompatibility complex
(MHC). Those cells capable of recognizing the body’s MHC molecules are preserved, while
those that cannot bind these molecules are destroyed. The thymocytes then move to the medulla
of the thymus, where further differentiation occurs. There thymocytes that have the ability to
attack the body’s own tissues are destroyed in a process called negative selection.

Positive and negative selection destroy a great number of thymocytes; only about 5 to 10 percent
survive to exit the thymus. Those that survive leave the thymus through specialized passages
called efferent (outgoing) lymphatics, which drain to the blood and secondary lymphoid organs.
The thymus has no afferent (incoming) lymphatics, which supports the idea that the thymus is a
T-cell factory rather than a rest stop for circulating lymphocytes.

References

Gray's Anatomy 2018, p. 27.

^ "organ | Definition, meaning & more". www.collinsdictionary.com. Collins Dictionary.

Retrieved 17 September 2016.
 ^ "Cardiovascular System". U.S. National Cancer Institute. Archived from the originalon 2
February 2007. Retrieved 16 September 2008.

^ Human Biology and Health. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. 2013. .

^ "The Cardiovascular System". State University of New York Downstate Medical Center. 8
March 2018.

Learning outcome 10: Demonstrate knowledge of the endocrine system and its functions

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to identify components of the
endocrine system as well as hormones and describe their functions.

Performance standards.
 i. Components of endocrine system are identified
ii. Hormones and their functions are described

Information Sheet

The endocrine system is a network of glands and organs located throughout the body. It’s similar
to the nervous system in that it plays a vital role in controlling and regulating many of the body’s
functions.

However, while the nervous system uses nerve impulses and neurotransmitters for
communication, the endocrine system uses chemical messengers called hormones.

Endocrine System Function

The endocrine system is responsible for regulating a range of bodily functions through the
release of hormones.

Hormones are secreted by the glands of the endocrine system, traveling through the bloodstream
to various organs and tissues in the body. The hormones then tell these organs and tissues what
to do or how to function.

Some examples of bodily functions that are controlled by the endocrine system include:

metabolism

growth and development

sexual function and reproduction

heart rate

blood pressure

appetite

sleeping and waking cycles

body temperature

Endocrine System Organs

The endocrine system is made up of a complex network of glands, which are organs that secrete
substances.

The glands of the endocrine system are where hormones are produced, stored, and released.
Each gland produces one or more hormones, which go on to target specific organs and tissues
in the body.

The glands of the endocrine system include:

Hypothalamus. While some people don’t consider it a gland, the hypothalamus produces
multiple hormones that control the pituitary gland. It’s also involved in regulating many
functions, including sleep-wake cycles, body temperature, and appetite. It can also regulate the
function of other endocrine glands.

Pituitary. The pituitary gland is located below the hypothalamus. The hormones it produces
affect growth and reproduction. They can also control the function of other endocrine glands.

Pineal. This gland is found in the middle of your brain. It’s important for your sleep-wake
cycles.

Thyroid. The thyroid gland is located in the front part of your neck. It’s very important for
metabolism.

Parathyroid. Also located in the front of your neck, the parathyroid gland is important for
maintaining control of calcium levels in your bones and blood.

Thymus. Located in the upper torso, the thymus is active until puberty and produces hormones
important for the development of a type of white blood cell called a T cell.

Adrenal. One adrenal gland can be found on top of each kidney. These glands produce
hormones important for regulating functions such as blood pressure, heart rate, and stress
response.
Pancreas. The pancreas is located in your abdomen behind your stomach. Its endocrine function
involves controlling blood sugar levels.

Some endocrine glands also have non-endocrine functions. For example, the ovaries and testes
produce hormones, but they also have the non-endocrine function of producing eggs and sperm,
respectively.

Endocrine System hormones

Hormones are the chemicals the endocrine system uses to send messages to organs and tissue
throughout the body. Once released into the bloodstream, they travel to their target organ or
tissue, which has receptors that recognize and react to the hormone.

Below are some examples of hormones that are produced by the endocrine system.

Hormone Secreting Function

gland(s)
adrenaline adrenal increases blood pressure, heart rate, and
metabolism in reaction to stress
aldosterone adrenal controls the body’s salt and water balance
cortisol adrenal plays a role in stress response
dehydroepiandrosterone adrenal aids in production of body odor and
sulfate (DHEA) growth of body hair during puberty
estrogen ovary works to regulate menstrual cycle,
maintain pregnancy, and develop female
sex characteristics; aids in sperm
production
follicle stimulating hormone pituitary controls the production of eggs and sperm
(FSH)
glucagon pancreas helps to increase levels of blood glucose
insulin pancreas helps to reduce your blood glucose levels
luteinizing hormone (LH) pituitary controls estrogen and testosterone
production as well as ovulation
melatonin pituitary controls sleep and wake cycles
 oxytocin pituitary helps with lactation, childbirth, and
mother-child bonding
parathyroid hormone parathyroid controls calcium levels in bones and blood
progesterone ovary helps to prepare the body for pregnancy
when an egg is fertilized
prolactin pituitary promotes breast-milk production
testosterone ovary, teste, contributes to sex drive and body density
adrenal in males and females as well as
development of male sex characteristics
thyroid hormone thyroid help to control several body functions,
including the rate of metabolism and
energy levels

Table 5: hormones produced by endocrine system

Self Assessment

a). Highlight glands in the endocrine system

b). State bodily functions that are controlled by the endocrine system

c).Describe endocrine system hormones

Responses

a). Highlight glands in the endocrine system

Hypothalamus. While some people don’t consider it a gland, the hypothalamus produces
multiple hormones that control the pituitary gland. It’s also involved in regulating many
functions, including sleep-wake cycles, body temperature, and appetite. It can also regulate the
function of other endocrine glands.

Pituitary. The pituitary gland is located below the hypothalamus. The hormones it produces
affect growth and reproduction. They can also control the function of other endocrine glands.

Pineal. This gland is found in the middle of your brain. It’s important for your sleep-wake
cycles.
Thyroid. The thyroid gland is located in the front part of your neck. It’s very important for
metabolism.

Parathyroid. Also located in the front of your neck, the parathyroid gland is important for
maintaining control of calcium levels in your bones and blood.

Thymus. Located in the upper torso, the thymus is active until puberty and produces hormones
important for the development of a type of white blood cell called a T cell.

Adrenal. One adrenal gland can be found on top of each kidney. These glands produce
hormones important for regulating functions such as blood pressure, heart rate, and stress
response.

Pancreas. The pancreas is located in your abdomen behind your stomach. Its endocrine function
involves controlling blood sugar levels.

b). State bodily functions that are controlled by the endocrine system

metabolism

growth and development

sexual function and reproduction

heart rate

blood pressure

appetite

sleeping and waking cycles

body temperature
 c).Describe endocrine system hormones

Hormones are the chemicals the endocrine system uses to send messages to organs and tissue
throughout the body. Once released into the bloodstream, they travel to their target organ or
tissue, which has receptors that recognize and react to the hormone.

References

Endocrine Physiology (4 ed.). McGraw Hill.

^ Quesada, Ivan (2008). "Physiology of the pancreatic α-cell and glucagon secretion: role in
glucose homeostasis and diabetes". Journal of Endocrinology. 199 (1): 5–19. doi:10.1677/JOE-
08-0290. PMID 18669612.

^ "How Does The Pancreas Work?". Informed Health.

^ Patel, H.; Jessu, R.; Tiwari, V. (2020). "Physiology, Posterior Pituitary". NCBI. StatPearls.
PMID 30252386.

^ Neave N (2008). Hormones and behaviour: a psychological approach. Cambridge: Cambridge

Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0-521-69201-4. Lay summary – Project Muse.

^ "Hormones". MedlinePlus. U.S. National Library of Medicine.

Learning outcome 11: Demonstrate knowledge of the nervous system and its function

Introduction to the learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to outline the structure and function
of a neuron, describe types of neurons, divisions of the nervous system and their components as
well as outline nervous reflexes.

1.2.11.2: Performance Standard

i. Structure and function of a neuron is outlined
ii. Types of neurons are described
 iii. Divisions of the nervous system and their components are described
iv. Nervous reflexes are outlined

Information Sheet

Functions of the Nervous System

1. Gathers information from both inside and outside the body - Sensory Function

2. Transmits information to the processing areas of the brain and spine

3. Processes the information in the brain and spine – Integration Function

4. Sends information to the muscles, glands, and organs so they can respond appropriately –
Motor Function

It controls and coordinates all essential functions of the body including all other body systems

allowing the body to maintain homeostasis or its delicate balance.

The Nervous System is divided into Two Main Divisions: Central Nervous System (CNS) and

the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).

Divisions of the Nervous system

Figure 15

Basic Cells of the Nervous System

Neuron

• Basic functional cell of nervous system

• Transmits impulses (up to 250 mph)

Figure 16

Parts of a Neuron

• Dendrite – receive stimulus and carries it impulses

toward the cell body

• Cell Body with nucleus – nucleus & most of

cytoplasm

• Axon – fiber which carries impulses away from cell body

• Schwann Cells- cells which produce myelin or fat layer in the Peripheral Nervous System

• Myelin sheath – dense lipid layer which insulates the axon – makes the axon look gray

• Node of Ranvier – gaps or nodes in the myelin sheath

• Impulses travel from dendrite to cell body to axon

Three types of Neurons

Sensory neurons – bring messages to CNS

Motor neurons - carry messages from CNS

Interneurons – between sensory & motor neurons in the CNS

Impulses

• A stimulus is a change in the environment with sufficient strength to initiate a response.

• Excitability is the ability of a neuron to respond to the stimulus and convert it into a nerve
impulse

• All of Nothing Rule – The stimulus is either strong enough to start and impulse or nothing
happens

• Impulses are always the same strength along a given neuron and they are self-propagation
– once it starts it continues to the end of the neuron in only one direction- from dendrite to cell
body to axon

• The nerve impulse causes a movement of ions across the cell membrane of the nerve cell.

Synapse

Synapse - small gap or space between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another - the

neurons do not actually tough at the synapse.

It is junction between neurons which uses neurotransmitters to start the impulse in the second

neuron or an effector (muscle or gland).

