A Presentation

on

EEEEC20- HVDC

Presented By-
Dr. Suraj Gupta
Guest Faculty, Dept. of EE
NSUT
 Limitations of HVAC
• Reactive Power Loss
• Stability
• Current carrying capacity
• Skin and Ferranti effect
• Power flow control is not possible
 Advantages of HVDC
• No reactive power loss
• No stability problem
• No charging current
• No skin ad Ferranti effect
• Power control is possible
• Requires less space compared to AC for same voltage rating
and size
• Ground can be used as return conductor
• Less corona loss and radio interference
• Cheaper for long distance transmission
 Advantages of HVDC
• Asynchronous operation possible
• No switching transient
• No transmission of short circuit power
• No compensation problem
• Low short circuit current
• Fast fault clearing time
 Disadvantages of HVDC
• Cost of terminal equipment is high.
• Introduction of harmonics
• Blocking of reactive power
• Point-to-point transmission
• Limited overload capacity
• Huge reactive power requirements at the converter
terminals
 Types of HVDC Systems
• Monopolar Link- A monopolar system has only one
conductor with ground as return conductor, and it is usually
of a negative polarity. It is suitable in submarine systems
where sea water can be used as a return conductor.
• Bipolar Link- A bipolar system has two conductors, one of positive
and other of negative polarity. The mutual or ground point is
maintained at the mid-potential.
• Each terminal of a bipolar system has two converters of equal
voltage ratings connected in series. If both neutrals are grounded
then two poles operate at equal current and there is no ground
current.
• In the event of fault in one conductor, the other conductor with
ground return can be used up to half the rated load or power with
the rated current of the pole..
• Homopolar Link- Homopolar system has two or more conductors
with the same polarity, usually negative, and they always operate
with ground return.
• In the event of fault in one conductor, the whole converter can be
connected to a healthy pole and can carry more than half the power
(2-pole) by overloading but at the expense of increased line loss.
• However, this is not possible in a bipolar system due to the use of
graded insulation for negative and positive poles. When continuous
ground currents are inevitable, homopolar system is preferable.
• The additional advantage is lower corona loss and radio interference
due to negative polarity on the lines current of the polarity of the
lines.
 Converter
Id Converter
transformer-1 _______,.,....._______
transformer-2

Rectifier Inverter
AC AC Bus-2
Bus-1 Id
--------1>-------- -
(a) Monopolar link
AC
Bus-1 + AC Bus-2

Rectifier Inverter
I 1------1>------1 I
(/dz-Id,)

'd2
(b) Bipolar link (unbalanced operation)

AC Bus-1 AC Bus-2

Rectifier Inverter
1------111-----C>-----.f 11----1
(/r;Jt + /d2 )

/dz

(c) Homopolar link

 EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR HVDC SYSTEMS
(a) 6/12–pulse converters
(b) Converter transformer with suitable ratio and tap changing
(c) Filters both on the AC side and on the DC side to take care of the
harmonic generation at the converters and to reduce the harmonics
(d) A smoothing reactor in the DC side to reduce the harmonic currents in
the DC line and possible transient over currents.
(e) Shunt capacitors to complement the reactive power generated by the
converters as they operate on lagging power factor and take lagging current
(f) DC transmission line or DC cables for power transmission
 Smoott,ing
react.or
�.c·. 1•,ne
-D

