COURSE CODE & TITLE: MCM 101 – FOUNDATION OF

BROADCASTING AND FILM

Study Session 1: Historical View of Radio Broadcasting

Introduction
Radio broadcasting has a rich and fascinating history that has continually evolved to meet the
changing needs of societies across the globe. From its early experiments to its current status as a
ubiquitous medium of communication, radio has had a profound impact on culture, politics, and
education. . In this study session, you will be introduced to the historical view of radio
broadcasting, exploring its origins worldwide and its specific development in Nigeria

1.1 History of Radio Broadcasting Worldwide

1.1.1 Development and Technological Advancements

The beginning of radio broadcasting can be traced back to the late 19th century when significant
improvements in wireless telegraphy and radio technology were made. Guglielmo Marconi, an
Italian innovator and electrical mastermind, is frequently credited for his pioneering work in the
development of wireless telegraphy. In 1895, Marconi transferred the first radio signal across a
distance of one afar, and by 1901, he successfully transmitted the first transatlantic radio
communication, revolutionizing long- distance communication.

Thereafter, advancements in vacuum tube technology played a pivotal part in perfecting the
quality and range of radio signals. Lee De Forest, an American innovator, made the vital
invention of the audio vacuum tube in 1906, which allowed for the modification of radio signals.
This advance drastically bettered the transmission capabilities of radio, enabling the
establishment of marketable broadcasting stations.

1.1.2 Pioneers and Early Broadcasting

The 1920s marked the birth of radio broadcasting. In 1920, the first marketable radio station,
KDKA, began regular broadcasting in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, broadcasting election results
and news to the public. This event is considered the turning point in the history of radio
broadcasting.

During this period, scholars like David Sarnoff, a visionary superintendent in the Radio
Corporation of America (RCA), honored the eventuality of radio as a mass medium. Sarnoff's
vision led to the establishment of the National Broadcasting Company (NBC) in 1926, which
came the first major radio network in the United States. NBC's conformation set the foundation
for the structure of ultramodern radio broadcasting networks.

1.1.3 Radio in the Golden Age and Beyond

The 1930s and 1940s marked the" Golden Age" of radio broadcasting, depicted by the
proliferation of radio plays, variety shows, and serialized programmes, all of which demonstrated
the power of radio in shaping public opinion.

By the mid of the 20th century, scholars like Marshall McLuhan anatomized the impact of mass
media, including radio, on society. McLuhan's" the medium is the communication" conception
emphasized how the medium through which information is delivered shapes its meaning and
influence on individuals and society.

The arrival of the internet and digital technologies in the late 20th century brought about a
paradigm shift in radio broadcasting. Online streaming and podcasting allowed for further
different and niche content, giving rise to a new generation of radio enthusiasts and content
generators.

In recent times, scholars have concentrated on the future of radio broadcasting in the digital age.
The proliferation of satellite radio, internet radio, and podcasts has raised questions about the
sustainability of traditional terrestrial radio stations. Scholars like Eli Noam have explored the
profitable and nonsupervisory challenges faced by radio in a digitalized world and proposed
strategies for its uninterrupted applicability.

1.2 History of Broadcasting in Nigeria

The history of radio broadcasting in Nigeria can be traced back to the colonial period when
British colonial authorities first introduced wireless communication in the early 1930s. The first
radio station, known as the Radio Diffusion Service (RDS), was established in Lagos in 1933.
Initial programming was limited, mainly serving as a means of propagating government
information and news.
In 1951, the British colonial administration established the Nigerian Broadcasting Service
(NBS), taking over the Radio Diffusion Service. The NBS expanded radio broadcasting to other
major cities, including Kaduna, Enugu, and Ibadan, and presented local programming with a
focus on cultural content and educational programmes.

Independence and the Growth of Regional Broadcasting

After Nigeria gained independence in 1960, the country's radio broadcasting witnessed
remarkable growth. The Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation (NBC) was established in 1962 to
oversee broadcasting activities nationwide. In the 1960s and 1970s, radio broadcasting evolved
into an indigenous affair, with each region developing its own radio station and programming
content.

During the 1970s and 1980s, radio broadcasting played a pivotal part in promoting public
harmony and development. It was used as a platform for propagating government policies,
encouraging agrarian practices, and fostering cultural exchange among the different ethnical
groups in Nigeria. Radio stations like the Voice of Nigeria (VON) were established to project
Nigeria's voice to the international community.

1.2.1 The Advent of Private Broadcasting:

In the 1990s, Nigeria witnessed a meaningful shift in its broadcasting space with the
deregulation of the media industry. The government allowed private ownership of
radio stations, leading to the establishment of many independent stations across
the country. This change brought about a diversification of
content, feeding divers interests and preferences of the Nigerian audience.

1.2.2 Digital Age and Internet Radio:

The turn of the 21st century witnessed the digital revolution in broadcasting. With the
advancement of technology, radio broadcasting in Nigeria embraced digital platforms. Many
stations began streaming their content online, enabling global access to Nigerian radio
programmes. Internet radio platforms allowed for the creation of specialized stations, servicing
niche audience with specific interests.

The record of radio broadcasting in Nigeria reflects its elaboration from a colonial tool of
information dissemination to a important medium of public unity, cultural preservation, and
development. The journey from government monopoly to a different and competitive industry
has shaped the country's communication spectrum.

Study Session 2: Historical View of Television

Broadcasting

Introduction
Television broadcasting is a transformative medium that has significantly impacted societies
globally. This lecture note delves into the history of television broadcasting, examining its
development both from a global perspective and with a particular focus on Nigeria. Throughout
this journey, we will explore key milestones, technological advancements, and the social impact
of television on cultures and communities.

2.1 Definition and Origins of Television Broadcasting

According to Sinclair (1999), television broadcasting refers to "the transmission of visual and
auditory signals over the airwaves for the purpose of delivering scheduled programming to a
mass audience." This transmission involves the encoding, modulation, and transmission of
audiovisual content to reach a widespread audience.

The concept of television dates back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The first
mechanical television systems emerged in the 1920s and 1930s, while electronic television sets
gained prominence in the 1940s (Hogben, 2006).

2.2 Global Evolution of Television Broadcasting

i. The Experimental Phase

During the 1920s and 1930s, television broadcasting was in its experimental phase worldwide.
Notable figures like John Logie Baird and Vladimir Zworykin conducted pioneering
experiments, leading to the transmission of rudimentary images (Marc, 2010).

ii. Post-World War II Growth

Following World War II, television broadcasting experienced rapid growth, especially in the
United States, Europe, and parts of Asia. Major broadcasters, such as the BBC (UK) and NBC
(US), emerged during this era, offering a mix of news, entertainment, and educational programs
(Einstein, 2008).

iii. Colour Television and Satellite Broadcasting

The introduction of color television in the 1950s and 1960s revolutionized the viewing
experience. Additionally, satellite technology allowed for the transmission of television signals
across vast distances, enabling the globalization of television networks (Thompson, 2005).

iv. Cable and Digital Era

The late 20th century witnessed the proliferation of cable television, expanding channel options
and catering to niche audiences. The digital era brought about sharper image quality, enhanced
sound, and interactive features, further transforming television broadcasting (Smith, 2014)

2.4 Social Impact of Television Broadcasting

 1. Information and Education: Television has played a crucial role in disseminating
information and educating the masses. It has been instrumental in promoting literacy,
sharing knowledge, and raising awareness of social issues (Katz, 2008).
2. Cultural Influence: Television broadcasting has influenced culture and social norms
globally. It has facilitated cultural exchange and shaped how people perceive their own
identities and others (Morley, 2000).
3. Entertainment and Leisure: Television serves as a primary source of entertainment for
millions of people worldwide. It has significantly impacted the entertainment industry,
creating celebrities, and producing iconic shows and events (Jenkins, 2006).
4. Political Influence: Television has been used as a powerful tool for political communication
and propaganda. Political campaigns and speeches have reached a vast audience through
this medium (Branston, 2007).
Television broadcasting has undergone a remarkable evolution since its inception. From humble
beginnings as an experimental technology to becoming an integral part of modern life, television
has left an indelible mark on societies worldwide. In Nigeria, television's advent has played a
pivotal role in shaping culture, education, and national identity. As we continue to advance
technologically, it is crucial to reflect on the history of television broadcasting and appreciate its
significance in our lives.