The synapse insures one-way transmission of impulses.
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters – Chemicals in the junction which allow impulses to be started in the second
neuron.

Reflex Arc

Figure 17: Components of a Reflex Arc

A. Receptor - reacts to a stimulus

B. Afferent pathway (sensory neuron) - conducts impulses to the CNS

C. Interneuron - consists of one or more synapses in the CNS (most are in the spine)

D. Efferent pathway (motor neuron) conducts impulses from CNS to effector.

E. Effector - muscle fibers (as in the Hamstring muscle) or glands responds by contracting or
secreting a product.

Spinal reflexes - initiated and completed at the spinal cord level. Occur without the involvement
of higher brain centers.
Central Nervous System

• Brain

Brain stem – medulla, pons, midbrain

Diencephalon – thalamus & hypothalamus

Cerebellem

Cerebrum

• Spine

Spinal Cord

Meninges

Meninges are the three coverings around the brain & spine and help cushion, protect, and nourish
the brain and spinal cord.

• Dura mater is the most outer layer, very tough

• Arachnoid mater is the middle layer and adheres to the dura mater and has weblike attachments
to the innermost layer, the pia mater

• Pia mater is very thin, transparent, but tough, and covers the entire brain, following it into all
its crevices (sulci) and spinal cord

• cerebrospinal fluid, which buffers, nourishes, and detoxifies the brain and spinal cord, flows
through the subarachnoid space, between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater.

Regions of the Brain

Cerebellum – coordination of movement and aspects of motor learning

Cerebrum – conscious activity including perception, emotion, thought, and planning

Thalamus – Brain’s switchboard – filters and then relays information to various brain regions

Medulla – vital reflexes as heart beat and respiration

Brainstem – medulla, pons, and midbrain (involuntary responses) and relays information from
spine to upper brain

Hypothalamus– involved in regulating activities internal organs, monitoring information from

the autonomic nervous system, controlling the pituitary gland and its hormones, and regulating
sleep and appetite.

Figure 18: The brain

Cerebrum

• Is the largest portion of the brain encompasses about two-thirds of the brain mass -

• It consists of two hemispheres divided by a fissure – corpus callosum

• It includes the cerebral cortex, the medullary body, and basal ganglia
• cerebral cortex is the layer of the brain often referred to as gray matter because it has cell
bodies and synapses but no myelin

The cortex (thin layer of tissue) is gray because nerves in this area lack the insulation or white
fatty myelin sheath that makes most other parts of the brain appear to be white.

The cortex covers the outer portion (1.5mm to 5mm) of the cerebrum and cerebellum

The cortex consists of folded bulges called gyri that create deep furrows or fissures called sulci

The folds in the brain add to its surface area which increases the amount of gray matter and the
quantity of information that can be processed.

Medullary body – is the white matter of the cerebrum and consists of myelinated axons

Commisural fibers – conduct impulses between the hemispheres and for corpus callosum

Projection fibers – conduct impulse in and out of the cerebral hemispheres

Association fibers – conduct impulses within the hemispheres

Basal ganglia – masses of gray matter in each hemisphere which are involved in the control of
voluntary muscle movements

Lobes of the Cerebrum

• Frontal – motor area involved in movement and in planning & coordinating behavior

• Parietal – sensory processing, attention, and language

• Temporal – auditory perception, speech, and complex visual perceptions

• Occipital – visual center – plays a role in processing visual information.

Special regions
• Broca’s area – located in the frontal lobe – important in the production of speech

• Wernicke’s area – comprehension of language and the production of meaningful speech

• Limbic System – a group of brain structures (amygdala, hippocampus, septum, basal ganglia,
and others) that help regulate the expression of emotions and emotional memory.

Peripheral Nervous System

Cranial nerves

• 12 pair

• Attached to undersurface of brain

Spinal nerves

• 31 pair

• Attached to spinal cord

Somatic Nervous System (voluntary)

• Relays information from skin, sense organs & skeletal muscles to CNS

• Brings responses back to skeletal muscles for voluntary responses.

Autonomic Nervous System (involuntary)

• Regulates bodies involuntary responses

• Relays information to internal organs

Two divisions

o Sympathetic nervous system – in times of stress

Emergency response
Fight or flight

o Parasympathetic nervous system – when body is at rest or with normal functions

Normal everyday conditions.

Figure 19: Autonomic nervous sytem

Self Assessment

a). Highlight the parts of a neuron.

b). Highlight regions of the brain.

c). Describe meninges

Responses

a). Highlight the parts of a neuron.

• Dendrite – receive stimulus and carries it impulses

toward the cell body

• Cell Body with nucleus – nucleus & most of cytoplasm

• Axon – fiber which carries impulses away from cell body

• Schwann Cells- cells which produce myelin or fat layer in the Peripheral Nervous System

• Myelin sheath – dense lipid layer which insulates the axon – makes the axon look gray

• Node of Ranvier – gaps or nodes in the myelin sheath

b). Highlight regions of the brain.

Cerebellum – coordination of movement and aspects of motor learning

Cerebrum – conscious activity including perception, emotion, thought, and planning

Thalamus – Brain’s switchboard – filters and then relays information to various brain regions

Medulla – vital reflexes as heart beat and respiration

Brainstem – medulla, pons, and midbrain (involuntary responses) and relays information from
spine to upper brain

Hypothalamus– involved in regulating activities internal organs, monitoring information from

the autonomic nervous system, controlling the pituitary gland and its hormones, and regulating
sleep and appetite.

c). Describe meninges

 Meninges are the three coverings around the brain & spine and help cushion, protect, and nourish
the brain and spinal cord.

• Dura mater is the most outer layer, very tough

• Arachnoid mater is the middle layer and adheres to the dura mater and has weblike attachments
to the innermost layer, the pia mater

• Pia mater is very thin, transparent, but tough, and covers the entire brain, following it into all
its crevices (sulci) and spinal cord

• cerebrospinal fluid, which buffers, nourishes, and detoxifies the brain and spinal cord, flows
through the subarachnoid space, between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater.

References

Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). "Ch. 4: The cytology of neurons". Principles
of Neural Science. McGraw-Hill Professional. ISBN 978-0-8385-7701-1.

^ Jump up to: Allen NJ, Barres BA (2009). "Neuroscience: Glia – more than just brain glue".
Nature. 457 (7230): 675–677. Bibcode:2009Natur.457..675A. doi:10.1038/457675a. PMID
19194443. S2CID 205044137.

^ Azevedo FA, Carvalho LR, Grinberg LT, et al. (2009). "Equal numbers of neuronal and
nonneuronal cells make the human brain an isometrically scaled-up primate brain". J. Comp.
Neurol. 513 (5): 532–541. doi:10.1002/cne.21974. PMID 19226510. S2CID 5200449.

^ Jump up to:a b Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessel TM, eds. (2000). "Ch. 17: The anatomical
organization of the central nervous system". Principles of Neural Science. McGraw-Hill
Professional. ISBN 978-0-8385-7701-1.

^ Standring, Susan (Editor-in-chief) (2005). Gray's Anatomy (39th ed.). Elsevier Churchill
Livingstone. pp. 233–234. ISBN 978-0-443-07168-3.

Learning outcome 12: Demonstrate knowledge of the digestive system and its function
Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to identify Components of digestive
system, describe structure and functions of the components as well as describe the process of
digestion.

Performance standards
i. Components of digestive system are identified
ii. Structure and functions of components are described
iii. Process of digestion is described

Information sheet

The human digestive system is the collective name used to describe the alimentary canal, some
accessory organs, and a variety of digestive processes that take place at different levels in the
canal to prepare food eaten in the diet for absorption.

It has a general structure that is modified at different levels to provide for the processes occurring
at each level.

The complex of digestive processes gradually breaks down the foods eaten until they are in a
form suitable for absorption.

After absorption, nutrients are used to synthesize body constituents.

They provide the raw materials for the manufacture of new cells, hormones and enzymes, and
the energy needed for these and other processes and for the disposal of waste materials.
 Figure: The digestive system

The alimentary canal begins at the mouth, passes through the thorax, abdomen, and pelvis and
ends at the anus. It is thus a long tube through which food passes. It has various parts that are
structurally remarkably similar. The parts include:
1. Mouth 5. Small intestine
2. Pharynx 6. Large intestine
3. Oesophagus 7. Rectum and Anal canal.
4. Stomach

Mouth

The mouth or oral cavity is bounded by muscles and bones: interiorly —by the lips, posteriorly
— it is continuous with the oropharynx, laterally —by the muscles of the cheeks, superiorly —
by the bony hard palate and muscular soft palate, inferiorly —by the muscular tongue and the
soft tissues of the floor of the mouth.

It is lined throughout with mucous membrane, consisting of stratified squamous epithelium

containing small mucus-secreting glands.

The palate forms the roof of the mouth and is divided into the anterior hard palate and the
posterior soft palate. The soft palate is muscular, curves downwards from the posterior end of
the hard palate, and blends with the walls of the pharynx at the sides.

The uvula is a curved fold of muscle covered with mucous membrane, hanging down from the
middle of the free border of the soft palate.

It consists of the following important parts:

The Tongue

The tongue is a voluntary muscular structure that occupies the floor of the mouth.

It is attached by its base to the hyoid bone and by a fold of its mucous membrane covering,
called the frenulum, to the floor of the mouth.

The superior surface consists of stratified squamous epithelium, with numerous papillae (little
projections), containing nerve endings of the sense of taste, sometimes called the taste buds.

The tongue plays an important part in:

mastication (chewing)

deglutition (swallowing)

speech

taste

The Teeth
The teeth are embedded in the alveoli or sockets of the alveolar ridges of the mandible and the
maxilla.

Each individual has two sets, the temporary or deciduous teeth, and the permanent teeth.

At birth, the teeth of both dentitions are present in an immature form in the mandible and maxilla.

There are 20 temporary teeth, 10 in each jaw. They begin to erupt when the child is about 6
months old, and should all be present after 24 months.

The permanent teeth begin to replace the deciduous teeth in the 6th year of age and this dentition,
consisting of 32 teeth, is usually complete by the 24th year.