Conv. transf.
---
.9-
Valve

..---+-11
AC filter
--1,
[1-l [1_!
-=- DC filter -=-
•I
AC filters

-- DCI'
� _ Jne
9- ...._____________
+ __.
I• /\/ Al N A/ IV A/A/N

Shunt Communication chant11e1I AC Bus

AC 13,us
capacitor
Control system
 Converters
• In all HVDC schemes that evolved after 1970, only thyristor valves are being
used in converters.
• New developments like gate turn-off thyristor, ( GTO, 8 kV, 4000 A), IGBTs (6.5
kV,1000 A) and light triggered thyristors with reliable Cesium-mercury flash
lamp for high power light sources have made control schemes not only more
reliable.
• Thyristors are now available in the market with blocking voltage ratings of 6 kV
which is six times the ratings of the first thyristors used in converter stations in
the early 1970s. This means only one–sixth of the valves need to be used now,
saving considerable space and cost.
• Today, HVDC valves have entered a new phase with the development of IGBT
valves. From a basic ‘chip’ with a PIV rating of 4 to 6 kV and around 1000 A, a
module is made with a few thyristors or IGBTs connected in series parallel
combination for 10 to 15 kV voltage rating and required current rating (1 kA to
3 kA) giving suitable redundancy
• A valve is built with such modules in series up to 500 kV. With IGBTs,
which are self commuted (unlike thyristors) the modules are arranged
into stak-paks, with which the IGBT stack valves are built.
• Nowadays, IGBT valves are used mainly in underwater cable and cable
schemes in the power range 100 to 500 MW with voltage rating up to
200 kV.
 Converter Transformers
• The transformers used in HVDC systems before rectification of AC are
termed as converter transformers. They differ in their design as
compared to one used in AC systems because of superimposed DC
voltages.
• The insulation system of a converter transformer has to withstand AC
voltages, short time overvoltage and also superimposed DC voltages with
polarity reversals.
• The tolerance on the impedance of converter transformers is more
stringent since any variation in impedance has more effect on the cost of
the associated DC terminal equipment.
• The content of harmonics in a converter transformer is much higher than
conventional AC transformer.
• These harmonics cause additional leakage flux resulting formation of
local hot-spots in the windings.
• Suitable magnetic shunts, directed oil flow for effective cooling along
with additional cooling arrangements would be necessary to avoid
such hot spots.
 Filters
• Harmonics are generated in HVDC transmission lines due to repetitive
firing of thyristors.
• These are transmitted to the AC network in which a DC link is embedded.
This may cause overheating of the equipment and interference with
communication systems.
• In addition to this, non characteristic harmonics are also generated due
to an unbalance in converter transformer reactance.
• AC supply voltage and errors in the firing angle of the phases. It is
necessary to regulate the harmonics through filtering techniques.
 Reactive Compensation (Shunt Capacitors)
• Reactive volt-amperes are generated in the process of conversion, due to
delay in the firing angle of the converter stations.
• As DC system does not generate or require reactive volt-amperes, this
must be suitably compensated by connecting shunt capacitors at the
both ends of the system.
• The compensation of static vars depends upon short circuit ratio (SCR) of
AC systems.
• For weak AC systems (low SCR) which are common in India, proper choice
of reactive power compensation must be seriously considered.
 DC Transmission Line or DC Cable
• It requires only two conductors as compared to three conductors in a 3-
phase AC system.
• Consequently losses are also less.
• The size of the structure of the towers is also less in DC transmission.
• There is no skin effect in the conductors because there is no variation of
current in time (zero frequency).
• For the same power handling capacity, the size of the conductors
required in DC transmission is small.
Schematic diagram of converter station

• Combination of two 6 pulse converters.

• A converter can behave as both Rectifier
and Inverter
• The operation of rectification and inversion
depends on firing angle (α) .

Rectifier (AC Firing angle, α

to DC) (0 to 90°)
Converter unit
Inverter (DC Firing angle, α
to AC) (90°to 180°)
 HDVC Converters
• Schematic diagram of a 3-phase 6-pulse converter scheme is shown in
Fig.

• This circuit arrangement is known as the Graetz circuit and uses six
thyristor valves.
• Each valve consists of a number of thyristors modules put in series for
the required output voltages.
• Usually, the input voltage to the bridge is derived through a converter
transformer, either a 3-phase Y/D connected unit or 3 single-phase
transformers connected in Y/D or Y/Y.
• In case of a Y/Y connection, a 3rd winding is also used for circulating
currents of 3rd and 3n harmonics.
• The converter is triggered by gate triggering circuitry.
• If the firing or triggering angle a is less than 90°, the converter operates
as a rectifier; and if a > 90°, negative voltage is generated, which means
the converter becomes an inverter.
 6-pulse Converter Operation and Analysis
• The converter has two types of circuits.
• The main circuit comprises converter transformers, thyristors valves,
bus bars and series reactor and DC load.
• High power flows through this circuit.
• The second is a control and protection circuit which is a low power
circuit.
• It is used for fi ring the valves in the desired sequence, monitoring, etc.
• Each thyristor valve consists of several thyristors connected in series
parallel combination to meet system voltage and current requirements
 Conduction sequence in 6-pulse converter configuration
• In the upper part of the bridge, the anodes of the valves 1, 3, 5
are connected to the phase R, Y, B respectively.