Study Session 3: Concept of Broadcasting

Introduction
3.1 Meaning of Broadcasting
Broadcasting is the transmission of content in audio or video form to a large loose and
heterogeneous audience who are dispersed over a wide geographic area through the medium of
electronic mass communication technology. It uses the electromagnetic spectrum to generate and
transmit radio signals from a transmitter to an appropriate receiving apparatus such as radio and
TV.

3.2 Waves and its form

A wave is a disturbance or oscillation that propagates through a medium or space, transferring
energy without a net movement of matter. Waves can be characterized by their frequency,
wavelength, amplitude, and speed. The medium through which waves travel can be solid, liquid,
or gas, but waves can also propagate through a vacuum in the case of electromagnetic waves.

Forms of Waves

1. Mechanical Waves:

Mechanical waves require a physical medium for their propagation. Mechanical waves are
disturbances in a medium that transfer energy through the periodic motion of particles."
Mechanical waves require a physical medium to propagate. These waves transfer energy through
the oscillation and vibration of particles in the medium. Mechanical waves can be further
classified into two subtypes: Transverse and longitudinal waves.

a. Transverse Waves: In transverse waves, particles oscillate perpendicular to the direction of

wave propagation. This type of wave can be visualized as a wave on a rope or a ripple on water.
Communication scholars highlight the importance of transverse waves in understanding light
polarization and how it impacts signal transmission in various broadcasting applications.

b. Longitudinal Waves: Longitudinal waves involve particle oscillations parallel to the direction
of wave propagation. Sound waves are a classic example of longitudinal waves. Scholars
emphasize their significance in audio broadcasting, as sound waves carry speech, music, and
other audio content to reach a wide audience.
2. Electromagnetic Waves:
Electromagnetic waves as the backbone of modern broadcasting technologies. Electromagnetic
waves arise from variations in electric and magnetic fields and can propagate through a vacuum.
Electromagnetic waves do not require a medium for propagation and can travel through a
vacuum. They are produced by the oscillation of electric and magnetic fields and are
characterized by their frequencies and wavelengths. Electromagnetic waves can be subdivided
into various types, including radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves, visible light, ultraviolet
waves, X-rays, and gamma rays.

3.3 Types and Uses of Waves in Broadcasting

Broadcasting involves the transmission of information, such as audio, video, and data, over long
distances to reach a wide audience. Waves, both mechanical and electromagnetic, have
revolutionized the way we communicate and entertain ourselves. Let's explore how different
types of waves are utilized in broadcasting:

1. Radio Waves: Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic wave used in radio broadcasting.
They have relatively long wavelengths, typically ranging from a few millimeters to hundreds of
meters. Radio waves are used to transmit audio signals from radio stations to radios in homes
and vehicles. Broadcasting stations modulate radio waves to carry music, news, and talk shows
to millions of listeners.

2. Microwaves: Microwaves are a type of electromagnetic wave with shorter wavelengths than
radio waves. They are widely used in satellite communication and microwave transmission
towers for broadcasting television signals. Microwaves can carry larger amounts of information
due to their higher frequencies.

3. Infrared Waves: They have longer wavelengths than visible light but shorter than
microwaves. In broadcasting, infrared waves are used for remote controls, allowing us to operate
our televisions, DVD players, and other electronic devices from a distance.

4. Visible Light: While visible light is not traditionally associated with broadcasting, it plays a
vital role in fibre-optic communication, which is becoming increasingly popular for high-speed
data transmission. Fibre-optic cables use pulses of light to carry information over long distances
with minimal signal loss.

5. Ultraviolet Waves, X-rays, and Gamma Rays: These higher-energy electromagnetic waves
have applications in medical imaging and security screening but are not commonly used in
traditional broadcasting.

3.4 Radio Waves, Oscillation and Transmission

3.4.1 Radio Waves.

Radio waves are a foundational element of mass communication, enabling the dissemination of
information, entertainment, and news to large audiences. As a form of electromagnetic radiation,
radio waves are crucial for broadcasting audio content, making radio one of the oldest and most
widespread mass communication mediums.

Characteristics of Radio Waves

• Reach and Accessibility: Radio waves have the unique ability to travel over long distances
and penetrate through obstacles, making radio broadcasting accessible to people in rural
and remote areas where other forms of communication might be limited.

• Real-Time Delivery: Unlike print media, which requires production and distribution time,
radio waves transmit information instantaneously, allowing for real-time updates on events
and breaking news.

• Personal and Intimate Connection: The audio nature of radio allows for a more personal
and intimate connection with the audience, creating a sense of companionship and
familiarity.
3.4.2 Oscillation

In broadcasting, oscillation plays a critical role in generating and transmitting radio waves. Mass
communication relies on the oscillation of electric charges in antennas to generate
electromagnetic waves, including radio waves. Oscillations induce changes in electric and
magnetic fields, leading to the propagation of radio waves that carry audio content from
broadcasting stations to receivers.

3.5 Transmission of Radio Waves

The transmission of radio waves involves a carefully orchestrated process to ensure the seamless
delivery of content to audiences. These process involve the following:
a. Modulation for Broadcasting: In mass communication, modulation is the key process where
audio signals are superimposed onto a carrier wave. The modulation technique employed varies
depending on the broadcast system, such as amplitude modulation (AM) or frequency
modulation (FM). Modulation allows radio waves to carry diverse content, including music, talk
shows, news, and advertisements.

b. Amplification for Wider Reach: Before transmission, the modulated radio waves undergo
amplification to boost their power. This ensures that the signals can reach a broader audience and
cover a larger geographic area. Amplifiers play a crucial role in compensating for signal losses
during transmission.
c. Antenna Transmission for Mass Audiences: Mass communication relies on the widespread
transmission of radio waves to reach the intended audience. Broadcasting stations use
strategically positioned antennas to convert electrical signals into radio waves. These antennas
radiate the waves in all directions, enabling communication with a large number of receivers.

d. Propagation and Reception by Mass Audiences: The propagated radio waves travel through
the atmosphere and reach receivers equipped with suitable antennas. Mass audiences, located in
diverse regions, use radios or other devices to capture these waves. The process of demodulation
separates the audio signals from the carrier wave, allowing people to access news, entertainment,
and information, simultaneously creating a shared experience among a vast audience.

Radio waves are the backbone of broadcasting, facilitating the widespread dissemination of
information and entertainment to diverse audiences. The oscillation and transmission of radio
waves ensure real-time delivery and intimate connections with mass audiences, making radio an
enduring and powerful medium in the dynamic landscape of mass communication. As
technology continues to evolve, radio waves will remain a cornerstone in mass communication,
bridging gaps and fostering a shared sense of community among people worldwide.