Types and Functions of the teeth

The incisor and canine teeth are the cutting teeth and are used for biting off pieces of food,
whereas the premolar and molar teeth, with broad, flat surfaces, are used for grinding or chewing
food.

The Pharynx

Food passes from the oral cavity into the pharynx then to the esophagus below, with which it is
continuous.

The pharynx is divided for descriptive purposes into three parts, the nasopharynx, oropharynx,
and laryngopharynx.

The nasopharynx is important in respiration. The oropharynx and laryngopharynx are passages
common to both the respiratory and the digestive systems.
Function of Pharynx

The pharynx has roles in both the respiratory and digestive systems and can be thought of as the
point where these systems diverge.

For the digestive system, its muscular walls function in the process of swallowing, and it serves
as a pathway for the movement of food from the mouth to the esophagus.

The constrictive circular muscles of the pharynx’s outer layer play a big role in peristalsis. A
series of contractions will help propel ingested food and drink down the intestinal tract safely.

The inner layer’s longitudinal muscles, on the other hand, will widen the pharynx laterally and
lift it upward, thus allowing the swallowing of ingested food and drink.

The Oesophagus

The esophagus is about 25 cm long and about 2 cm in diameter and lies in the median plane in
the thorax in front of the vertebral column behind the trachea and the heart.

It is continuous with the pharynx above and just below the diaphragm it joins the stomach.

The upper and lower ends of the esophagus are closed by sphincter muscles.

The upper cricopharyngeal sphincter prevents air from passing into the esophagus during
inspiration and the aspiration of oesophageal contents.

The cardiac or lower oesophageal sphincter prevents the reflux of acid gastric contents into the
esophagus.

Functions of Oesophagus
The esophagus serves to pass food and liquids from the mouth down to the stomach. This is
accomplished by periodic contractions (peristalsis).

The esophagus is an important connection to the digestive system through the thoracic cavity,
which protects the heart and lungs.

Two sphincters on either side of the esophagus separate food into small units known as a bolus.

The Stomach

The stomach is a J-shaped dilated portion of the alimentary tract situated in the epigastric,
umbilical, and left hypochondriac regions of the abdominal cavity.

The stomach is continuous with the esophagus at the cardiac sphincter and with the duodenum
at the pyloric sphincter.

It has two curvatures. The lesser curvature is short, lies on the posterior surface of the stomach,
and is the downwards continuation of the posterior wall of the esophagus. Just before the pyloric
sphincter, it curves upwards to complete the J shape.

Where the esophagus joins the stomach the anterior region angles acutely upwards, curves
downwards forming the greater curvature then slightly upwards towards the pyloric sphincter.

The stomach is divided into three regions: the fundus, the body, and the antrum.

At the distal end of the pyloric antrum is the pyloric sphincter, guarding the opening between
the stomach and the duodenum.

Stomach size varies with the volume of food it contains, which may be 1.5 liters or more in an
adult.
In the stomach, gastric muscle contraction consists of a churning movement that breaks down
the bolus and mixes it with gastric juice and peristaltic waves that propel the stomach contents
towards the pylorus.

About 2 liters of gastric juice are secreted daily by special secretory glands in the mucosa.

It consists of Water, mineral salts, mucus secreted by goblet cells in the glands and on the
stomach surface, hydrochloric acid, Intrinsic factor, inactive enzyme precursors, etc.

Figure 21: The stomach

Functions of the Stomach

Temporary storage allowing time for the digestive enzymes, pepsins, to act.

Chemical digestion — pepsins convert proteins to polypeptides.

Mechanical breakdown — the three smooth muscle layers enable the stomach to act as a churn,
gastric juice is added and the contents are liquefied to chime.

Performs limited absorption of water, alcohol and some lipid-soluble drugs

Non-specific defense against microbes — provided by hydrochloric acid in gastric juice.

Preparation of iron for absorption further along the track — the acid environment of the stomach
solubilizes iron salts, which is required before iron can be absorbed

Production of intrinsic factor needed for absorption of vitamin B12 in the terminal ileum

Regulation of the passage of gastric contents into the duodenum. When the chyme is sufficiently
acidified and liquefied, the pyloric antrum forces small jets of gastric contents through the
pyloric sphincter into the duodenum.

The Small Intestine

The small intestine is continuous with the stomach at the pyloric sphincter and leads into the
large intestine at the ileocaecal valve.

It is a little over 5 meters long and lies in the abdominal cavity surrounded by the large intestine.

In the small intestine, the chemical digestion of food is completed and most of the absorption of
nutrients takes place.

The small intestine comprises three main sections continuous with each other:

The duodenum: It is about 25 cm long and curves around the head of the pancreas. Secretions
from the gall bladder and pancreas are released into the duodenum through a common structure,
the hepatopancreatic ampulla, and the opening into the duodenum is guarded by the
hepatopancreatic sphincter (of Oddi).

The jejunum: It is the middle section of the small intestine and is about 2 meters long.
The ileum, or terminal section, is about 3 meters long and ends at the ileocaecal valve, which
controls the flow of material from the ileum to the caecum, the first part of the large intestine,
and prevents regurgitation.

The surface area of the small intestine mucosa is greatly increased by permanent circular folds,
villi, and microvilli.

The villi are tiny finger-like projections of the mucosal layer into the intestinal lumen, about 0.5
to 1 mm long.

Their walls consist of columnar epithelial cells, or enterocytes, with tiny microvilli (1 μm long)
on their free border.

Functions of the small intestine

The small intestine is the part of the intestines where 90% of the digestion and absorption of
food occurs, the other 10% taking place in the stomach and large intestine.

The main function of the small intestine is the absorption of nutrients and minerals from food.

The Large Intestine

It is about 1.5 meters long, beginning at the caecum in the right iliac fossa and terminating at
the rectum and anal canal deep in the pelvis.

Its lumen is larger than that of the small intestine. It forms an arch around the coiled-up small
intestine.

The colon is divided into the caecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon,
sigmoid colon rectum, and anal canal.
Figure 22: The large Intestine

The caecum

This is the first part of the colon. It is a dilated region which has a blind end inferiorly and is
continuous with the ascending colon superiorly.

Just below the junction of the two, the ileocaecal valve opens from the ileum.

The vermiform appendix is a fine tube, closed at one end, which leads from the caecum. It is
usually about 13 cm long and has the same structure as the walls of the colon but contains more
lymphoid tissue.

The ascending colon

This passes upwards from the caecum to the level of the liver where it curves acutely to the left
at the hepatic flexure to become the transverse colon.
The transverse colon

This is a loop of the colon which extends across the abdominal cavity in front of the duodenum
and the stomach to the area of the spleen where it forms the splenic flexure and curves acutely
downwards to become the descending colon.

The descending colon

This passes down the left side of the abdominal cavity then curves towards the midline. After it
enters the true pelvis it is known as the sigmoid colon.

The sigmoid colon

This part describes an S-shaped curve in the pelvis then continues downwards to become the
rectum.

The Rectum and the anal canal

It is a slightly dilated section of the colon about 13 cm long. It leads from the sigmoid colon and
terminates in the anal canal.

The anal canal is a short passage about 3.8 cm long in the adult and leads from the rectum to the
exterior.

Two sphincter muscles control the anus; the internal sphincter, consisting of smooth muscle
fibers, is under the control of the autonomic nervous system and the external sphincter, formed
by skeletal muscle, is under voluntary control.
Figure 23: The rectum and the anal canal

Functions of the large intestine, rectum and anal canal

Absorption

The contents of the ileum which pass through the ileocaecal valve into the caecum are fluid,
even though some water has been absorbed in the small intestine.

In the large intestine absorption of water continues until the familiar semisolid consistency of
feces is achieved.

Mineral salts, vitamins, and some drugs are also absorbed into the blood capillaries from the
large intestine.

Microbial activity

The large intestine is heavily colonized by certain types of bacteria, which synthesize vitamin K
and folic acid. They include Escherichia coli, Enterobacter aerogenes, Streptococcus faecalis,
and Clostridium perfringens (welchii).

Defaecation

Usually, the rectum is empty, but when a mass movement forces the contents of the sigmoid
colon into the rectum the nerve endings in its walls are stimulated by a stretch.
Defaecation involves involuntary contraction of the muscle of the rectum and relaxation of the
internal anal sphincter.

Contraction of the abdominal muscles and lowering of the diaphragm increases the intra-
abdominal pressure (Valsalva’s maneuver) and so assists the process of defaecation.

Self Assessment

a). Highlight parts of the large intestine.

b). Highlight functions of the stomach

Responses

a). Highlight parts of the large intestine

The caecum

This is the first part of the colon. It is a dilated region which has a blind end inferiorly and is
continuous with the ascending colon superiorly.

Just below the junction of the two, the ileocaecal valve opens from the ileum.

The vermiform appendix is a fine tube, closed at one end, which leads from the caecum. It is
usually about 13 cm long and has the same structure as the walls of the colon but contains more
lymphoid tissue.

The ascending colon

This passes upwards from the caecum to the level of the liver where it curves acutely to the left
at the hepatic flexure to become the transverse colon.

The transverse colon

This is a loop of the colon which extends across the abdominal cavity in front of the duodenum
and the stomach to the area of the spleen where it forms the splenic flexure and curves acutely
downwards to become the descending colon.

The descending colon

This passes down the left side of the abdominal cavity then curves towards the midline. After it
enters the true pelvis it is known as the sigmoid colon.

The sigmoid colon

This part describes an S-shaped curve in the pelvis then continues downwards to become the
rectum.

b). Highlight functions of the stomach

Temporary storage allowing time for the digestive enzymes, pepsins, to act.

Chemical digestion — pepsins convert proteins to polypeptides.

Mechanical breakdown — the three smooth muscle layers enable the stomach to act as a churn,
gastric juice is added and the contents are liquefied to chime.

Performs limited absorption of water, alcohol and some lipid-soluble drugs

Non-specific defense against microbes — provided by hydrochloric acid in gastric juice.

Preparation of iron for absorption further along the track — the acid environment of the stomach
solubilizes iron salts, which is required before iron can be absorbed

Production of intrinsic factor needed for absorption of vitamin B12 in the terminal ileum
 Regulation of the passage of gastric contents into the duodenum. When the chyme is sufficiently
acidified and liquefied, the pyloric antrum forces small jets of gastric contents through the
pyloric sphincter into the duodenum.