• Similarly in the lower half of the bridge, the cathodes of valves

4, 6, 2 are connected to the phases R, Y, B respectively.

• The figure indicates that at any time two valves will be

conducting in series (6, 1; 1, 2; 2, 3; 3, 4; 4, 5; 5, 6)
simultaneously when the source inductance of the transformer
is neglected.

• This is not considered a drawback in high voltage applications,

particularly with solid state converter, because it is necessary
to connect many thyristor units in series to withstand the
voltage levels being used.
 The ideal commutation process without gate control

Assumptions:
• The bridge converter is connected to an infinite bus of zero
source impedance (this eliminates overlap in the conduction
of valves).
• The DC current is constant and ripple free.
• The valves are modelled as ideal switches with zero forward
impedance when conducting and infinite backward
impedance when not conducting.
• Ignition of the valve is carried out in the sequence at equal
intervals.
• The AC voltages at the converter bus are sinusoidal and
remains constant.
Fig. 2 Voltage and current waveform of 6 pulse converter with α =0
 DC Output Voltage
The no-load DC output voltage across the load without phase control is the average of 𝑉𝑜 (𝑡) and is given by:

Where 𝑉𝑜 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑅𝐵 (𝑡) = 3𝑉𝑚 cos 𝑤𝑡

 The commutation process with gate control

Fig.3. Voltage and current waveform of 6 pulse converter with α = 30°

The commutation process with gate control (inverter operation)
 Analysis of voltage waveform with commutation angle

Fig.6. Schematic diagram of 6 pulse converter

Fig.7. Voltage and current waveform of 6 pulse converter with overlap angle
Comparison between inverter and rectifier equations
• Schematic diagram of a 3-phase 12-pulse converter scheme is shown in
Fig.
Equivalent circuit of HVDC link

Fig.8. Equivalent circuit of HVDC link

 CONTROL OF HVDC
CONVERTERS SYSTEMS
 Basic Principle of' Control of HVDC Systems- Power control
DC Line

Rectifier Inverter

3-PhaseAC 3-PhaseAC
- -
, An HVDC transmission system is highly controllable.
, Its effective use depends on appropriate utilization of this controllability to
ensure desired performance of the power system.
, Consider the HVDC link shown in figure.
, It represents a monopolar link or one pole of a bipolar link.
The DC voltage and current in the DC link can be controlled
by controlling rectifier voltages and inverter voltages using
two methods
1.GRID CONTROL
2. MANUAL CONTROL

1.GRID CONTROL:
It is done by varying ignition angle of the valves.
It is rapid or instantaneous control

2.MANUAL CONTROL:
It is done changing the taps ratio of the converter
transformer.
It is slow and done in steps Power reversal can be done
by changing the polarity of the DC voltage at both ends
NESCESSITY OF THE CONTROL:

1.Prevention of large fluctuating current due to

variations of AC voltages

2.Maintaining the DC voltage near to its rated

3. Maintaining the power factor at the sending and

receiving end as high as possible

4. Prevention of various faults in the valves

Basic Pri11ciple of Control of HVDC Syste111s- Power control

�°' Cosp
()((
�°' Cos o

�c.rw - 9,�ao.larJ cr�f6W � � �rJrec1

�o - NO- loo.a cbaeci !JOltJefl
o( - Frat� ant Ra - ��ao.larJ cr�f6�CE � � !n��
� - A�lt ij ad(()ra OJMiiO'IJ �� f d - 1)( (.'llr&'refl t
er - A��t ds akanfR wt� eue<1lap 'lciri - 'OC ijOllOff �M5 �e �1e�
R - Re5totanu2 ij tttc1n6m,66100 bna Vd1 - tl i,ollf ocm� �e lnL'ct,�O
Basic Principle of Control of HVDC Systems- Power control

a.
� Od (05

� The equivalent circuit shown in figure is sufficient for steady state analysis
of power transfer.
, The station on the left hand side is a rectifier and on the right hand side is
an inverter.
, The stations are assumed to operate at constant delay angle a for rectifier
and advance angle � or Y for inverter.
 Equivale11t Circuit of DC Transmission System

Ra1 Rz
-
- -
-
- -
-
Va1
-
- cos a
-
J
Vdo1 Vdo1 Vd2- Vao2 cos{�
-
L ! J
Vdo2 Va2

I� Rechii�r- Lune �I, Inverter j

Basic Principle of Control of HVDC Syste1ns- Power control

� 0c1 CO.Sa.