• Aside the ultraviolet waves, x-rays, and gamma rays that have their major uses in medical
imaging and security screening, other like radio waves, microwaves, infrared waves, and
visible light are used for broadcast transmission.
• The process of transmission of radio waves includes modulation, amplification,
antenna transmission, and propagation and reception,

Study Session 4: Radio and TV Transmission

Introduction
In this study session, we will explore the transmission process of radio and TV broadcasting and
the various technologies that have been used over the years of their development.

4.1 Radio Transmission Process

Radio signals must be modulated or changed in some way to enable them to carry any form of
information. From analogue to digital, and from amplitude to frequency and phase, some aspect
of the signal must be changed or modulated in line with the signal that needs to be carried.

There are various different ways in which the signal can be modulated, using one of a variety of
different techniques, and hence there are different types of modulation. Each type of modulation
has its own characteristics. Different types of modulation are applicable for different occasions.
Some types and techniques are better in some situations than others.

As a result, it is important to understand what the different types of modulation and the different
techniques that can be used. In this way, the best form of modulation can be chosen for any given
situation.

There are three main techniques used to modulate a radio frequency carrier or signal:

i. Amplitude modulation (AM): As the name implies, this form of modulation involves
modulating the amplitude or intensity of the signal. Amplitude modulation signal showing how
the modulating signal is superimposed onto the carrier. Amplitude modulation was the first type
of modulation to be used to broadcast sound. A mode of broadcasting radio waves by varying the
amplitude of the carrier signal in response to the amplitude of the signal to be transmitted. AM
signals can be detected with simple equipment. Another advantage of AM is that it uses a
narrower bandwidth. AM broadcasts occur in the medium wave frequency range – the standard
broadcast band of 530 to 1700 kHz. Today other forms of modulation are being increasingly
used, butamplitude modulation is still in widespread use.

ii. Frequency modulation, (FM): This form of modulation varies the frequency in line with
the modulating signal. Frequency modulation has the advantage that it is possible to limit
amplitude noise on the signal because it is only the frequency variations that carry the required
information. This can be achieved by passing the signal through a stage that runs into limiting,
thereby removing the amplitude variations which may be the result of noise and general signal
variations. If there is sufficient signal to run a stage into limiting, any signal strength variations
will not change the level of the demodulated audio, assuming audio is being carried. As a result
is form of modulation has been used for many applications including high quality analogue
sound broadcasting.

iii. Phase modulation, (PM): As the name indicates, phase modulation varies the phase of the
carrier in line with the modulating signal. Phase modulation and frequency modulation have
many similarities and are linked - one is the differential of the other. However phase modulation
lends itself to data transmissions, and as a result its use has grown rapidly over recent years.

iv. Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM): Mondiale being Italian and French for “worldwide” is a set
of digital audio broadcasting technologies designed to work over the bands currently used for
AM broadcasting. Digital Radio Mondiale is also the name of the international non-profit
consortium designing and implementing the platform. DRM can deliver FM-comparable sound
quality on frequencies below 30 MHz which allows for very long-distance signal propagation.

Each type of modulation has its own advantages and disadvantages, and accordingly they are all
used in different radio communications applications.

4.2 TV Transmission
Television broadcasting and transmission is the process of sending television signals over the
airwaves or through a cable system to TV sets. The signals are then transmitted using a variety of
transmission technologies, including analog, digital, and satellite.

Both radio and television have the common feature of being mass media technology of
transmitting broadcasting information and messages to a large, heterogeneous, and scattered
audience who are reached simultaneously, but there are certain features that separated TV
broadcast from that of radio. Radio is purely an audio medium while TV the advantage of audio-
visual in nature. The main characteristics of TV broadcast are the following:
Audio-visual medium: Television provides both audio and visual contents and this feature sets it
apart from radio broadcasting. This feature appeals to the sense of sight and sound and it helps to
engage viewers. Images from a TV broadcast are capable of tempting, tantalizing and convincing
viewers to take action and also evoke deeper emotion in them.

Studio setup: A TV studio is set up differently from a radio station studio. The studio for
television production contains all the paraphernalia for sets, cameras, microphones, lighting, etc.
It also includes the space where acting and performing takes place.

Script: A TV Script is written differently from a radio script. The availability of visuals creates
all the difference between a TV and a radio script. The script for TV shows are most times
divided into episodes, thereby forming a part of a larger narrative. And it has multiple character
and story arcs than a radio script does.

Lighting: Lighting is an important feature of TV broadcasting. Since TV is an audio-visual

medium, lighting is an element that cannot be ignored. Lights are always mounted in a TV studio
to shoot any programme. And the quality of the lighting determines the quality of a TV
production.

4.3 Methods of TV Transmission

Programming broadcast is the transmission of television stations’ programming (sometimes
called channels) that is often directed to a specific audience. There are several types of TV
broadcast systems:

i. Analogue Terrestrial TV
Terrestrial television is a term which refers to modes of television broadcasting which do not
involve satellite transmission or via underground cables. Terrestrial television broadcasting dates
back to the very beginnings of television as a medium itself and there was virtually no other
method of television delivery until the 1950s with the beginnings of cable television, or
community antenna television (CATV). Analogue TV encodes the image and sound information
and transmits them as an analogue signal in which the message transmitted by the broadcasting
signal is composed of amplitude and/or frequency variations and modulated into a VHF or UHF
carrier. The analogue television picture is “drawn” several times on the screen (25 in PAL
system) as a whole each time, as in a motion picture film, regardless of the content of the image.

ii. Digital Satellite TV

Satellite television is television signals delivered by means of communications satellites and
received by satellite dishes and set-top boxes. In many areas of the world it provides a wide
range of channels and services, often to areas that are not serviced by terrestrial or cable
providers. Satellite television, like other communications relayed by satellite, starts with a
transmitting antenna located at an uplink facility which have very large uplink satellite dishes, as
much as 9 to 12 meters (30 to 40 feet) in diameter what results in more accurate aiming and
increased signal strength at the satellite. The uplink dish is pointed toward a specific satellite and
the uplinked signals are transmitted within a specific frequency range, so as to be received by
one of the transponders tuned to that frequency range aboard that satellite, which ‘retransmits’
the signals back to Earth but at a different frequency band, a process known as “translation”,
used to avoid interference with the uplink signal, typically in the C-band (4–8 GHz) or Ku-band
(12–18 GHz) or both. The satellite receiver demodulates and converts the signals to the desired
form (outputs for television, audio, data, etc.) and sometimes, the receiver includes the capability
to unscramble or decrypt; the receiver is then called an Integrated Receiver/Decoder or IRD.

iii. Cable TV
Cable Television or Community Antenna Television (CATV) is a system for distribution of
audiovisual content for television, FM radio and other services to consumers through fixed
coaxial cables, avoiding the traditional system of radio broadcasting antennas (broadcast
television) and have widespread use, mainly through the pay-TV services. Technically, the cable
TV involves the distribution of a number of television channels received and processed in a
central location (known as head-end) to subscribers within a community through a network of
optical fibre and/or coaxial cables and broadband amplifiers. The use of different frequencies
allows many channels to be distributed through the same cable, without separate wires for each,
and the tuner of the TV or Radio selects the desired channel from among all transmitted. A cable
television system begins at the head end, where the program is received (and sometimes
originated), amplified, and then transmitted over a coaxial cable network.