Learning outcome 13: Demonstrate knowledge of the urinary system and its function

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to identify Components of the
urinary system, describe structure and functions of components and describe process of urine
formation.

Performance Standard
1. Components of urinary system are identified
2. Structure and functions of components are described
3. Process of urine formation is described

Information Sheet

Thousands of metabolic processes in myriad body cells produce hundreds of waste products.
The urinary system removes them by filtering and cleansing the blood as it passes through the
kidneys. Another vital function is the regulation of the volume, acidity, salinity, concentration,
and chemical composition of blood, lymph, and other body fluids. Under hormonal control, the
kidneys continually monitor what they release into the urine to maintain a healthy chemical
balance.

The urinary system is composed of a pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a bladder, and a urethra.
These components together carry out the urinary system’s function of regulating the volume and
composition of body fluids, removing waste products from the blood, and expelling the waste
and excess water from the body in the form of urine. The two kidneys are reddish organs
resembling beans in shape that are situated on either side of the abdomen just above the waist
and towards the back of the body. The kidneys contain microscopic filtering units that remove
waste, unwanted minerals, and excess water from the blood as urine. Each kidney is connected
to the bladder by a long tube called a ureter, which transports urine away.

The bladder is a hollow, muscular organ situated centrally in the pelvis; it stores urine until it is
convenient to release it. At a certain volume, stretch receptors in its wall transmit nervous
impulses that initiate a conscious desire to urinate. The urethra then conducts urine from the
bladder to the outside.

Figure 24: The urinary system

THE KIDNEYS

The kidneys sit at the back of the abdominal wall and at the start of the urinary system. These
organs are constantly at work:

Nephrons, tiny structures in the renal pyramids, filter gallons of blood each day.
The kidneys reabsorb vital substances, remove unwanted ones, and return the filtered blood back
to the body.

As if they weren’t busy enough, the kidneys also create urine to remove all the waste.

Figure 25: The kidney

The kidneys are located behind the peritoneum, and so are called retroperitoneal organs. They
sit in the back of the abdomen between the levels of the T12 and L03 vertebrae. The right kidney
is slightly lower than the left kidney to accommodate the liver. Both kidneys are bean-shaped
and about the size of an adult fist.

Blood enters the kidneys through renal arteries. These arteries branch into tiny capillaries that
interact with urinary structures inside the kidneys (namely the nephrons). Here the blood is
filtered. Waste is removed and vital substances are reabsorbed back into the bloodstream. The
filtered blood leaves through the renal veins.
Each kidney contains over 1 million tiny structures called nephrons. The nephrons are located
partly in the cortex and partly inside the renal pyramids, where the nephron tubules make up
most of the pyramid mass. Nephrons perform the primary function of the kidneys: regulating
the concentration of water and other substances in the body. They filter the blood, reabsorb what
the body needs, and excrete the rest as urine.

The kidneys filter unwanted substances from the blood and produce urine to excrete them.

There are 3 main steps of urine formation:

Glomerular filtration,

Reabsorption

Secretion.

These processes ensure that only waste and excess water are removed from the body

Each nephron has a glomerulus, the site of blood filtration. The glomerulus is a network of
capillaries surrounded by a cuplike structure, the glomerular capsule (or Bowman’s capsule). As
blood flows through the glomerulus, blood pressure pushes water and solutes from the capillaries
into the capsule through a filtration membrane. This glomerular filtration begins the urine
formation process.

Each kidney contains over 1 million tiny structures called nephrons. The nephrons are located
partly in the cortex and partly inside the renal pyramids, where the nephron tubules make up
most of the pyramid mass. Nephrons perform the primary function of the kidneys: regulating
the concentration of water and other substances in the body. They filter the blood, reabsorb what
the body needs, and excrete the rest as urine.

Each kidney contains over 1 million tiny structures called nephrons. The nephrons are located
partly in the cortex and partly inside the renal pyramids, where the nephron tubules make up
most of the pyramid mass. Nephrons perform the primary function of the kidneys: regulating
the concentration of water and other substances in the body. They filter the blood, reabsorb what
the body needs, and excrete the rest as urine.

Figure 26: Urine formation

The kidneys filter unwanted substances from the blood and produce urine to excrete them.

There are 3 main steps of urine formation:

Glomerular filtration,

Reabsorption

Secretion.

These processes ensure that only waste and excess water are removed from the body.

Each nephron has a glomerulus, the site of blood filtration. The glomerulus is a network of
capillaries surrounded by a cuplike structure, the glomerular capsule (or Bowman’s capsule).
As blood flows through the glomerulus, blood pressure pushes water and solutes from the
capillaries into the capsule through a filtration membrane.

This glomerular filtration begins the urine formation process.

Figure 27: Glomerular filtration

The nephrons of the kidneys process blood and create urine through a process of filtration,
reabsorption, and secretion. Urine is about 95% water and 5% waste products. Nitrogenous
wastes excreted in urine include urea, creatinine, ammonia, and uric acid. Ions such as sodium,
potassium, hydrogen, and calcium are also excreted.

Urine produced in the kidneys travels down the ureters into the urinary bladder. The bladder
expands like an elastic sac to hold more urine. As it reaches capacity, the process of micturition,
or urination, begins. Involuntary muscle movements send signals to the nervous system, putting
the decision to urinate under conscious control.

The internal urethral sphincter and the external urethral sphincter both provide muscle control
for the flow of urine. The internal sphincter is involuntary. It surrounds the opening of the
bladder to the urethra and relaxes to allow urine to pass. The external sphincter is voluntary. It
surrounds the urethra outside the bladder and must be relaxed for urination to occur.

Smooth muscle stretch initiates the micturition reflex by activating stretch receptors in the
bladder wall. This autonomic reflex causes the detrusor muscle to contract and the internal
urethral sphincter muscle to relax, allowing urine to flow into the urethra. The stretch receptors
also send a message to the thalamus and the cerebral cortex, giving voluntary control over the
external urethral sphincter. We usually gain this control of urination between the ages of 2 and
3, as our brains develop.

Self Assessment

a). State the steps involved in urine formation.

b). Describe the kidney

Responses

a). State the steps involved in urine formation

Glomerular filtration,

Reabsorption

Secretion

b). Describe the kidney

The kidneys are located behind the peritoneum, and so are called retroperitoneal organs. They
sit in the back of the abdomen between the levels of the T12 and L03 vertebrae. The right kidney
is slightly lower than the left kidney to accommodate the liver. Both kidneys are bean-shaped
and about the size of an adult fist.
 Blood enters the kidneys through renal arteries. These arteries branch into tiny capillaries that
interact with urinary structures inside the kidneys (namely the nephrons). Here the blood is
filtered. Waste is removed and vital substances are reabsorbed back into the bloodstream. The
filtered blood leaves through the renal veins.

Each kidney contains over 1 million tiny structures called nephrons. The nephrons are located
partly in the cortex and partly inside the renal pyramids, where the nephron tubules make up
most of the pyramid mass. Nephrons perform the primary function of the kidneys: regulating
the concentration of water and other substances in the body. They filter the blood, reabsorb what
the body needs, and excrete the rest as urine.

References

"The Urinary Tract & How It Works | NIDDK". National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive
and Kidney Diseases.

^ C. Dugdale, David (16 September 2011). "Female urinary tract". MedLine Plus Medical
Encyclopedia.

^ Maton, Anthea; Jean Hopkins; Charles William McLaughlin; Susan Johnson; Maryanna Quon
Warner; David LaHart; Jill D. Wright (1993). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-981176-1.

^ Caldwell HK, Young WS III, Lajtha A, Lim R (2006). "Oxytocin and Vasopressin: Genetics
and Behavioral Implications" (PDF). Handbook of Neurochemistry and Molecular
Neurobiology: Neuroactive Proteins and Peptides (3rd ed.). Berlin: Springer. pp. 573–607.

Learning outcome 14: Demonstrate knowledge of the respiratory system and its function

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to identify Components of the
respiratory system, describe the structure and function of components and describe the
respiration process.

Performance standard
1. Components of respiratory system are identified
2. Structure and functions of components are described
3. Respiration process is described

Information sheet

In biology, respiration has two meanings: - at the cellular level, it refers to the chemical reactions
that take place in the mitochondria, which require oxygen, and are the principle source of energy
for eukaryotic cells; - at the level of the whole organism, it refers to the process of taking in
oxygen from the environment and giving carbon dioxide back to it.

Cells need oxygen to generate ATP in their mitochondria

• Of all organs, your liver has the greatest need: 81 litres of oxygen a day, while your brain
requires 76 litres.

• A top marathoner uses about 500 litres of oxygen in the course of a race.

• The main physiological difference between a sedentary person and a runner is the number of
mitochondria per cell, which increases with training.
Figure28: The respiratory system

Figure 29: The alveoli

A pair of human lungs has some 300 million alveoli, where gas exchange takes place, providing
a respiratory surface of about 70 square meters.
The human respiratory system

Air enters through the nose or mouth and passes into the pharynx, past the larynx, and down the
trachea, bronchi and bronchioles to the alveoli in the lungs.

Gas exchange takes place in the alveoli. The barrier between the air in an alveolus and the blood
in its capillaries is only 0.5 micrometer.

Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse into and out of the bloodstream through the capillaries
surrounding the walls of the alveoli.

The trachea, bronchi and bronchioles, which serve mainly to transport air by bulk flow,

are lined with epithelial cells.

• These include both mucus-secreting and ciliated cells.

• The mucus coats the epithelium of the respiratory system and traps foreign particles.

• The cilia beat continuously, pushing mucus and foreign particles toward the pharynx, to

be expelled.

Mechanics of respiration

• Air flows into or out of the lungs when the air pressure within the alveoli differs from the
pressure of the external air atmospheric pressure).

• The pressure in the lungs is varied by changes in the volume of the thoracic cavity, caused by
the contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm and of intercostal (“between the-

ribs”) muscles.

Transport and exchange of gases

• Oxygen is almost insoluble in blood plasma.