, The direct current through the line is given by ld=(Vdr·Vdi)/R

, lci=(VdorCOSa·Vdoi cos(� or Y))/(Rcr+ R · Rei)
, The power at the rectifier terminal is Pdr=Vdr Id
, The power at the inverter terminal is Pdi=Vdi Id = Pdr- ld2 R
Basic Pri11ciple of Co11trol of HVDC Syste1ns- Po,ver control

, A change of current and therefore power transfer can be achieved by any

one of the four possible parameters:
1. The control angle of the rectifier a
2. The control angle of the inverter P or Y
3. The rectifier-transformer secondary winding voltage by the tap changer.
4. The Inverter-transformer secondary winding voltage by the tap changer.
 Necessity of co11trol in the case of a DC link

�w Cosp
O<t
�Qt (05 o

, lci=(Vdor cosa·Vdoi cos(p or Y))/(Rcr+ R - Rei)

, The denominator has only resistances which are small when compared
with reactance of an AC system.
, Hence current is sensitive to change in voltage resulting in large
fluctuations which can damage the thyristors.
, Thus control of current and hence power in case of a DC system is a must.
 Advantages of using contro I

�alCos�
°"'
� Cos 1
al

./ Current order setting can be quickly and reliably changed depending on

the requirement.
I Power reversal can be done easily and quickly.
./ Fault current levels are limited to rated values Thus the basic philosophy
of control of an HVDC converter is the proper timing of firing pulses to the
thyristor valves to ensure optimum performance.
In order to satisfy basic requirements for better
voltage regulation and current regulation it is always
be advisable to assign the parameters for the
converters.
Under normal operations Rectifier will take care of
the current and the Inverter will take care of the
voltage.
Rectifier - Constant Current Control (CC)
Inverter - Constant Extinction Angle Control (CEA)

Let us examine how AC voltages changes reflect in the

DC current and which controller has to be exercised to
make DC link current at rated value.
 α

α
α
 α
α

α
CONVERTER CONTROL
CHARACTERISTICS
 a.
•

rninirn
�r----r -
urn

o
,.. b
In
-
I : -
minimun, a.
---g
h L---

S1Jltion-D CJ uunclctistics
(ope1·nting nl 0011st1111I (1111ni11111111) exli11clio11 i111gle)
• With slight dip in the AC voltage, the point of
intersection drifts to C which implies minimum a at .. _
rectifier and minimum y at the inverter.
• With lower AC voltage at the rectifier, the mode of
operation shifts to point B which implies CC
(constant current) at the inverter with minimum a

t
at the rectifier.
...
... .... I).... .. . ·
��-
vd
oc,... .. ..
...... .'• i'
b

-a
..
. I[ ••
B
A
0

It
.. - d

0
... 1----
Control Hierarchy
α γ
2 POLE CONTROL:
It coordinates the control of bridges in a pole.
The conversion of the current order to the firing angle order,
tap changer control and some protection control sequence
are handled in pole control.
It also handles starting, stopping and de-blocking and
balancing of the bridge .

3 MASTER CONTROL:
It determines the current order and provides coordinated
current order signals to all poles.
It interprets the broader demands for controlling the HVDC
system by providing the interface between the pole control
and overall system control
This includes power flow scheduling determined by control
centre and AC system stabilization .
Firing Angle Control
• The operation of CC (constant current) and CEA
(constant extinctio11 qngle) controllers are closely linked
with the method 01� generation of gate pulses for the
valves in a converter.
I
I

Fi ring Angle Control ..,,

i.---- ! Two Schemes

--,l
Individual Phase Control {IPC) Equidista '" · Pulse Control (EPC)

.
'
Constant a control Inverse cosine control

'I

.' •

Pulse Frequency control Pulse period control Pulse Phase control

JPC was used in the past and has now been replaced by EPC
Individual Phase Control (IPC) ........

• This was used in early HVDC projects.

• The main feature is that the firi11g pulse ge11eratiot1 for
,�
eacl1 pl1ase (or valvf \ is i11depende11t of each other
and the firing pulses are rigidly synchronized with the
commutation voltages.
• There are two ways in which this can be achieved-
o C.Onstant a control

o Inverse cosine control.

 Constant a control .......