The architecture of the network takes the form of a tree, with the “trunk” that carries the signals
in the streets, the “branches” carrying the signals for buildings and, finally, the “arms” carrying
the signals to individual homes.

iv. Digital Terrestrial TV

Digital Terrestrial Television (DTTV or DTT) is an implementation of digital television
technology to provide a greater number of channels and/or better quality of picture and sound
using aerial broadcasts to a conventional antenna (or aerial) instead of a satellite dish or cable
connection. The technology used in Europe is DVB-T that is immune to multipath distortion.
DTTV is transmitted on radio frequencies through the airwaves that are similar to standard
analogue television, with the primary difference being the use of multiplex transmitters to allow
reception of multiple channels on a single frequency range (such as a UHF or VHF channel). The
amount of data that can be transmitted (and therefore the number of channels) is directly affected
by the modulation method of the channel. DTTV is received via a digital set-top box, or
integrated receiving device, that decodes the signal received via a standard aerial antenna,
however, due to frequency planning issues, an aerial with a different group (usually a wideband)
may be required if the DTTV multiplexes lie outside the bandwidth of the originally installed
aerial.

v. HDTV
The high-definition television, also known as HDTV (High Definition Television) is a television
system with a resolution significantly higher than in the traditional formats (NTSC, SECAM,
PAL). The HDTV is transmitted digitally and therefore its implementation generally coincides
with the introduction of digital television (DTV), technology that was launched during the 1990s.
The term “high definition” can refer to the specification of the resolution itself or, more
generally, the mídia capable of such a definition as the video mídia support or the television set.
What will be of interest in the near future is high definition video, through the successors of the
DVD, HD DVD and Blu-Ray (is expected that the last one will be adopted as a standard) and,
consequently, the projectors and LCD and plasma televisions sets as well as retro projectors and
video recorders with 1080p resolution/definition.
High-definition television (HDTV) yields a better-quality image than standard television does,
because it has a greater number of line resolution. The visual information is some 2 to 5 times
sharper because the gaps between the scan lines are narrower or invisible to the naked eye. The
larger the size of the television the HD picture is viewed on, the greater the improvement in
picture quality. On smaller televisions there may be no noticeable improvement in picture
quality.

vi. PAY-PER-VIEW
Pay-per-view (often abbreviated PPV) offers a system by which a television audience can
purchase events to view on TV-monitors via private telecast of that event to their homes. The
broadcaster shows the event at the same time to everyone ordering it (as opposed to video-on-
demand systems, which allow viewers to see the event at any time) and can be purchased using
an on-screen guide, an automated telephone system, or through a live customer service
representative. Events often include feature films, sporting events, adult content movies and
“special” events.

vii. VIDEO-ON-DEMAND
Video-on-Demand (VoD) or Audio-Video-on-Demand (AVoD) systems allow users to select and
watch/listen to video or audio content on demand. VoD systems either stream content through a
set-top-box, allowing viewing in real time, or download it to a device such as a computer, digital
video recorder, personal video recorder or portable media player for viewing at any time.
Download and streaming video-on-demand systems provide the user with a large subset of VCR
functionality including pause, fast forward, fast rewind, slow forward, slow rewind, jump to
previous/future frame etc., these functions are called trick modes.

It is possible to put video servers on LANs, in which case they can provide very rapid response
to users. Streaming video servers can also serve a wider community via a WAN, in which case
the responsiveness may be reduced. Download VoD services are practical to homes equipped
with cable modems or DSL connections.

viii. WEB TV
Web TV, TVIP, or TV on the Internet is the transmission of a programming grid through the
Internet. It can be known “normal” TV channels or channels specifically designed for the
Internet. Web TV, in a simplified form, is nothing more than the provision of video and audio
over the Internet; and the way to assist the transmission varies from the monitor of a computer
through the use of an iPod or a mobile phone to the TV set if one have the decoder.

ix. IPTV (TV over Internet Protocol)

The recent introduction of Television over Internet Protocol technology, commonly known as
IPTV, made a revolution on the distribution networks for TV signals, allowing eliminate many of
the problems associated with a distribution network based on coaxial cables, in particular those
related with the degradation of signal, interference, signal levels, and capacity of the
transmission of the channel’s band. Moreover, thanks to IP (Internet Protocol), will be possible
the combination of several interfaces in a multi-service unit and the broadcast and distribution of
diverse and varied services on the same network, which previously required differentiated
infrastructure, including: TV signals, telephone service and broadband Internet access, setting a
platform we know today as Triple Play. In essence, the triple play concept is not entirely new
because, in terms of services, there are some years ago that are available some solutions
combining a mix of TV services, telephony and Internet access.

Summary of Study Session 4

In Study Session 4, you have learnt that:

• Television broadcasting and transmission is the process of sending television signals

over the airwaves or through a cable system to TV sets. The characteristics of TV
broadcast include audio-visual medium, studio set-up, script, and lighting.
 • There are different methods of TV transmission. These transmission types include analogue
terrestrials TV, digital satellite TV, cable TV, digital terrestrial TV, HDTV, Pay- per- view, video - in-
demand, and web TV.

Study Session 5: Radio Production Facilities and

Equipment

Introduction
A radio station needs to put in place appropriate facilities for programme transmission. The
studios and control rooms must be well equipped with functional equipment for high fidelity
transmission. This study session will look at the elements of radio transmission and the types of
studio facilities and equipment vital for radio programme production.

Learning Outcomes for Study Session 5

At the end of this session, you should be able to:

5.1 Explain the element of radio programme production

5.2 Identify radio studio equipment and describe their uses
5.3 List and describe the types of microphones
5.1 Elements of Radio Production
i. Human voice: The main stay in any radio programme is the human voice. We hear the voice of
broadcast professionals like newsreaders, announcer, narrators, presenters, etc. reading the news,
in discussion, interview and talk shows giving us information, education and entertainment with
persuasion as well. That is because of the quality of their voice and the proper use of it. They rely
on the quality of their elocution and enunciation to communicate effectively to the listeners.
Their programmme should be appropriately scripted in a conversational style, and then voiced
for the microphone to pick it for transmission.

ii. Music: Music is said to be the soul of radio. There are lots of radio programmes that solely
musical in nature. Music:
i. serves as programme signature tunes
ii. Breaks monotony and boredom by making programme presentation lively.
iii. Music is used to set various mood effect of excitement, sadness, fear, etc.
iv. can suggest scenes and locations and depict time. For example, you have to create a bright
early morning situation.
iii. Sound effects: Sound effects give meaning and sense of location and mood. It adds realism to
a programme and helps a listener to use imagination.

5.2 Radio Studio Equipment

A number of equipment are used for producing and transmitting programmes from a radio
station. Without this equipment, the concept of radio and its activities cannot be met. By
definition, equipment are all the materials installed in the studio for the production of
programmes, starting from furniture to digital equipment.
Some of the most common radio equipment are:
i. Transmitter: This is an antenna like installation from which broadcast signals of a station are
beamed out. The transmitter has different range of coverage some go very far which are called
short wave (SW) signals others are medium wave (MW). Without a transmitter mounted at a
station, Radioactivity becomes a difficult proposition.

ii. Studio: Studios for transmission or rehearsal/recording may consist simply of a single room
containing all the equipment, including one or more microphones. This arrangement is designed
for use by one person and is called a self-operation or self-op studio. Where two or more rooms
are used together, the room with the mixer and other equipment is often referred to as the control
room or cubicle, while the actual studio – containing mostly microphones – is used for
interviewees, actors, musicians, etc. If the control cubicle also has a mic it may still be capable of
self-operation. In any area, when the mic is faded up the loudspeaker is cut and monitoring must
be done on headphones.

iii. The studio desk, mixer, control panel, console or board: Most studios will include some kind
of audio mixer – analogue, digital or fully computerized. This is essentially a device for mixing
together the various programme sources, controlling their level or volume, and sending the
combined output to the required destination – generally either the transmitter or a recorder.