• The blood transports oxygen thanks to respiratory pigments which, in vertebrates, are called

hemoglobin. Each hemoglobin molecule can bind four molecules of oxygen.

• In the capillaries of the alveoli, where the partial pressure of oxygen is high, most of the
hemoglobin is combined with oxygen.

• In the tissues, where the partial pressure is lower, oxygen is released from the hemoglobin
molecules into the plasma and diffuses into the tissues.

Carbon dioxide is more soluble than oxygen and some of it is dissolved in the blood.

• However, most CO2 reacts with water to form carbonic acid, a weak acid that dissociates to
form bicarbonate (HCO3-) and hydrogen (H+) ions:

• CO2 + H2O « H2CO3 «HCO3 + H+

Carbon Water Carbonic Bicarbonate Hydrogen

dioxide acid ion ion

• The reaction can go in either direction, depending on the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in
the blood.

Control of Respiration

• The rate and depth of respiration are controlled by respiratory neurons in the brainstem which
activate motor neurons in the spinal cord that cause the diaphragm and intercostal muscles to
contract.

• In addition, chemoreceptor cells, located in the carotid arteries, signal the respiratory neurons
when the concentration of oxygen decreases.

• Centres in the brain and chemoreceptors simultaneously monitor the concentration of dissolved
carbon dioxide and hydrogen.
• The system is highly sensitive to the slightest changes in the chemical composition of the blood
(particularly hydrogen ion, which reflects the concentration of carbon dioxide).

Self Assessment

a). Describe the mechanics of respiration

b). Describe the movement of air from the atmosphere to the alveoli.

Responses

a). Describe the mechanics of respiration

• Air flows into or out of the lungs when the air pressure within the alveoli differs from the
pressure of the external air atmospheric pressure).

• The pressure in the lungs is varied by changes in the volume of the thoracic cavity, caused by
the contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm and of intercostal (“between the-

ribs”) muscles

b). Describe the movement of air from the atmosphere to the alveoli.

Air enters through the nose or mouth and passes into the pharynx, past the larynx, and down the
trachea, bronchi and bronchioles to the alveoli in the lungs.

Gas exchange takes place in the alveoli. The barrier between the air in an alveolus and the blood
in its capillaries is only 0.5 micrometer.

Oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse into and out of the bloodstream through the capillaries
surrounding the walls of the alveoli.

References
 Maton, Anthea; Hopkins, Jean Susan; Johnson, Charles William; McLaughlin, Maryanna Quon;
Warner, David; LaHart Wright, Jill (2010). Human Biology and Health. Englewood Cliffs:
Prentice Hall. pp. 108–118. ISBN 978-0134234359.

^ Jump up to:a b c Williams, Peter L.; Warwick, Roger; Dyson, Mary; Bannister, Lawrence H.
(1989). Gray's Anatomy (Thirty-seventh ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. pp. 1278–
1282. ISBN 0443-041776.

^ Lovelock, James (1991). Healing Gaia: Practical medicine for the Planet. New York: Harmony
Books. pp. 21–34, 73–88. ISBN 0-517-57848-4.

^ Shu, BC; Chang, YY; Lee, FY; Tzeng, DS; Lin, HY; Lung, FW (2007-10-31). "Parental
attachment, premorbid personality, and mental health in young males with hyperventilation
syndrome". Psychiatry Research. 153 (2): 163–70. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2006.05.006. PMID
17659783. S2CID 3931401.

^ Henry RP, Swenson ER (June 2000). "The distribution and physiological significance of
carbonic anhydrase in vertebrate gas exchange organs". Respiration Physiology. 121

Learning outcome 15: Demonstrate knowledge of the special senses and their functions
Introduction to learning outcome
This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to identify Sensory organs are
identified, outline structures of special organs and describe their functions.

Performance standard
1. Sensory organs are identified
2. Structures of special organs are outlined
3. Functions of special organs are described

Information sheet

Sense organs
Sensory Receptors - receive input, generate receptor potentials and with enough summation,
generate action potentials in the neurons they are part of or synapse with

5 Types of Sensory Receptors - based on the type of stimuli they detect:

1. Mechanoreceptors - pressure receptors, stretch receptors, and specialized mechanoreceptors

involved in movement and balance.

2. Thermoreceptors - skin and viscera, respond to both external and internal temperature

3. Pain receptors - stimulated by lack of O2, chemicals released from damaged cells and
inflammatory cells

4. Chemoreceptors - detect changes in levels of O2, CO2, and H+ ions (pH) as well as
chemicals that stimulate taste and smell receptors

5. Photoreceptors - stimulated by light

Distribution of Receptors in the body:

Special Senses

• mediated by relatively complex sense organs of the head, innervated by cranial nerves

• vision, hearing, equilibrium, taste and smell

General (somesthetic, somatosensory)

• receptors widely distributed in skin, muscles, tendons, joints, and viscera

• they detect touch, pressure, stretch, heat, cold and pain, blood pressure

Special Senses

Sensation and perception

• Vision – Eye

• Hearing – Ear

• Equilibrium – Ear

• Taste – Taste receptors

• Smell – Olfactory system

General Senses

• Skin – Hot, cold, pressure, pain

• Muscles, joints, and tendons – proprioceptors- stretch receptors respond to stretch or

compression

• Pain Receptors – somatic or visceral

Eye - Vision

Processes

• Light energy is transduced into neural activity

• Neural activity is processed by the brain

• Note: For an analogy, you can imagine taking a picture with a camera. The eye is the camera,
the retina, which is a specialized part of the brain at the back of the eye, is the film, and the parts
of the brain that process visual information is the photoshop.

Human visual systems permit light reflected off distant objects to be:

• Localized relative to the individual within his or her environment

• Identified based on size, shape, color, and past experience

• Perceived to be moving (or not)

• Detected in a wide variety of lighting conditions

Sequence of events

• Light entering the eye is focused on the retina

• Retina converts light energy into neuronal activity

• Axons of the retinal neurons are bundled to form the optic nerves

• Visual information is distributed to several brain structures that perform different functions.

Eye – the organ used to sense light

Three layers –

1. Outer layer consists of sclera and cornea

2. Middle layer consists of choroid, ciliary body and iris

3. Inner layer consists of retina

Figure 30: The eye

Extraocular muscles--attached to the eye and skull and allow movement

Anatomy of the Eye

Gross anatomy

Functions of the major parts of the eye:

• Sclera or Scleroid Layer – (white of eye) the outermost layer that forms the eyeball- a tough
protective layer of connective tissue that helps maintain the shape of the eye and provides an
attachment for the muscles that move the eye

• Conjunctiva--membrane inside the eyelid attached to the sclera

• Cornea - the transparent surface covering the iris and pupil- a clear, dome-shaped part of the
sclera covering the front of the eye through which light enters the eye

• Anterior Chamber – a small chamber between the cornea and the pupil
• Aqueous Humor - fluid behind the cornea - the clear fluid that fills that anterior chamber of
the eye and helps to maintain the shape of the cornea providing most of the nutrients for the lens
and the cornea and involved in waste management in the front of the eye

• Choroid Layer - middle layer of the eye containing may blood vessels

• Ciliary Body - the ciliary body is a circular band of muscle that is connected and sits
immediately behind the iris- produces aqueous humor, changes shape of lens for focusing, and

• Iris - circular muscle that controls the diameter of the pupil - the pigmented front portion of
the choroid layer and contains the blood vessels - it determines the eye color and it controls the
amount of light that enters the eye by changing the size of the pupil (an albino only has the blood
vessels – not pigment so it appears red or pink because of the blood vessels)

• Lens - a crystalline structure located just behind the iris - it focuses light onto the retina

• Pupil - the opening in the center of the iris- it changes size as the amount of light changes (the
more light, the smaller the hole) and it allows light to reach the retina

• Vitreous - a thick, transparent liquid that fills the center of the eye - it is mostly water and
gives the eye its form and shape (also called the vitreous humor)

• Retina - axons of the retina leaving the eye - sensory tissue that lines the back of the eye. It
contains millions of photoreceptors (rods for black & white and cones for color ) that convert
light rays into electrical impulses that are relayed to the brain via the optic nerve

• Optic nerve - the nerve that transmits electrical impulses from the retina to the brain

Opthalmoscopic appearance (Retina as seen through the pupil)

• Note: in photographs, the red appearance of the eye is actually the retina photographed. Double
flash camera causes the pupil to constrict.

• Optic disk (blind spot)--no vision is possible

o Blood vessels originate here. The vessels

shadow the retina

o Optic nerve fibers exit here

o No photoreceptors

• Macula--area of the retina responsible for central vision (vs. peripheral)

• Fovea--center of the retina (where most of the cones are)

Figure 31: The eye

Common eye defects include

• Myopia or nearsightedness where the eyeball is too long or the cornea is too steep;

• Hyperopia or far sightedness where the eyeball is short or lens cannot become round enough:

• Presbyopia where the muscles controlling the bulging of the lens become weak as we age;

• Cataracts where the lens becomes fogged;

• Nyctalopia or night blindness where vision is impaired in dim light and in the dark due to

pigment rhodospin in the rods not functioning properly External features of the eye.

Cross sectional anatomy

• Lens--transparent surface that contributes to the formation of images (w/i 9 meters)

• Ciliary muscles--change the shape of the lens and allow focusing

• Vitreous humor--more viscous than the aqueous humor - Lies between the lens and the retina
and provides spherical shape

• Retina - inner most layer of cells at the back of the eye - Transduces light energy into neural
activity

EAR – HEARING

Outer Ear & ear canal – brings sound into eardrum

Eardrum – vibrates to amplify sound & separates inner and middle ear

Middle ear has 3 small bones or Ossicles = anvil, stirrup, stapes – amplify sound (small bones)
which vibrate sound.
Eustachian tube – connects middle ear to throat and equalizes pressure on eardrum

Cochlea – in inner ear – has receptors for sound & sends signals to brain via Auditory Nerve

Process of hearing:

• Sound waves enter your outer ear and travel through your ear canal to the middle ear.

• The ear canal channels the waves to your eardrum, a thin, sensitive membrane stretched tightly
over the entrance to your middle ear.

• The waves cause your eardrum to vibrate.