• Six timing (commutation) vo]t�ges are derived from

the converter AC bus via voltage transformers
• Six gate pulses are generated at nominally identical
delay times subsequent to the respective voltage zero
crossing.

,, 0
--
2x JK "1
Zero
'1
E
-- ciossing
detector
_r Variable J\.
2n "1 delay Gale Pulse
 --
• The output of the ZCD is a rectangular pulse of period.
• This same pulse can be used to drive the valve (after
passing through a pi1lse amplifier).
• In order to control the instant at which tl1is pulse
reaches the valve, a delay circuit is used. The duration of
delay is calculated from the magnitude of the control
voltage Ve from the current controller.
• � is derived from the curre11t/exti11ctio11 angle
controllers.
Inverse Cosine Control .....

• Six timing voltages, are each pl1ase shifted by 90°

a11d added separately to a common control voltage �
• The zero crossit1g of the s11n1 of the n�,o voJta�es
i11itiates the firing pulse for the particular valve
considered.

From I-+
ACh
Zero
wBage
crossing To valve
gate
detector

w Phase Shltt Firing Instant

(a) (bl
 -­
• The delay angle a is proportiortal to the inverse cosi11e of tl1e
co11trol voltage.
• It also depends on tl1e AC syste1n voltage a1nplitude and shape.

• The main advantage of this control scheme is that the

average DC voltage across the bridge varies linearly
with the control voltage �
• It is esse11tia I in this scheme to maintain the p11ase sl1ift
at 90' for variations in the supply freqttency
Drawbacks of IPC Scl1e1ne
• T11e rnajor drawback is the aggravation of t]1e hn1·1non1c 1 11stnl>ilit)1
problen1. I)
• The harmonic instability is cl1aracterized by n1agi1ificntion of 11011-
th. 11ch.11sttc h.11 n10111LS 111 t �1( 'y st,t
1

• Tlus is 111ainly due to tl1e fact that any d1storho11 in tl1e s\st,3,n
volt 1, e leads to JJe 11ttt l .1t1011... 111 1he. ze1o l tossing� whic]1 affect tl1e
inst'lnt� of fu 1!18 pulses.
• This ilnplies thnt even when the tu11dan1entnl f1'('4uency volt l'-'t
c<.11npo1h:. nts ., ... b.1l 11tc.t-cl the fu 1ng pulses nre not equidistnnt h1
steady-state.
• Tlus in turn leads to the �ene11ti, n 1.-f no11 ch.1r,1Lt ,i�tic hn11nou·c
(htrrn1orucs of order It t:. np T 1) it1 the AC current wltich ca11
nn1plify t}1e ha1·n1onic content of t11e AC voltage at the co11ve1ter bus.
• Tl1e problen1 is aggravated at the frequencies for v,1l1icl1 the filter
it11pedar1ce and tl1e syste111 it11pednnce are i11 parallel reso11ance.
Tl1e problem of har1nonic instability can be ove1,con1e by:
......
• Influencing the harmonic behavior of AC network
impedance seen by the converte11•

• Use of filters in control circuit to filter out non­

characteristic harmonics in the commutation voltages.

• The use of firing angle control independent of the zero

crossings of �e AC voltages.
• This is the most attractive solution and leads to the
equidistant pulse firing scheme.
Equidista11t Pulse Control (EPC)
• In this scheme, the firing pulses are generated in
steady st£ ·� at equal intervals of 1 /pf through a ring
counter.
• There are three variations:
1. Pulse Frequency Control (PFC)
z. Pulse Period Control
3. Pulse Phase Control (PPC)
Pulse Frequency Control (PFC)
• A voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) is used,
• Frequency of VCO is determined by the control voltage
� whicl � depend on the error in the quantity being
regulated.
• Steady-state operation frequency p� where � is the
nominal frequency of the AC system.
• PFC system has an integral characteristic
• It has to be used along with a feedback control
system for stabilization.
 Voltage controlled oscillator
----------------------------------------------�
I
t
V1 :I
I
I
t

'
t •• 'l . . . 'l

�1�
I
I 'II
·+
I

vc I
I
I
.. -� Pulse I
Ring
• •
. K1
• Comp • •

+
� �
gen.
I �
counter
---
I
tM I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I

--------------- _______________________________
I
I
I ;