iv. Computers: Capable of recording, editing, storing and replaying audio material in digital
form, computers offer very high quality sound and immediate access to any part of the
programme held. The computer in this context is used in two different ways:

v. Digital audio workstation: This facility is likely to be in a small area separate from the studio.
It could be a ‘stand alone’ terminal complete in itself, or be fully integrated with a network
computer system. . It comprises an audio mixer, one source of which is the microphone, a
computer and keyboard, and a unit for picking up incoming digital ISDN lines. Alternatively, the
mixer could be supplied. with feeds from the local newsroom, a remote studio, outside broadcast
or incoming telephone call. This arrangement can therefore be used for local voice recording,
interviewing someone at a remote source, editing material or correcting levels of an already
recorded mix. It is an ideal arrangement for mixing items to create a short self-op news package.

vi. Microphones: For our voice to be recorded in a studio, we use a microphone. You might have
used or at least seen microphones. They amplify or in other words ,increase the volume of your
voice. When you speak before a microphone, you don’t have to shout. You speak normally and it
will be made louder if you use a loudspeaker to listen to. When we think of radio, the
microphone is the most important element using which you present your programme.
There are three main types of microphones and they are known by their directivity. As you go
through the following text, you will understand the term ‘directivity’.

a. Uni-directional microphone: As the name suggests, this microphone picks up sound from
one direction. As you speak in front of it, your voice is picked up. If you speak from the
other side of the microphone, your voice will not be picked up properly. In a radio studio,
the announcers, presenters and newsreaders use this type of a microphone. A microphone
is very sensitive and you need to use it carefully.
b. Bi-directional microphone: Here again as the name (bi) suggests, the voice or sound is
picked up from two directions. If you are recording an interview in a radio studio, you may
use this type of a microphone.
c. Omni-directional microphone: Omni-directional microphone picks up sound from all
directions. It is common to see it being used for radio drama and discussion programme to
 capture multiple without having to setup many microphone for individuals in the studio or
production area.
d. There are many other types of microphones, which come in different sizes and lengths. If
you watch television programmes, you may find a small microphone clipped on the collar.
, e.g. the lapel microphone which is a uni-directional microphone that is attached to the
collar. There is the long microphones called gun microphones used in sports production,
and are usually omni-directional in nature. There are also cordless microphones with a
portable inbuilt transmitter to send the sound signal to an amplifier.

vii. Tape recorder: The broadcast control room houses a tape recorder that looks like the
consumer model open reel-to-reel recorders. There will normally be at least two to allow playing
one tape right after another. Recorders in the studios are larger and can record 4, 2, 16, 24 or 32
separate tracks on tape that may be up to 2 wide. There may be a number of these tracks to a 2
track or single track monaural tape from which tape from which a record will be made.

viii. Patch panel: This is found in most control rooms, the patch panel is a series of jacks that
are connected to various points in the control room. Using a patch cord, a signal can be routed
from one point to another much like the older telephone exchanges used cords to connect phones
together. The patch may be used to connect any source into the console or it may serve in
emergencies to route audio around a defective piece of equipment.
ix. Monitor Speakers: Essential to any production is the ability to hear what is being done. A
good monitor system allows the producer to carefully evaluate the quality of what is being
recorded or broadcast.
x. Turntable: Two or more turntable allows the engineer to cue one record while another is
playing.
xi. Cartridge Tape: Broadcast stations use cartridge for announcements, music, commercials and
news stories. They are also useful in production of music and sound effects.

6.1 TV Production installation and Equipment

Broadcast programme production usually have three stages, which are the preproduction,
production and postproduction, and these equipment play dedicated roles at these different stages
of production. The following are the various equipment primal for the production of TV
programme that television station or production company must put in place.

i. Camera: The camera is designed with lens for the capturing of real objects that are
converted to optical image. It then camera converts the optical image into video signal that
 sent to the vision mixer. Without the camera, objects cannot be capture and projected. The
camera brings to reality the visual characteristic of television.
ii. Video Switcher: It is a hardware device used to switch or choose between different audio
or video sources. It is also employed for editing like mixing of video, adding of after effects,
and other video sources aside the camera. The main functionality of a video switcher is for
creating a master output for real-time video broadcast or recording. They can create
different visual effects, ranging from simple mixes and wipes to elaborate effects. They can
also perform keying operations and help in producing colour signals.
iii. Lights: Just like the human eye, the camera also cannot see without a certain amount of
light. There comes the role of lights in television production. Lighting any object or
individual has three main purposes:
1. To provide the television camera with adequate illumination for technically acceptable
pictures.
2. To show the viewers what the objects shown on screen actually look like.
3. To establish the general mood of the event.
iv. Microphone: The microphone is use for the picking up of announcers and performance
voice and sound. It converts sound waves into electrical energy or the audio signals. The
sounds that we produce are very feeble in nature and, therefore, cannot be sent to larger
distances. Therefore, it is amplified and sent to the loudspeaker, which reconverts them
into audible sound. There are different types of microphones available for different
purposes.
v. Sound Recorder: Television combines compelling visuals with the personal immediacy of
the radio. This audio visual character gives it great power in conveying realism in a
convincing way. Television sound/audio not only communicates information, but also
contributes greatly to the mood and atmosphere of the visuals that come along with the
audio on screen. The sound recorder essentially records the sound picked up by the
microphone.
With a sound recorder, you can:
1. select a specific microphone or other sound input
2. amplify a weak signal from a microphone or other audio source for further processing
3. Control the volume and ensure the quality of sound
 4. mix or combine two or more incoming sound sources.
vi. Videotape recorder: It is reel-to-reel item used for the recording of the actualities and
footages of the programme. The footages captured by the camera or from other video
sources are recorded on video tape in a video recorder. Most of the television programmes
that we see are recorded on videotape or computer disk before they are actually telecast.
vii. Post production-editing Machine
This editing machine is use to edit the audio and video feeds for a desired production output
during the postproduction stage of production. The mixing of the audio and visual, adding
of special effect, graphics, etc. are done the editing machine by the editor in collaboration
with the programme producer and director.

6.2 Programme Production Personnel

The production of television programme is a team effort involving broadcast professionals with
various and unique training to give the audience interesting contents for the purpose of
information, education, entertainment, mobilisation, etc. The roles and responsibilities of the
following personnel are vital in the execution of a programme from the point of
conceptualisation of the programme idea, to script writing, location recce, casting, rehearsal,
production, and postproduction, which entails editing. The following are the key technical and
non-technical professional involved in programme production.