• It passes these vibrations on to the hammer, one of three tiny bones in your ear. The hammer
vibrating causes the anvil, the small bone touching the hammer, to vibrate. The anvil passes
these vibrations to the stirrup, another small bone which touches the anvil. From the stirrup, the
vibrations pass into the inner ear.

• The stirrup touches a liquid filled sack and the vibrations travel into the cochlea, which is
shaped like a shell.

• Inside the cochlea, a vestibular system formed by three semicircular canals that are
approximately at right angles to each other and which are responsible for the sense of balance
and spatial orientation.

It has chambers filled with a viscous fluid and small particles (otoliths) containing calcium
carbonate. The movement of these particles over small hair cells in the inner ear sends signals
to the brain that are interpreted as motion and acceleration. The brain processes the information
from the ear and lets us distinguish between different types of sounds.\
Figure 32: The Ear

Ear – Equilibrium

Equilibrium

• Equilibrium is a response to movements of the head - Example: a cat landing on its feet if
dropped from upside down

• Vestibular Apparatus: the equilibrium receptors of the inner ear

• Divided into static and dynamic equilibrium

Static Equilibrium

• When the body is not moving

• Maculae: receptors within the membrane sacs of the vestibule that report on the position of
the head with respect to the pull of gravity when the body is not moving.
• Each macula is a patch of receptor cells with their “hairs” embedded in the otolithic membrane

• Otolithic Membrane: a jelly-like substance containing otoliths

• Otoliths: tiny stones made of calcium salts that roll in response to changes in the pull of gravity.
When otoliths move, they pull on the gel and this bends the hairs. Activated hair cells send
impulses along the vestibular nerve

• Vestibular Nerve: (Cranial Nerve VIII) transmits

signals to the cerebellum

Dynamic Equilibrium

• Receptors in the semicircular canals respond to angular or rotary movements of the head.

• Semicircular canals are oriented in the three planes of space

• Crista Ampullaris: receptor region that consists of a tuft of hair cells covered with a gelatinous
cap called the cupula

• When the head moves in an angular direction:

o The endomlymph lags behind

o As the cupula drags against the stationaryendolymph, the cupula bends

o This stimulates hair cells to transmit signals to the vestibular nerve

• When you are moving at a constant rate, receptors stop sending impulses

• You no longer have the sensation of motion until you change speed or direction

Vision plays a significant role in balance. Approximately twenty percent of the nerve fibers from
the eyes interact with the vestibular system.
Taste and Smell – Chemical Receptors

Taste buds

• The mouth contains around 10,000 taste buds, most of which are located on and around the
tiny bumps on your tongue.

• Every taste bud detects five primary tastes:

o Sour

o Sweet

o Bitter

o Salty

o Umami - salts of certain acids (for example monosodium glutamate or MSG)

• Each of your taste buds contains 50-100 specialised receptor cells.

• Sticking out of every single one of these receptor cells is a tiny taste hair that checks out the
food chemicals in your saliva.

• When these taste hairs are stimulated, they send nerve impulses to your brain.

• Each taste hair responds best to one of the five basic tastes.

Smell Receptors or Olfactory receptors

• Humans able to detect thousands of different smells

• Olfactory receptors occupy a stamp-sized area in the roof of the nasal cavity, the hollow space
inside the nose
• Tiny hairs, made of nerve fibers, dangle from all your olfactory receptors. They are covered
with a layer of mucus.

• If a smell, formed by chemicals in the air, dissolves in this mucus, the hairs absorb it and excite
your olfactory receptors.

• A few molecules are enough to activate these extremely sensitive receptors.

• Olfactory Hairs easily fatigued so you do not notice smells

• Linked to memories - when your olfactory receptors are stimulated, they transmit impulses to
your brain and the pathway is directly connected to the limbic system - the part of your brain
that deals with emotions so you usually either like or dislike a smell

• Smells leave long-lasting impressions and are strongly linked to your memories

• Much of what we associate as taste also involves smell – that is why hot foods “taste”
different than “cold” foods.

Figure 33: Smell receptors

Self Assessment

a). Highlight five types of sensory receptors

b). Describe the process of hearing

c). Highlight five common eye defects

Responses

a). Highlight five types of sensory receptors

1. Mechanoreceptors - pressure receptors, stretch receptors, and specialized mechanoreceptors

involved in movement and balance.

2. Thermo receptors - skin and viscera, respond to both external and internal temperature

3. Pain receptors - stimulated by lack of O2, chemicals released from damaged cells and
inflammatory cells

4. Chemoreceptors - detect changes in levels of O2, CO2, and H+ ions (pH) as well as
chemicals that stimulate taste and smell receptors

5. Photoreceptors - stimulated by light

b). Describe the process of hearing

Sound waves enter your outer ear and travel through your ear canal to the middle ear.

• The ear canal channels the waves to your eardrum, a thin, sensitive membrane stretched tightly
over the entrance to your middle ear.
• The waves cause your eardrum to vibrate.

• It passes these vibrations on to the hammer, one of three tiny bones in your ear. The hammer
vibrating causes the anvil, the small bone touching the hammer, to vibrate. The anvil passes
these vibrations to the stirrup, another small bone which touches the anvil. From the stirrup, the
vibrations pass into the inner ear.

• The stirrup touches a liquid filled sack and the vibrations travel into the cochlea, which is
shaped like a shell.

• Inside the cochlea, a vestibular system formed by three semicircular canals that are
approximately at right angles to each other and which are responsible for the sense of balance
and spatial orientation.

It has chambers filled with a viscous fluid and small particles (otoliths) containing calcium
carbonate. The movement of these particles over small hair cells in the inner ear sends signals
to the brain that are interpreted as motion and acceleration. The brain processes the information
from the ear and lets us distinguish between different types of sounds

c). Highlight five common eye defects

• Myopia or nearsightedness where the eyeball is too long or the cornea is too steep;

• Hyperopia or far sightedness where the eyeball is short or lens cannot become round enough:

• Presbyopia where the muscles controlling the bulging of the lens become weak as we age;

• Cataracts where the lens becomes fogged;

• Nyctalopia or night blindness where vision is impaired in dim light and in the dark due to
pigment rhodospin in the rods not functioning properly External features of the eye.

References
 Drake et al. (2010), Gray's Anatomy for Students, 2nd Ed., Churchill Livingstone.

Carlson, Neil R. (2013). "6". Physiology of Behaviour (11th ed.). Upper Saddle River, New
Jersey, USA: Pearson Education Inc. pp. 187–189. ISBN 978-0-205-23939-9.

Margaret., Livingstone (2008). Vision and art : the biology of seeing. Hubel, David H. New
York: Abrams. ISBN 9780810995543. OCLC 192082768.

Schacter, Daniel L. et al.,["Psychology"],"Worth Publishers",2011

Jan Schnupp; Israel Nelken; Andrew King (2011). Auditory Neuroscience. MIT Press. ISBN
978-0-262-11318-2. Archived from the origin

Learning outcome 16: Demonstrate knowledge of the reproductive system and its functions

Introduction to learning outcome

This learning outcome specifies the competencies required to identify Components of the human
reproductive system, describe the structure and components as well as the fertilization process.

Performance standard
1. Components of the human reproductive system are identified
2. Structure and functions of components are described
3. Fertilization process is described

Information sheet

Function of the reproductive system

Sexual reproduction requires a male and a female of the same species to copulate and combine
their genes in order to produce a new individual who is genetically different from his parents.
Sexual reproduction relies on meiosis to shuffle the genes , so that new combinations of genes
occur in each generation , allowing some of the offspring of survive in the constantly – changing
 environment . The male reproductive system produces, sustains, and delivers sperm cells
(spermatozoa) to the female reproductive tract. The female reproductive system produces,
sustains , and allows egg cells (oocytes ) to be fertilized by sperm . It also supports the
development of an offspring (gestation) and gives birth to a new individual (parturition) .

Male Reproductive System

Testis: Sex organ that produces sperm in a process called spermatogenesis, and male sex
hormones (testosterone).

Developed in a male fetus near the kidneys, and descend to the scrotum about 2 months before
birth.

Each testis is enclosed by a layer of fibrous connective tissue called tunica alumina.

Each testis contains about 250 functional units called lobules; each lobule contains about 4
seminiferous tubules where spermatogenesis occurs.

All somniferous tubules in a testis converge and form a channel called rate testis.

Testis
Figure 33: The Testis

Scrotum: A pouch – like cutaneous extension that contains the two testes. Located outside of
pelvic cavity to prevent overheating of testes [internal temperature of scrotum is always about
3 ˚F below body temperature] .

Epididymis: An expanded tubule from the rate testis where sperm is stored (for about 3 days) ,
matured and become fully functional. Contains cilia on its columnar epithelium that help move
sperm toward vas deferens during ejaculation. .

Vas deferens: A tubule (about 10 inches long) that connects epididymis to the urethra for
transporting sperm during ejaculation. It contains smooth muscle that undergoes rapid peristalsis
during ejaculation.

Accessory sex glands

Seminal vesicles: secrete an alkaline solution that makes up 60% of the semen volume; this
seminal fluid contains fructose (nutrient for the sperm) and prostaglandins (substances that
stimulate uterine contraction during sexual excitation).
Prostate gland: secretes a slightly acidic, milky white fluid that makes up about 30% of semen
volume; this fluid helps neutralize the pH of semen and vaginal secretion.

Bulb urethral gland: secretes a clear lubricating fluid that aids in sexual intercourse.

Reproductive organs of the male

Figure 34

Urethra: a tubule located inside the penis for urine excretion and semen ejaculation .Contains
smooth muscle that performs rapid peristalsis during ejaculation .

Penis: a copulatory organ that is responsible for delivering the sperm to the female reproductive
tract. Contains 2 erectile tissues called corpus cavernosa and corpus spongiosum, where the
latter one enlarges and forms the glans penis due to increased blood flow during sexual
excitation.

During sexual excitement, parasympathetic nerves cause vasodilatation in the penis, allowing
erectile tissues to swell and erect the penis.
During ejaculation, sympathetic nerves cause vas deferens, urethra and erectile tissues to
contract, forcefully expelling semen (a mixture of sex gland fluids and about 300 million sperm)
outward.