• V 1 is a bias (constant) voltage

• V3 is proportional to the system period
• � is control voltage which is related to
the error in the quantity
• The voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) consists of an
integrator, comparator and a pulse generator.
• The output pulses of the generator drive the ring
counter and also reset the integrator. �
Pulse Period Control
• This is similar of PFC except for the way in which the
control voltage � is handled.
• � is now summed with V3 instead of Vt

,---------------------------------------------�
Voltage controlled oscillator
'

-
''
. .
L -
''
'' ' '. . " .'
I ''
'
--
In
v, K1l .j.t C}
Comp. Pulse •
I
Ring
counter
I
gen. I

'
: IM I
� I
I I
I I
I I

''
I I
I
I

' I

·- ---------.. -- - -------------------------------'
I
I
I
Pulse phase control (P�C)
... ""'

• An analog circuit is configured to generate firing

pulses according to the following equation

,.
,.. ,
J K1 V1dt;;; Ven - VC(n-1) + Vs

• where Ven and �(n-l) are the control voltages at the

instants tn and tn-J respectively.
Drawbacks of EPC scheme
• Under unbalanced voltage conditions, EPC results in less
DC voltage compared to IPC.
• U11halance in the voltage results from single phase to
grd und fault in the AC system which may persist for
i

over 10 cycles due to stuck breakers.

• Under such conditions, it is desirable to maximize
DC power transfer in the link which calls for IPC.
• However, transition from EPC to IPC under the fault
conditions has to be evaluated carefully.
 .....

• EPC scheme also results in higher negative damping

contribution to torsional oscillations when HVDC is the
major transmission link from a thermal station.
• However, this problem is not so serious as the problem
of non-characteristic harmonics associated with IPC.
C}
 POWER REVERSAL IN A DC LINK
• Power reversal can be carried out by changing 𝛼 and 𝛾 over their entire range so that the rectifier (Station
1) operates at 𝛼 close to 180° and the inverter (Station 2) operates at 𝛾 close to 0°.
 Power Reversal Characteristics
• The station with higher current margin will act as a rectifier as shown in Fig.
• The operating point A decides whether the station 1 acts as rectifier and the
station 2 as inverter, since current flows from the station 1 to the station 2.
• The direction of power transmission can be changed by manipulating current
margin with a change of polarity of transmission voltage.
• The current margin of the station 1 is less than the station 2. The operating point
A lies in the 4th quadrant with reversal of the polarity of Vd. It means that the
station 2 acts as rectifier and the station 1 as inverter.
• A precaution to be considered here, is that although the rectifier is allowed to
become an inverter at certain times (for example, to clear DC line faults), an
inverter is not generally allowed to become a rectifier without permission.
 Correction to Inverter Characteristics
• If the rectifier natural characteristic (𝛼 = 0°) decreases, then the operating point B will be poorly
defined and this will cause power fluctuations.
• To overcome this, the inverter characteristics (position of transition from current control to voltage
control) is given a positive slope, i.e. constant 𝛼 characteristic instead of constant 𝛾 characteristic,
as shown below
 VOLTAGE DEPENDENT CURRENT ORDER LIMIT
( VDCOL)—CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CONVERTER
• Mainly due to faults in the AC system on the rectifier or inverter side, the voltage on the DC link is
reduced. Low AC voltage due to faults on the inverter side can result in persistent commutation
failure because of an increase in the overlap angle.
• In such cases, it is necessary to reduce the DC current in the link to a level that leads to reduced DC
voltage at the rectifier end. Reduction of current also relieves the valves in the inverter which are
overstressed due to continuous overcurrent flow in them.
• If the low voltage is due to faults on the rectifier side of the AC system, the inverter has to operate
at larger value of 𝛾, at very low power factor demanding excessive consumption of VAR which is
undesirable.
• Thus, it becomes useful to modify the control characteristics to include voltage dependent current
order limits ( VDCOL).
Question: An HVDC link delivers DC power at 500 kV at the inverter end with constant current controller
at rectifier end set at 1000 A. The equivalent resistances of the rectifier and inverter station are 15 ohm
and the 18 ohm respectively. The DC resistance of the line is 20 ohm. If the AC voltage at the rectifier is
400 kV,
• find the percentage of tap changer required to maintain the current constant in the DC link without
gate control.
• Also find the value of delay angle of the rectifier to maintain the above current in the absence of a tap
changer.