i. Producer: In television programme production, the head of the production who is called a
producer is in charge of the entire production. The producer manages the budget and
coordinates with the advertising agencies, actors and writers. The producer is also
responsible for all the people working on the production front and for coordinating
technical and non technical production elements.
ii. Director: the Director is in-charge of directing the actors and technical operations. The
Director is ultimately responsible for transforming a script into effective audio and video
messages. Where the camera will be placed, what type of visuals need to be taken, where
the actors will stand, all these are controlled by the director.
iii. Scriptwriter: He writes the script for the production and he is responsible for coming up
with creative ideas and translating them into words that will be used in the making of video.
In the case if fiction, based on the storyboard and synopsis, the scriptwriter pens the script.
 iv. Production Assistance: He is responsible to make sure the script, talent, the production, the
production crew before the shoot proceeds. Other responsibilities include holding
rehearsals, organizing on location and co-operating.
v. Production Manager: He is responsible to take care of production and production within
budget. He ensures that equipment, transport, talent, crew are in place for the shoot.
Managing the crew production team and also hiring equipments and personnel for the post
production.
vi. Cameraperson: He works with lighting director and set designer to get the right mood and
picture for the video. A cameraperson composes and reflects the mood that the director
desires for a shot.
vii. Set Designer: He is responsible for all the sets and looks at the location. He has number of
people working with him for designing the set. He takes charge for procuring the right
material to erect sets, decides on the place and size of the sets.
viii. Lighting Director: He is responsible for in charge of rigging up and controlling all lighting
equipments working with a number of assistance (also called gaffers) and electricians. He
makes sure that the set is well lit up as per the technical and aesthetic requirements of a
shot.
ix. Make-Up Artist: He designs and applies make-up to all artistes. The make-up artist is
helped, in the case of bigger production, by assistant make-up artist and hairstylists.
x. Costume Designer: He designs costume for the talent in a production. The CD makes notes
on the brief of every character in the video and what costumes and accessories suit a
character.
xi. Choreographer: He is in charge of all composing dance sequence in a production. Often
working with a number of assistants and working in close co-ordination with the director,
the music composer, set designer, cameraperson, and lighting director.
xii. Properties Manager: He is responsible for all the properties needed on a set are ready.
Properties required for the particular shoot.
xiii. Audio Engineer: He is in responsible for overall sound levels, balance and quality of sound.
He is in charge for overall sound levels, balance, and quality of sound. He is also involved
in post-production during dubbing, mixing tracks, etc
 xiv. Electrical Engineer: He is responsible for all power requirements for production. Manages
all equipment, right from a power generator to cables and connectors.
xv. Music Director: He is in charge of music requirements for a production and composes
original tracks or use available music with permissions.
xvi. Graphic Engineer: He is responsible for graphics used on the video.
xvii. Video Editor: He is responsible who operates production equipment-the linear & non-linear
editing machines. He works in close association with director in making creative decisions
in shaping the production. In smaller production, the VE also creates graphics. In large
productions involving complex graphic work.
xviii. Talent Actors who are playing a role or those who appear in front of the camera as
themselves-newscasters, anchorpersons, interviewers, personalities, contestants. They are
non technical workers like directors/producers, scriptwriters, set designers etc.

Study Session 7: Overview of Film

Introduction
This study session exposes you to the concept of film or motion picture or motion picture
film. Film means the same with motion picture and motion picture film as given to it by
Mamer (2009:3). You will be exposed to the definitions or descriptions of film or motion
picture by various scholars and at the end, the theory upon which the concept of motion
picture is built will be x-rayed. This is the theory of the persistence of vision.

7.1 Definition of Film/Motion Picture

Film, an artistic medium with a rich history, can be defined as the recording of images onto
a light-sensitive material called cellulose through the use of light (Kogah, 1999). It serves as
a mass communication tool, employing the camera and editing equipment in its
production, while the film projector serves as the primary reception technology (Anunike,
2005). Uwakwe (2010) views film as a compilation of individual frames that, when
displayed rapidly, creates the illusion of motion.

Bittner (1989) emphasizes that the motion picture, a pervasive medium, has touched every
facet of society, addressing diverse subjects and reaching wide audiences. With some
filmmakers combining entertainment and instruction, films enhance the learning process
by making it more enjoyable. Described as both an art and a business, film instils pride in
its creators and stands as a significant medium for communicating ideas, entertaining, and
informing audiences (Biagi, 2003). Films, presenting illusions of motion, can educate
people on various topics such as history, science, arts, human behaviour, culture, and
health.

These definitions collectively highlight the multifaceted roles that films play in society,
including education, enlightenment, inspiration, historical representation, facilitation of
social interactions, and providing platforms for academic work.

7.1.2 What is the Persistence of Vision?

The Persistence of Vision is a fundamental concept in film, where individual frames, when
displayed rapidly, create the perception of motion. This flickering effect remains invisible
due to the Persistence of Vision, a theory introduced by Peter Mark Roget in 1824. Roget
explains that the eye retains an image for a fraction of a second after its removal, creating
an illusion of motion when successive frames are projected at a certain speed, such as the
standard 24 frames per second. This persistence leads the subconscious mind to interpret
the rapid succession of still photographs as continuous movement.

Distinct from the phi phenomenon, which involves the perception of light moving from one
place to another, the Persistence of Vision and phi phenomenon are the key aspects of the
human perceptual system that make motion pictures and television possible (Dominick,
2002).

7.2 Exploring the Evolution of Film

According to Uwakwe (2010), the history of film is intricately linked to the advent of
photography. Joseph Niepce pioneered the practical use of film and a camera around 1816,
albeit with images of short duration. The pursuit of capturing and depicting motion gained
momentum between the 1870s and 1880s, with Etienne-Jules Marey and Eadweard
Muybridge playing pivotal roles, as highlighted by Hanson (2005). Marey, focused on
measuring and transcribing motion, succeeded in perfecting a photographic gun camera in
1882, capable of capturing 12 photographs on a single plate—a ground-breaking
achievement noted by Biagi (2003). Muybridge, a British photographer, also contributed
significantly by capturing the motion of animals on film.

The pivotal moment for projected images occurred in 1877 when Leland Stanford, seeking
to settle a bet, enlisted Muybridge to prove that a galloping horse had all four feet off the
ground. Muybridge deployed a series of still cameras along a racetrack, capturing each
moment of the sprinting horse. The resulting photographs, as Biagi (2003) notes, won
Stanford the bet and set the stage for further advancements.

Muybridge's success led to the publication of his work in the book "Animal Locomotion" in
1887 (Hanson, 2003). In 1888, Muybridge's collaboration with inventor Thomas Edison led
to the development of the Kinetograph, a motion picture camera capable of capturing 40
photographs per second. Edison's invention facilitated the evolution of cinema, paving the
way for the Lumière Brothers' cinematograph in 1895—a device that both photographed
and projected action (Baran, 2002).

Edison, recognizing the superiority of the cinematograph over his kinetoscope, introduced
the vitascope, enabling large audiences to view moving pictures simultaneously. However,
the early films from Edison and the Lumière Brothers, largely depicting everyday activities,
faced a decline in novelty.

In response, Edison's cameraman, Edwin Porter, recognized the storytelling potential of

film and produced "The Great Train Robbery" in 1903—an innovative 12-minute film that
employed editing, intercutting of scenes, and a mobile camera to tell a sophisticated tale.
The film marked a shift towards more artistic storytelling in cinema.

The film industry experienced further landmark developments between 1914 and 1925,
witnessing a significant increase in the cost of feature films. Hollywood introduced sound
films during this period, with Warner Brothers leading the way with films like "Don Juan,"
"The Jazz Singer," and "Lights of New York" (Baran, 2002).

By 1927, many theaters were equipped for sound, and in 1939, "Gone with the Wind"
featured new Technicolor film. Orson Welles' "Citizen Kane" in 1941 garnered critical
acclaim, while the late 1950s marked a closer alignment between film and television. The
1960s to the 1980s witnessed a symbiotic relationship between the two mediums, and in
1978, Hollywood produced a substantial number of films for both television and theaters
(Dominick, 2002).

Despite a period of decline, the film industry saw a resurgence with Steven Spielberg's
"Jaws" in 1975, and the production of "Titanic" in 1997 brought about significant changes
that resonated into the 21st century (Dominick, 2002).

7.3 Evolution of Film in Africa

According to Rouch in Uwakwe (2010), the advent of film in Africa dates back to 1896 when a
Vaudeville magician, pilfering a theatregraph projector from London's Alhambra Palace theatre,
transported it to South Africa, marking the introduction of the first moving image on the continent.
However, the initial films produced in Africa were exotic and perpetuated stereotypes depicting
the continent as a "dark continent" inhabited by wild beasts, cannibals, and primitive people with
tails, residing in the jungle (Rouch in Uwakwe, 2010:105). This skewed portrayal has been
attributed to the selfish motives and ignorance of Europeans.