Seminiferous Tubules

About 1,000 seminiferous tubules in each testis conduct spermatogenesis.

Between the tubules are specialized glandular cells called interstitial cells (or leydig's cells )
which produce testosterone.

Inside the tubules are specialized cells called sertoli's cells which support and nourish the sperm.

Spermatogenesis

Spermatogonia (containing 46 chromosomes) undergo DNA replication and produce primary

spermatocytes (with 46 pairs of chromosomes) .[some spermatozoid undergo mitosis to
maintain a large population , so that spermatogenesis can be continuous for many decades ].

Primary spermatocytes undergo "crossing - over" to shuffle their genes ,and undergo meiosis I
which results in secondary spermatocytes (each containing 46 unique chromosomes) .

Secondary spermatocytes undergo meiosis II which produces spermatids (with 23 unique

chromosomes).

Spermatids now transform themselves into spermatozoa (also containing 23 unique

chromosomes) in a final event called spermatogenesis.

Female reproductive system

Ovary:
Primary sex organ that produces egg cells in a process called oogenesis, and also produces
female sex hormones such as estrogens and progesterone.

Developed near the kidneys during fetal development, and toward the end of pregnancy descend
into the pelvic cavity.

Consists of ovarian cortex where the ovarian cycle occurs and ovarian medulla where scar
tissues and connective tissue are located.

Enclosed by a layer of cubical cells called germinal epithelium.

Bound to the uterine tubes and uterus by ovarian ligaments.

Figure 35: Internal reproductive organs of a female

Structure of an ovary
Figure 36

Uterine tube (or fallopian tube): consists of firmbriae, finger – like appendages that collect the
ovum from the ovary during ovulation.

Infundibulum channels the ovum from the firmbriae into the uterine tube.

Ampulla is the curvature of the uterine tube where most fertilization occurs.

Inner wall of uterine tube is made of ciliated mucosa, where the cilia propel the ovum toward
the uterus.

Uterus

A pear – shaped cavity formed by the union of the two uterine tubes .

Composed of 3 layers of tissue – perimetrium (fibrous connective tissue) , myometrium (smooth

muscle), and endometrium (epithelial and connective tissues) .

After fertilization, embryo adheres to the endometrial layer for further development – an event
called implantation.
To prepare for implantation and development, endometrium is stimulated by estrogens to
thicken and becomes vascularzed – a process called the menstrual cycle.

Myometrium, under the stimulation of oxytocin, contracts during labor to expel the fetus into
the vagina.

The base of uterus is closed by a narrow passageway called cervix to prevent the entry of foreign
substances.

Vagina: an elastic channel inferior to the cervix that serves as the "birth canal" during
parturition. Also serves as the copulatory receptacle , where it receives the penis during sexual
intercourse. In addition to the acids secretion from cervix, it also coveys uterine secretions (i.e.
menstrual flow).

Oogenesis

In the ovarian cortex, a process called oogenesis (formation of egg) occurs to develop a mature
ovum. Before birth , several million cells called primordial oocytes exist in the ovaries – most
of them spontaneously degenerate .

At birth, only 1 million primordial oocytes are left ; and by puberty (age 10-11) ,only 400,000
remain in the ovaries .

From puberty to menopause, some of these primordial oocytes (containing 46 chromosomes)

undergo DNA replication and become primary oocytes (with 46 pairs of chromosomes).

Primary oocytes will then undergo "crossing - over" to shuffle their genes, and meiosis I will
occur to divide the cells into secondary oocytes (containing 46 unique chromosomes) and the
first polar bodies (also containing 46 unique chromosomes ; but will be degenerated).
Oogenesis now is arrested where Events of oogenesis the ovary discharges a mature secondary
oocyte into the uterine tube (in a process called ovulation) .

Meiosis II is reactivated when this secondary oocyte is fertilized by a sperm (if no fertilization
occurs, secondary oocyte is discarded along with the menstrual flow), instantly dividing the 46
chromosomes into 23 (inside the second polar body) and another 23 will be united with the 23
chromosomes released from the sperm.

Mechanism of erection, lubrication, and orgasm in human female

1. Sexual stimulation.

2. Arteries in the erectile tissue dilate, vagina expands and elongates

3. Engorged and swollen vagina increases friction from movement of penis.

4. Parasympathetic nerves impulses from sacral portion of the spinal nerve is enhanced.

5. Sexual stimulation intensifies.

6. Vestibule glands secrete mucus to lubricate.

7. Orgasm: rhythmic contraction of muscles of the perineum, muscular walls of uterus, and
uterine tube.

Hormonal control of reproductive function

Hormones from the hypothalamus,

Anterior Pituitary gland and ovaries, play important roles in the control of sex cell maturation,
and development and maintenance of female secondary sex characteristics.

Female sex hormones:

A female body remains reproductively immature until about 10 years of age when gonadotropin
secretion increases.
The most important female sex hormones are estrogen and progesterone.

Estrogen is responsible for the development and maintenance of most female secondary sex
characteristics.

Progesterone causes change in the uterus.

Hormonal control of secondary sex characteristic

The hypothalamus releases GnRH, which stimulates the Ant. Pituitary gland.

The Ant. pituitary gland secretes FSH and LH.

FSH stimulates the maturation of a follicle.

Granulose cells of the follicle produce and secrete estrogen; LH stimulated certain cells to
secrete estrogen precursor molecules.

Estrogen is responsible for the development and maintenance of most female secondary sex
characteristics.

Concentration of Androgens affects other secondary sex characteristics, including skeletal

growth and growth of hair.

Progesterone, secreted by the ovaries, affect cyclical changes in the uterus and mammary glands.

Ovarian cycle

A series of event in the ovarian cortex in order to produce a mature ovum and sex hormones.

Lasts for about 28 days, where from day 1 to 13 the mature ovum is developed and estrogens
are released, on day 14 ovulation occurs to discharge the ovum , and from day 15 to 28 scar
tissues are formed and progesterone is released . On day 1, hypothalamus secretes Latinizing
hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) to the anterior pituitary gland, which in turn secretes
follicle – stimulating hormone (FSH) to the ovaries. Upon receiving FSH, about 20-25 primary
follicles develop into secondary follicles. (Primary oocytes located inside primary follicles
undergo meiosis I and become secondary oocoytes, contained in secondary follicles).

Follicular cells in secondary follicles begin to secrete estrogens (for communicating with
hypothalamus and anterior pituitary and for developing the endometrium) .

With continuous stimulation of FSH and some Latinizing hormone (LH) ,secondary follicles
continue to grow larger and develop multiple layers of follicular cells (while the secondary
oocytes within are unchanged).

By day 13 , only 1 secondary follicle will fully mature and become the graafian follicle (or
mature follicle) which secretes a large amount of estrogens to the hypothalamus – anterior
pituitary system for signaling ovulation (using a positive feedback mechanism).

On day 14 , large amounts of LH ("LH surge") will be secreted by anterior pituitary , inducing
ovulation where the graafian follicle ruptures and releases the secondary oocyte into uterine tube
.

From days 15 to 25 , graafian follicle degenerates and becomes corpus hemorrhagicum ("a
bleeding body") then corpus luteum ("a yellow body"; containing lutein cells that secrete
progesterone and some estrogens to continuum stimulating the development of endometrium).

By day 26 , if no fertilization occurs to the secondary oocyte, resulting in a lack of human

chorionic Gonadotropin hormone (HCG) from the embryo , corpus luteum degenerates into
corpus albicans . [if fertilization did occur , HCG will continuously simulate corpus luteum for
2-3 months , allowing high levels of estrogens and progesterone to maintain pregnancy in the
first trimester] .

When corpus luteum degenerates, the declining levels of estrogens and progesterone will signal
the hypothalamus – anterior pituitary system to initiate another ovarian cycle.

Fertilization
Fertilization, union of a sperm nucleus, of paternal origin, with an egg nucleus, of maternal
origin, to form the primary nucleus of an embryo. In all organisms the essence of fertilization
is, in fact, the fusion of the hereditary material of two different sex cells, or gametes, each of
which carries half the number of chromosomes typical of the species. The most primitive form
of fertilization, found in microorganisms and protozoans, consists of an exchange of genetic
material between two cells.

The first significant event in fertilization is the fusion of the membranes of the two gametes,
resulting in the formation of a channel that allows the passage of material from one cell to the
other. Fertilization in advanced plants is preceded by pollination, during which pollen is
transferred to, and establishes contact with, the female gamete or macrospore. Fusion in
advanced animals is usually followed by penetration of the egg by a single spermatozoon. The
result of fertilization is a cell (zygote) capable of undergoing cell division to form a new
individual.

The fusion of two gametes initiates several reactions in the egg. One of these causes a change in
the egg membrane(s), so that the attachment of and penetration by more than one spermatozoon
cannot occur. In species in which more than one spermatozoon normally enters an egg
(polyspermy), only one spermatozoal nucleus actually merges with the egg nucleus. The most
important result of fertilization is egg activation, which allows the egg to undergo cell division.
Activation, however, does not necessarily require the intervention of a spermatozoon; during
parthenogenesis, in which fertilization does not occur, activation of an egg may be accomplished
through the intervention of physical and chemical agents. Invertebrates such as aphids, bees,
and rotifers normally reproduce by parthenogenesis.

Maturation Of The Egg

Maturation is the final step in the production of functional eggs (oogenesis) that can associate
with a spermatozoon and develop a reaction that prevents the entry of more than one
spermatozoon. In addition, the cytoplasm of a mature egg can support the changes that lead to
fusion of spermatozoal and egg nuclei and initiate embryonic development.

Egg surface
Certain components of an egg’s surface, especially the cortical granules, are associated with a
mature condition. Cortical granules of sea urchin eggs, aligned beneath the plasma membrane
(thin, soft, pliable layer) of mature eggs, have a diameter of 0.8–1.0 micron (0.0008–0.001
millimetre) and are surrounded by a membrane similar in structure to the plasma membrane
surrounding the egg. Cortical granules are formed in a cell component known as a Golgi
complex, from which they migrate to the surface of the maturing egg.