The first film about tropical Africa, titled "Negro Cruise," was made by Leon Poirier, a Frenchman,
during his motor-car trip from North Africa to South Africa in 1924 and 1925 (Mgbejume, 1989).
This film documented Poirier's adventure and showcased aspects of the life and customs of the
people he encountered, including circumcision rites and the unique aspects of pygmy life.

7.4 Emergence of Film in Nigeria

The history of film in Nigeria traces back to 1903 when the first motion picture was screened in
Lagos by Balboa of Spain under the management of Herbert Macaulay. After Balboa's departure
in September 1903, Stanley Jones, a European, continued showcasing films at the same venue. By
1907, Catholic Priests in Lagos began presenting films depicting the life of Jesus, featuring diverse
portrayals of characters based on their skin tones. Film had become a popular form of
entertainment in Lagos by 1921 (Mgbejume, 1989).

In the 1920s, instructional films were introduced in Nigeria, and by 1929, local experiments
explored film as a tool for disseminating government health policies, led by colonial government
officials W. Sellers in Nigeria and A. Paterson in Kenya (Smyth cited in Shaka, 2004).

During World War II, the British utilized films to disseminate war-related information. Notably,
film production in Nigeria commenced later than film distribution, with the establishment of the
Federal Film Unit by the Nigerian government in 1947, replacing the Colonial Film Unit
(Mgbejume op. cit). The Federal Ministry of Information Mimeograph (1978:2) outlined the unit's
objectives, including producing newsreels and documentaries for mobile cinema units, public
cinema, and television, aiming to publish government activities, educate the public on improving
living standards, and showcase Nigeria's culture and news events.

Despite efforts, film distribution was dominated by Indians and Lebanese. In 1972, the
Indigenization Decree sought to grant Nigerians exclusive monopoly rights for film distribution,
later reinforced by the Federal Government in 1979 through Decree N0. 61. The Nigerian Film
Corporation, established by the decree, aimed to develop the film industry. Additionally, the Film
and Video Censors Board came into existence in 1993, serving as a regulatory agency for local
and foreign films and video works for commercial exhibition and home viewing (NFVCB,
2008:8), repealing the Cinematograph Act of 1963.

Study Session 8: Fundamentals of Film Structure and

Style
Introduction
This study session introduce the concept of film form and the essence of film, and discuss the
components and theories of film.

8.1 Understanding Film Form

Film form, as defined by Bordwell and Thompson (2004:54), is a "system of relationships

that we can perceive among the elements in the whole film." In this context, elements refer
to small yet crucial parts of the film, encompassing acting, directing, lighting, costume,
sound, music, and more. These elements collectively form a unified set of related,
interdependent components that influence one another within the movie. It emphasizes
that each unit in a film is integral and must be considered in relation to the whole.
Simultaneously, the overall context of a movie has the potential to render any element
significant (Anunike, 2005).

There are no rigid rules or regulations governing the form to be adopted in film production.
Film art is a reflection of the artist's perception and imagination, with each artist bringing a
unique set of experiences and cultural backgrounds. Consequently, movies do not conform
to a standardized form. However, the general principles of film form are explored and
perceived through functions, similarity and repetition, difference and variation, and
development and unity/disunity.

• Function:
Every element in a film serves a specific function or role. The selection of each element must be
justified, considering why a particular costume or sound effect is chosen for a specific scene and
character. Viewers should be able to rationalize the function of each element within the context of
the film.

• Similarity/Repetition:
Repetition, also known as motif, draws attention to an element and lends it significance. This
creates parallelism, providing pleasure to the film viewer. Film form incorporates universal
similarities and specific repetitions to enhance its overall impact.

• Difference and Variation:

To prevent monotony and disinterest in the film, variation is introduced. Variation and difference in
film form involve adding variety to the elements. Variety is considered essential as it adds spice to
the cinematic experience.

• Development:

A well-structured film follows a logical progression from the beginning through the middle to the
concluding part. Segmentation into shots, scenes, episodes, and acts aids in appreciating the
differences and similarities, contributing to the film's overall plot development.

• Unity and Disunity:

Unity in a film is achieved when relationships within the narrative are clear and in synergy. On the
contrary, a disunited film unfolds illogically, with superfluous elements lacking known synergy.
Unity and disunity should be assessed based on the film's formal convention, avoiding judgment of a
film as lacking unity.

8.2 Understanding Film Style:

Film form and style are interlinked, with film style referring to the techniques employed in structuring
a film. Bordwell and Thomson (2004:175) outline four techniques or styles: Mis-en-scene,
cinematography, shot-to-shot, and sound.
 • Mis-en-scene:
The director's control over what appears in the film is known as Mis-en-scene,
encompassing setting, costume, make-up, lighting, movement, acting, and spatial-
temporal considerations.

• Cinematography:
Cinematography involves the filmmaker's control over what and how scenes are filmed. It
encompasses photographic aspects, framing, and the duration of shots.

• Shot-to-shot Technique:
Editing plays a crucial role in coordinating shots sequentially. This technique ensures that shots are
arranged logically, eliminating unwanted footage and superfluous frames to maintain the narrative's
order.

• Sound in the Cinema Technique:

Sound is a vital film technique, influencing how images are perceived and interpreted. It directs
attention, adds value to silence, and works in harmony with other elements, such as sound effects and
music synchronization, to enhance the film's aesthetic value.

8.3 Film Components and Theories

This section delved into the intricacies of film components and the theoretical frameworks
that guide the cinematic craft with consideration for the following essential elements of
film:

a. Film components
b. Film theories

a. Film components

Every film endeavors to narrate a story, and for these narratives to resonate, they must
revolve around fundamental film components: theme, plot, characters, language, and
setting. The subsequent sections elaborate on these components in detail.

i. Theme
The theme serves as the primary or central idea that the film writer aims to convey through
the script. This central idea can be presented explicitly or implicitly through dialogue
directions, character descriptions, and setting. Film critics are tasked with commenting on
the theme of the films they analyze.

ii. Plot

The plot encompasses the story told by the scriptwriter, extending beyond that to include
the structure and plan of the story. It involves the arrangement of shots, scenes, episodes,
incidents, acts, and the overall film composition. Key elements of a plot include exposition,
conflict, complication, crisis, climax, flashback, point of attack, suspense, etc. A well-
crafted plot adheres to the beginning, middle, and end structure. Film critics summarize
the plot in their work, evaluating its plausibility, sequence, and coherence to achieve a
synergistic effect.

iii. Characters

Characters in a film are the focal points around which a story revolves, encompassing
human beings, gods, spirits, animals, etc. Character, in essence, denotes the
idiosyncrasies, distinctive qualities, and desires expressed through actions, dialogue,
language, and scriptwriter’s directions. Characters can be delineated through external,
internal, and objective characteristics. The primary characters are the protagonist (the lead
character) and the antagonist (any character opposing the protagonist), while others are
classified as minor characters.

iv. Language

Language refers to the scriptwriter’s method of communication to the viewers,

encompassing diction, semantics, syntax uses, proverbs, idioms, adages, symbols,
gestures, dialogue, aside, monologue, etc. It also involves thought appreciation and the
choice of easily spoken words.

v. Setting

Film setting represents the natural location or locale of the film, acting as the backdrop for
the characters' activities. It comprises three elements:

▪ Physical setting of the script

▪ General significant occurrence, which grows out of a character’s social,

moral, and cultural intercourse within each of the settings and
 ▪ The atmosphere, which embodies the emotional characteristics of each
setting, (Mgbejiume, 2002).

b. Film Theories

Every critical assessment of a film must be grounded in a theoretical framework.

Giannatti (1999:438) provided a list of theories that can be employed to analyse a film.
These theories include:

i. Theory of Realism:
This theory is predominantly applicable to documentary films. Films aligned with this
theory present elements as they exist in real life.

ii. Formalist Theory:

According to this theory, movies diverge from reality. It posits that films do not replicate or
mirror reality. Instead, through the manipulation of time and space facilitated by modern
techniques, films can create a world that superficially resembles the real world.

iii. Auteur Theory:

This theory asserts that films should be evaluated based on how they are made rather
than what they depict. Auteur theorists, akin to formalists, argue that the essence of a
film lies in the director's stylistic treatment, encompassing mise-en-scène,
cinematography, editing, and sound.

iv. Eclectic and Synthetics Theory:

Advocates of this theory contend that any context deemed appropriate by a critic should
be used to evaluate a film. They oppose the exclusive use of any particular theory,
advocating for arguments grounded in concrete facts. However, this theory faces criticism
for its subjectivity.

v. Structuralism and Semiology Theory:

Introducing a scientific approach to film assessment, this theory allows for a more
systematic and detailed analysis. Proponents argue that the language of cinema is
symbolic, characterized by complete signs. Consequently, they develop cinematic
communication theories based on signs and codes.
 vi. Historiography:
This theory is concerned with the history of films, as films themselves have histories.
Giannetti (1999: 465) identified four film histories, each with its unique set of
philosophical assumptions, methods, and sources of evidence:

• Aesthetic Film Histories: Examining film as an art form.

• Technological Film Histories: Focusing on motion pictures as inventions
and machines.
• Economic Histories: Investigating film as an industry.
• Social Histories: Considering movies as a reflection of authors' values,
desires, and societal trends.

Study Session 9: Film Genres, Types, and Functions

Introduction
Film is a performing art rooted in vivid and systematic imagination. Its narration and setting of tone
is based on depiction of certain genres or types that capture its main essence of its representation.
This study session introduces film genres, its types and highlight the functions of genre in the
context of certain social factors.

9.1 Film Genres

The term "genre," as defined by The New Webster Dictionary of the English Language (1997), refers
to kind, type, or category, particularly within works of art and literature. Similarly, Barnhart and
Barnhart (1988) characterize genre as kind, sort, or style, especially in the realm of art and literature.
It serves as a framework for classifying various forms of artistic expressions, encompassing films,
drama, music, dance, and literary works. Genre acts as a tool for categorizing and analyzing the
distinctive features of artistic presentations, facilitating a comprehensive understanding of each work
(Owuamalam, 2007). While films are subject to classification based on types, the boundaries between
genres are often subtle, making recognition more accessible than definition (Anunike, 2005).
Noteworthy film genres, identified by scholars such as Anunike (2005), Owuamalam (2007), and
Kogah (1999), include Westerns, gangster films, musicals, war films, thrillers, spectacles, science
fiction, horror films, documentaries, feature films, experimental films, and animated films.

9.2 Genres Exploration

• Westerns:
The first American genre to emerge, Westerns delve into the mythical American past, often justifying
violence within the narrative. Themes revolve around cowboys, outlaws, settlers, Native American
tribes, and adaptations from popular Wild West shows.

• Gangsters:
Popularized in the 20th century, gangster films focus on organized crime and the associated violence.
Introduction of sound into films heightened their popularity, emphasizing high-speed chases, machine
gun sequences, and the destructive nature of gangster activities, mirroring real facets of American
life.

• Musicals:
Originating in the late 1920s with the advent of soundtracks, musicals transport audiences to fantasy
lands, often centered around the consummation of love. Love relationships between characters serve
as a recurring theme, exemplified by productions like "Love Boat."

• War Films:
Acclaimed for their portrayal of historical events and wartime experiences, war films thrive on
capturing the tension, energy, and destruction associated with combat. Modern film technology
effectively conveys the expansive battlefields and explosive elements.

• Thrillers:
Heavily relying on literary sources, thrillers, also known as spy or detective films, gained popularity
through works like James Bond novels by Ian Fleming. These films, though lit like comedies,
juxtapose bright lights, beautiful settings, and luxurious backdrops with underlying menacing evil.
• Spectacles:
Among the most lucrative American genres, spectacles focus on high-budget productions,
emphasizing production values over narrative elements. Historical epics and disaster films dominate,
often portraying events as authentic history rather than mere fiction.

• Science Fiction:
Evolving post-World War II, science fiction films transcend fantasy for children, reflecting the atomic
age, space travel, and advancements in science and technology. These films explore futuristic dangers
and challenges, emphasizing humanity's role in shaping the future.

• Horror:
Noted for eliciting emotional shocks and disgust, horror films leverage expressive possibilities in
cinematography. Employing extreme contrasts, ominous camera movements, and varied angles,
horror films manipulate the audience's emotions and create diverse moods.

• Documentary Films:
Categorized into two major types, documentaries present factual information about individuals,
places, events, and the world outside the film. They can depict events as they occurred or stage certain
elements, employing visual aids for authenticity.

• Feature Films:
Theatrically produced for entertainment, feature films are typically fictional, with characters,
treatment, and staging not directly identifiable with specific individuals or societies. Unlike
documentaries, feature films are a form of fictional storytelling.

• Experimental Films:
Originating from filmmakers challenging conventional movie norms, experimental films, also known
as avant-garde films, represent a departure from established forms and styles. They prioritize self-
expression and experimentation in filmmaking.

• Animated Films:
Differing from live-action films, animated films manipulate images by shooting one frame at a time,
creating illusionary motion. Animators use two-dimensional drawings, three-dimensional objects, or
electronic information to achieve animation, distinct from conventional live-action filmmaking.
9.3 Functions of Film Genre
Film genres serve distinct functions, contributing significantly to literary and creative arts by
facilitating the assignment of meanings and the interpretation of events within films, videos, and
movies. These functions play a pivotal role in uniting societal efforts toward a particular production
style, enabling the effective communication of processed messages through specific film types.
However, the fulfillment of these functions is intricately linked to various influencing factors such as
culture, society, environment, and scientific developments. A detailed exploration of these functions,
as analyzed by Owuamalam (2007), is outlined below:

• Cultural Factors
Culture, encompassing the entirety of life within a specific environment, is a pivotal aspect that film
genres explore. Plots depicting the activities of people in their cultural milieu provide a template for
understanding and assessing the cultural values of a society. Consequently, film genres serve to
reaffirm and showcase the cultural attributes of a given society.

• Social Factors
Film genres delve into social values and attributes, offering a glimpse into the lifestyles of characters
and the impact of their actions on others, both within the film and among viewers. Social indicators
such as wealth, grandeur, and opulence are commonly portrayed in genres, reflecting organizational
expectations, jealousies, intrigues, and betrayals as sources of social conflicts.

• Environmental Factors
The social conditions of a society are spotlighted through film genres, showcasing how stories,
themes, values, or imagery harmonize with the immediate environmental context of the film's
production or setting. For example, themes like corruption, prostitution, and religiosity in Nollywood
films depict the environmental conditions of their productions.

• Science or Scientific Rationalism

Emerging as a product of the scientific age of the 19th and 20th centuries, this consideration revolves
around the rationale behind actions presented in a film. It entails a reasoned and logically ordered
exploration of a creative work of art, employing empirical or scientific deductions as the basis for
assessment. Scientific rationalism subjects actions to rational tests and deductions, placing artistic
work under intellectual and rational evaluation.