The surface of a sea urchin egg has the ability to affect the passage of light unequally in different
directions; this property, called birefringence, is an indication that the molecules comprising the
surface layers are arranged in a definite way. Since birefringence appears as an egg matures, it
is likely that the properties of a mature egg membrane are associated with specific molecular
arrangements. A mature egg is able to support the formation of a zygote nucleus; i.e., the result
of fusion of spermatozoal and egg nuclei. In most eggs the process of reduction of chromosomal
number (meiosis) is not completed prior to fertilization. In such cases the fertilizing
spermatozoon remains beneath the egg surface until meiosis in the egg has been completed, after
which changes and movements that lead to fusion and the formation of a zygote occur.

Egg coats

The surfaces of most animal eggs are surrounded by envelopes, which may be soft gelatinous
coats (as in echinoderms and some amphibians) or thick membranes (as in fishes, insects, and
mammals). In order to reach the egg surface, therefore, spermatozoa must penetrate these
envelopes; indeed, spermatozoa contain enzymes (organic catalysts) that break them down. In
some cases (e.g., fishes and insects) there is a channel, or micropyle, in the envelope, through
which a spermatozoon can reach the egg.

The jelly coats of echinoderm and amphibian eggs consist of complex carbohydrates called
sulfated mucopolysaccharides. The envelope of a mammalian egg is more complex. The egg is
surrounded by a thick coat composed of a carbohydrate protein complex called zona pellucida.
The zona is surrounded by an outer envelope, the corona radiata, which is many cell layers thick
and formed by follicle cells adhering to the oocyte before it leaves the ovarian follicle.
Although it once was postulated that the jelly coat of an echinoderm egg contains a substance
(fertilizin) thought to have an important role not only in the establishment of sperm-egg
interaction but also in egg activation, fertilizin now has been shown identical with jelly-coat
material, rather than a substance continuously secreted from it. Yet there is evidence that the
egg envelopes do play a role in fertilization; i.e., contact with the egg coat elicits the acrosome
reaction (described below) in spermatozoa.

Events of Fertilization

Sperm-egg association

The acrosome reaction of spermatozoa is a prerequisite for the association between a

spermatozoon and an egg, which occurs through fusion of their plasma membranes. After a
spermatozoon comes in contact with an egg, the acrosome, which is a prominence at the anterior
tip of the spermatozoa, undergoes a series of well-defined structural changes. A structure within
the acrosome, called the acrosomal vesicle, bursts, and the plasma membrane surrounding the
spermatozoon fuses at the acrosomal tip with the membrane surrounding the acrosomal vesicle
to form an opening. As the opening is formed, the acrosomal granule, which is enclosed within
the acrosomal vesicle, disappears. The dissolution of the granule releases a substance called a
lysin, which breaks down the egg’s vitelline coat, allowing passage of the spermatozoon to the
egg. The acrosomal membrane region opposite the opening adheres to the nuclear envelope of
the spermatozoon and forms a shallow out pocketing, which rapidly elongates into a thin tube,
the acrosomal tubule that extends to the egg surface and fuses with the egg plasma membrane.
The tubule thus formed establishes continuity between the egg and the spermatozoon and
provides a way for the spermatozoal nucleus to reach the interior of the egg. Other spermatozoal
structures that may be carried within the egg include the midpiece and part of the tail; the
spermatozoal plasma membrane and the acrosomal membrane, however, do not reach the
interior of the egg. In fact, whole spermatozoa injected into unfertilized eggs cannot elicit the
activation reaction or merge with the egg nucleus. As the spermatozoal nucleus is drawn within
the egg, the spermatozoal plasma membrane breaks down; at the end of the process, the
continuity of the egg plasma membrane is re-established. This description of the process of
sperm-egg association, first documented for the acorn worm Saccoglossus (phylum
Enteropneusta), generally applies to most eggs studied thus far.

Figure 37:

During their passage through the female genital tract of mammals, spermatozoa undergo
physiological change, called capacitation, which is a prerequisite for their participation in
fertilization; they are able to undergo the acrosome reaction, traverse the egg envelopes, and
reach the interior of the egg. Dispersal of cells in the outer egg envelope (corona radiata) is
caused by the action of an enzyme (hyaluronidase) that breaks down a substance (hyaluronic
acid) binding corona radiata cells together. The enzyme may be contained in the acrosome and
released as a result of the acrosome reaction, during passage of the spermatozoon through the
corona radiata. The reaction is well advanced by the time a spermatozoon contacts the thick coat
surrounding the egg itself (zona pellucida). The pathway of a spermatozoon through the zona
pellucida appears to be an oblique slit created by the oscillation of the sperm’s head near the
point of its attachment to the zona pellucida.

Association of a mammalian spermatozoon with the egg surface occurs along the lateral surface
of the spermatozoon, rather than at the tip as in other animals, so that the spermatozoon lies flat
on the egg surface. Several points of fusion occur between the plasma membranes of the two
gametes (i.e., the breakdown of membranes occurs by formation of numerous small vesicles).

Specificity of sperm-egg interaction

Fertilization is strictly species-specific, and the egg’s coating, the zona pellucida, plays an
important role in the binding process between sperm and egg. In general, the biochemistry of
the zona pellucida of one species differs from that of another, and thus it only matches up and
binds with sperm of the appropriate species. For example, among the echinoderms, solutions of
the jelly coat clump, or agglutinate, only spermatozoa of their own species. In both echinoderms
and amphibians, however, slight damage to an egg surface makes fertilization possible with
spermatozoa of different species (heterologous fertilization); this procedure has been used to
obtain certain hybrid larvae. In addition, binding between sperm and egg of different species
may occur when the zona pellucida of the egg is removed.

The eggs of ascidians, or sea squirts, members of the chordate subphylum Tunicata, are covered
with a thick membrane called a chorion. The space between the chorion and the egg is filled
with cells called test cells. The gametes of ascidians, which have both male and female
reproductive organs in one animal, mature at the same time, yet self-fertilization does not occur.
If the chorion and the test cells are removed, however, not only is fertilization with spermatozoa
of different species possible, but self-fertilization also can occur.

Prevention of polyspermy

Most animal eggs are monospermic; i.e., only one spermatozoon is admitted into an egg. In
some eggs, protection against the penetration of the egg by more than one spermatozoon
(polyspermy) is due to some property of the egg surface; in others, however, the egg envelopes
are responsible. The ability of some eggs to develop a polyspermy-preventing reaction depends
on a molecular rearrangement of the egg surface that occurs during egg maturation (oogenesis).
Although immature sea urchin eggs have the ability to associate with spermatozoa, they also
allow multiple penetration; i.e., they are unable to develop a polyspermy-preventing reaction.
Since the mature eggs of most animals are fertilized before completion of meiosis and are able
to develop a polyspermy-preventing reaction, specific properties of the egg surface must have
differentiated by the time meiosis stops, which is when the egg is ready to be fertilized.

In some mammalian eggs defense against polyspermy depends on properties of the zona
pellucida; i.e., when a spermatozoon has started to move through the zona, it does not allow the
penetration of additional spermatozoa (zona reaction). In other mammals, however, the zona
reaction either does not take place or is weak, as indicated by the presence of numerous
spermatozoa in the space between the zona and egg surface. In such cases the polyspermy-
preventing reaction resides in the egg surface. Although the eggs of some kinds of animals (e.g.,
some amphibians, birds, reptiles, and sharks) are naturally polyspermic, only one spermatozoal
nucleus fuses with an egg nucleus to form a zygote nucleus; all of the other spermatozoa
degenerate.

Formation of the fertilization membrane

The most spectacular changes that follow fertilization occur at the egg surface. The best known
example, that of the sea urchin egg, is described below. An immediate response to fertilization
is the raising of a membrane, called a vitelline membrane, from the egg surface. In the beginning
the membrane is very thin; soon, however, it thickens, develops a well-organized molecular
structure, and is called the fertilization membrane. At the same time an extensive rearrangement
of the molecular structure of the egg surface occurs. The events leading to formation of the
fertilization membrane require about one minute.

At the point on the outer surface of the sea urchin egg at which a spermatozoan attaches, the thin
vitelline membrane becomes detached. As a result the membranes of the cortical granules come
into contact with the inner aspect of the egg’s plasma membrane and fuse with it, the granules
open, and their contents are extruded into the perivitelline space; i.e., the space between the egg
surface and the raised vitelline membrane. Part of the contents of the granules merge with the
vitelline membrane to form the fertilization membrane; if fusion of the contents of the cortical
granules with the vitelline membrane is prevented, the membrane remains thin and soft. Another
material that also derives from the cortical granules covers the surface of the egg to form a
transparent layer, called the hyaline layer, which plays an important role in holding together the
cells (blastomeres) formed during division, or cleavage, of the egg. The plasma membrane
surrounding a fertilized egg, therefore, is a mosaic structure containing patches of the original
plasma membrane of the unfertilized egg and areas derived from membranes of the cortical
granules. The events leading to the formation of the fertilization membrane are accompanied by
a change of the electric charge across the plasma membrane, referred to as the fertilization
potential, and a concurrent outflow of potassium ions (charged particles); both of these
phenomena are similar to those that occur in a stimulated nerve fibre. Another effect of
fertilization on the plasma membrane of the egg is a several-fold increase in its permeability to
various molecules. This change may be the result of the activation of some surface-located
membrane transport mechanism.

Formation of the zygote nucleus

After its entry into the egg cytoplasm, the spermatozoal nucleus, now called the male
pronucleus, begins to swell, and its chromosomal material disperses and becomes similar in
appearance to that of the female pronucleus. Although the membranous envelope surrounding
the male pronucleus rapidly disintegrates in the egg, a new envelope promptly forms around it.
The male pronucleus, which rotates 180° and moves towards the egg nucleus, initially is
accompanied by two structures (centrioles) that function in cell division. After the male and
female pronuclei have come into contact, the spermatozoal centrioles give rise to the first
cleavage spindle, which precedes division of the fertilized egg. In some cases fusion of the two
pronuclei may occur by a process of membrane fusion; in this process, two adjoining membranes
fuse at the point of contact to give rise to the continuous nuclear envelope that surrounds the
zygote nucleus.

Self Assessment

a). Describe formation of the zygote nucleus